Integrated Science Full Review2015-2016 Amended Edition

Nathan Gilbert

IntroductionScience – a system of knowledge based on facts and principles3 Main Branches of Science

1. Physical (Chemistry, Physics)2. Life (Biology)3. Earth/Space

Scientific Method – Observe, Question, Data, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data & Observations, ConcludeHypothesis – an educated guess at the results of the experimentScientific Theory vs. Scientific Law

Law – summary of natural events that can be continually proven by experimentsTheory – summary of natural event with evidence but can’t be proven by experiments

Technology – applied scienceModel – used to represent an idea or object unable to be observed directlyObservation – the process of gathering information via the sensesVariable – factor that can cause a change in the results of an experimentConstant – a variable that does not change when others doControl – standard used for comparisonConversions – transferring a measurement from one unit into anotherSI System – System International (metric) used in almost all science

- Know basic units for each measurement type- Know conversion factors for mega, kilo, deci, centi, milli, micro, nano, pico- Derived Units – metric units made up of two or more bases (ex: m/s, g/mL)

Types of Graphs – Bar, Line (including scatter plots), Pie (Circle)Interpreting Graphs

Variables and AxisIndependent Variable – on X (horizontal) Axis (usually time if that is a variable)Dependent Variable – on Y (vertical) Axis, depends on independent variable

Pay attention to axis titles and unitsSignificant Figures

1. All non-zeros are significant2. Zeros between non-zeros are significant3. Trailing zeros in a number with a decimal are significant4. Leading zeros are NOT significant

Scientific Notation – allows you to write big numbers in a small formatStep 1. Move the decimal to the right of the number furthest to the left that isn’t zeroStep 2. Count how many places you moved the decimal

a) If you moved the decimal to the left, the exponent is positiveb) If you moved the decimal to the right, the exponent is negative

Examples: 582,000 = 5.82 x 105 or 0.00000013 = 1.3 x 10-7

Precision – measurements that are close together, consistency Accuracy – measurements that are close to the accepted value

APA Formatting1” margins each sideFont: Arial, Times New Roman, or Calibri and size 10-12For science no personal nouns or pronounsDouble space all pagesHeader has all caps title top left (“Running head:” page 1) and page number top rightTitle page includes title, author, organization, instructor, and date, all bold and centeredAbstract page has bold, centered “Abstract” and a short, non-indented paragraph summary of the paper, including results.

Lab Report includes the sections: Title, Introduction, Materials, Procedures, Data and Observations, Discussion, ConclusionBibliography page has bold, centered “Bibliography.”

References include author, date, title italicized with only first word capitalized, city, publisher, date retrieved (web)

ChemistryChemistry – study of matter and how it changesMatter – anything that has mass and takes up spaceLaw of Conservation of Matter – matter cannot be created or destroyedLaw of Conservation of Energy – energy cannot be created or destroyedAtom – smallest particle of an element that still retains the properties of itNucleus – center of atom contain protons and neutrons with an overall positive chargeSubatomic Particles – 3 small parts of the atom

Protons – Positive charge found in the nucleusNeutrons – Neutral charge found in the nucleusElectron – Small negative charge found in clouds outside of nucleus

Valence electron – electron on highest energy levelAtomic Theories

Democritus – came up with concept of an atomDalton’s Atomic Theory - all substances made of tiny particles that cannot be subdivided (wrong)Bohr’s Model – electrons orbit around nucleus like planets around sunModern Theory – electrons vibrate between energy levels

Electron Energy Levels – Electrons have a high probability of acting on certain levelsOrder – 1S, 2S, 2P, 3S, 3P, 4S, 4D, 4P, 5S, 5D, 5P…

- Where S can hold 2 electrons, p 6, d 10, f 14Shortcut to highest level by looking at period (periodic table row) by relabeled group (column)Octet rule – 8 valence electrons to be stable

Electron Configuration – arrows demonstrating spin of electrons by energy levelElectron Orbitals – Circles demonstrating energy levels of electronsPure vs. Impure Substances

Pure substances (elements/compounds) are in exact ratios vs Impure (mixtures) which are notElement – pure substance with elements that are all alike (ex: C {carbon}, He {Helium})

Most abundant in humans is OxygenMost abundant in earth is IronMost abundant in atmosphere is NitrogenKey elements 1-36, Ag, Au, Hg, and Pb (know name, symbol, atomic #, uses of most)Period Table – arranged by number of protons

4 Important Families (related sections of the table)1 – Alkali – very reactive metals that form salts with halogens (group 1)

Explode in water2 – Alkaline Earth – reactive metals (group 2)3 – Halogens – poisonous reactive nonmetals that form salts with alkalis (group 17)

Used in cleaning supplies4 – Noble Gases – stable gases (group 18)

Used in storage of materials Developed by Mendelev with Atomic MassEdited by Moseley by Atomic NumberPeriods – horizontal rowsGroups – vertical columnsPeriodic Table Regions

Metals – left side, mostly solids, shiny, malleable, conduct heat and electricityNonmetals – right side, mostly gases, brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricityMetalloids – along stairstep, mixed metal and nonmetal properties

Compound – pure substance formed of atoms of multiple elements chemically bonded together (ex: H2O, NaCