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433 J. Tokyo Med. Univ., 56(3) :433rv437, 1998 Lecture 4 New Treatments for Emphysema James C. HOGG, MD University of British Columbia Pulmonary Research La St. Paul’s Hospital, Vancouver, B.C. V6Z IY6 ABSTRACT Emphysematous destruction of the gas exchanging surface of t chronic obstructive lung disease. Treatments for this condition supportive in nature and have yielded results that are disappoint provides one possible treatment for those in the end stage of the respiratory cripples the opportunity to return to a more active life. clinical trial recessed lung volume reduction surgery will provide be used. The possibility of using medical therapy to replace the g has always been considered a remote possibility. However, recen possible to stimulate the growth of new alveoli in rats with e important observation provides preliminary evidence that the l alveoli to restore surface that has been disturbed. These impo interested in chest medicine to develop new methods for accuratel emphysematous destruction and measuring the effect of both medi INTRODUCTION Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) currently ranks 12t tribute to the global burden of disease and is predicted to rank 5th by matory process is key to the pathogenesis of several important c the chronic cough and sputum production (2), the peripheral airways sematous destruction of the lung surface (4). Tobacco smoking is because it produces airway inflammation in everyone who smokes heavy smokers develop COPD, this smoking-induced airway inflam risk factors to produce the excess decline in lung function that resu Emphysema is a major component of COPD and is defined by “a of airspaces distal to terminal bronchioles, accompanied by destru fibrosis” (7). This definition emphasizes the destruction of the p reparative response in the lung matrix. Centrilobular emphysema is th tion of the respiratory bronchiole (8) and is most commonly associ Panacinar emphysema results from uniform destruction of the ent lesion seen in a-1 antitrypsin deficiency (10). Distal acinar, mantle used to describe lesions that occur in the periphery of the lobule ticularly in the subpleural region. These lesions have been asso in young adults and bullous lung disease in older individuals (11). H 29

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Page 1: INTRODUCTION - core.ac.uk · The concept that medical treatment might grow new alveoli and repair lung surface destroyed by emphysema was a remote possibility until a recent report

一 433 一

J. Tokyo Med. Univ., 56(3) :433rv437, 1998

Lecture 4

New Treatments for Emphysema

                James C. HOGG, MD

University of British Columbia Pulmonary Research Laboratory

       St. Paul’s Hospital, Vancouver, B.C. V6Z IY6

ABSTRACT

  Emphysematous destruction of the gas exchanging surface of the lung is a major component of

chronic obstructive lung disease. Treatments for this condition have been primarily preventive and

supportive in nature and have yielded results that are disappointing. Lung volume reduction surgery

provides one possible treatment for those in the end stage of their disease that has allowed some

respiratory cripples the opportunity to return to a more active life. The recent introduction of an NIH

clinical trial recessed lung volume reduction surgery will provide insight into how this treatment should

be used. The possibility of using medical therapy to replace the gas exchanging surface of the lung

has always been considered a remote possibility. However, recent studies have shown that it is

possible to stimulate the growth of new alveoli in rats with elastase induced emphysema. This

important observation provides preliminary evidence that the lung may be stimulated to grow new

alveoli to restore surface that has been disturbed. These important observations challenge those

interested in chest medicine to develop new methods for accurately following the natural history of

emphysematous destruction and measuring the effect of both medical and surgical therapies.

INTRODUCTION

  Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) currently ranks 12th among the conditions that con-

tribute to the global burden of disease and is predicted to rank 5th by the year 2020 (1). The inflam-

matory process is key to the pathogenesis of several important components of this syndrome including

the chronic cough and sputum production (2), the peripheral airways obstruction (3) and the emphy-

sematous destruction of the lung surface (4). Tobacco smoking is the major risk factor for COPD

because it produces airway inflammation in everyone who smokes (5). However, as only 15-20% of

heavy smokers develop COPD, this smoking-induced airway inflammation must be amplified by other

risk factors to produce the excess decline in lung function that results in COPD (reviewed in 6).

  Emphysema is a major component of COPD and is defined by “abnormal permanent enlargement

of airspaces distal to terminal bronchioles, accompanied by destruction of their walls without obvious

fibrosis” (7). This definition emphasizes the destruction of the parenchymal anatomy with a minimal

reparative response in the lung matrix. Centrilobular emphysema is the result of dilatation and destruc-

tion of the respiratory bronchiole (8) and is most commonly associated with cigarette smoking (9).

Panacinar emphysema results from uniform destruction of the entire lobule and is the characteristic

lesion seen in a-1 antitrypsin deficiency (10). Distal acinar, mantle or pariseptal emphysema are terms

used to describe lesions that occur in the periphery of the lobule and along the lobular septae par-

ticularly in the subpleural region. These lesions have been associated with spontaneous pneumothorax

in young adults and bullous lung disease in older individuals (11). However, in far advanced parenchy一

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一 434 一 THE JOURNAL OF TOKYO MEDICAL UNIVERSITY Vol.56 No.3

mal destruction such as that frequently observed in end stage COPD, these descriptive terms are not

particularly helpful because the entire lung lobule is destroyed.

  The concept that the inflammatory process contains both proteolytic and anti-proteolytic mechanisms

was first introduced by Eugene Opie in 1905 (12). However, the hypothesis that a proteolytic process

might account for emphysematous lung destruction did not appear until the 1960s when Ericksson (13)

recognized that al antitrypsin deficiency (now called the al protease inhibitor) was associated with

severe emphysema. About the same time, Gross et al. (14) reported that emphysema could be produced

in the lungs of animals by treating them with the proteolytic enzyme, papain. The hypothesis that

cigarette smoking caused emphysema by producing a functional proteolytic imbalance in the lung

followed these observations and was tested in several laboratories using bronchoalveolar lavage with

some finding evidence for (15) and others not (16). Others have suggested that the reason for this

may be that the proteolytic imbalance is created in pockets between the endothelium and slow mov-

ing PMN within the vascular space that are not accessible to analysis by bronchoalveolar lavage (17).

SURGICAL TREATMENT OF EMPHYSEMA

  Surgical resection of lung tissue as a treatment for advanced emphysema has been tried several times

in the past with equivocal results. Cooper and associates modified this approach as a stop gap for

patients with severe COPD awaiting lung transplant (18). rl”he rapid spread in the popularity of this

procedure has resulted in the NIH-undertaking a clinical trial to thoroughly assess its value. The the-

oretical advantage of lung volume reduction surgery (LVRS) is based in part on the hypothesis that

surgical removal of the lung tissue destroyed by emphysema improves lung function by improving lung

elastic recoil. Theoretically, any improvement in lung recoil would increase both the parenchymal sup-

port that keeps the airways open (19, 20) and the driving pressure which empties the lungs (21). How-

ever, if the peripheral airways are permanently narrowed by the airway tissue remodelling occurring as

part of a cigarette smoke-induced chronic inflammatory process (22), the benefit derived from improv-

ing lung recoil would be much less.

  The problem of selecting who will benefit from lung volume reduction surgery (LVRS) is not straight-

forward because of the variable contribution of peripheral airways obstruction and emphysematous

lung destruction to the pathophysiology of COPD. Studies from our laboratory have shown that mod-

erately severe emphysema can be present in some cases with very little airways obstruction (23) and

other studies have shown that peripheral airways disease can result in end stage COPD with very little

emphysematous destruction (24). However, as most cases probably have a mixture of emphysematous

destruction and peripheral airways obstruction, it is reasonable to expect that for an equivalent amount

of emphysema, those with the least airways disease will fare the best following LVRS.

  We have recently developed a novel quantitative approach to studying lung structure with Coxson et

al. that is based on a modification of Cruz-Orive and Weibel’s cascade design for stereologic histology

(25, 26). The cascade design uses a reference measurement of fixed lung volume and determines the

fraction of that volume (Vv) occupied by individual lung structures and a point counting technique

performed where the reference at one level of magnification becomes the level of interest at the next

higher magnification. Back calculation through each level of this cascade allows calculation of the Vv

take up by any lung structure of interest and multiplication of this fraction by the reference volume

gives the absolute volume of that structure. Our modification of Cruz-Orive and Weibel’s technique

uses data from, the CT scan to determine the reference lung volume and weight. The electronic record

of the CT scan is analyzed and the expression of each voxel (ml/gram) computed. These data are then

used to provide 2一 and 3-dimensional maps of using the level to evaluate emphysematous lung destruc-

tion. The technique has been successfully applied to the normal lung (25) to lungs with idiopathic

interstitial fibrosis (26) and very recently to lungs with emphysema (27). The preliminary data suggests

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May, 1998 Hogg : New Treatments for Emphysema 一 435 一

that it will be helpful both in evaluating patients pre-operatively and

on lung structure and function.

assessing the effect of the surgery

MEDICAL TREATMENT OF EMPHYSEMA

 Air is conducted to the gas exchanging surface of the lung by a complicated system of branching

tubes that is fully developed by the end of the first three months of interurine life. Figure IA is a pho-

tograph taken from the pleural surface of a normal human lung where the terminal bronchioles (TB)

of this conducting system are visible because they are filled with contrast material and the connective

tissue septae outlining lung lobule can be seen (solid arrow). Figure IB shows a histologic section of

a terminal bronchiole branching into a respiratory bronchiole (RB) where alveoli first appear. lt also

shows several alveolar ducts (AD) that branch from the respiratory bronchioles and end as alveolar

sacs. During lung development, alveoli are formed by the growth of alveolar septae into the primitive

duct structures present at birth to form fully alveolated mature alveolar ducts. ln humans, this process

begins and continues through the first few years of life rapidly expanding the alveolar surface.

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慧撫鱗≧1撫裾獄滅          韓碇

畿鍮顎 病

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Figure 1 Anatomy of the human lung. (A) Photograph from the pleural surface showing terminal bronchiole (TB)

       and lobular peptae (solid arrow). (B) Shows histology of the lung with respiratory bronchioles (RB) and alve-

       olar ducts (AD). Lung growth occurs through a septation process that adds alveoli to ducts by outgrowth of

       alveolar walls. (C) Shows a diagram of centrilobular emphysema where respiratory bronchioles are destroyed.

        (D) Shows post mortem bronchiogram outlining the centrilobular spaces.

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一 436 一 THE JOURNAL OF TOKYO MEDICAL UNIVERSITY Vol.56 No.3

Cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation results in dilatation and destruction of the respiratory

bronchioles to form a confluent centrilobular emphysematous space (CLE) shown diagrammatically in

Figure IC and in a post mortem bronchiogram in Figure ID.

  The concept that medical treatment might grow new alveoli and repair lung surface destroyed by

emphysema was a remote possibility until a recent report of animal experiments by Gloria and Donald

Massaro (28). Their experiments suggest that retinoic acid can restore lung surface destroyed by elas-

tase-induced emphysema destruction in rats. They had previously shown that retinoids play a regula-

tory role in the septation process that controls alveolar formation in the lung by demonstrating that

administering all transretinoic acid (RA) to otherwise untreated rats increased alveolar number (29)

and that RA treatment reversed the dexamethasone effect which ordinarily reduces alveolar formation

by inhibiting septation (80). Their suggestion that alveolar growth might be controlled by therapeutic

agents acting on the septation process responsible for adding alveoli to the lung could have far-reach-

ing implications. New experiments designed to confirm this result, extend it to other species and

fully investigate it as a form of therapy for emphysema are currently underway and their results are

anxiously awaited. Overcoming the obstacles in the path of developing the idea inherent in their

experiments could lead to enormous rewards.

  The predicted increase for the global burden of disease from COPD largely represents the expan-

sion of the smoking habit in the third world (1). Enlightened public health policies designed to reduce

the smoking habit will continue to be the most effective weapon in preventing COPD. However, the

possibility of growing new alveoli in lungs that have been partially destroyed by emphysema is one that

should catch the imagination of many investigators. The possibility that LVRS will have a role in the

management of advanced disease is close to reality but its positive benefit awaits the result of a multi-

centre trial. However, both of these new and radical forms of therapy provide hope for the future.

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May, 1998 Hogg : New Treatments for Emphysema 一 437 一

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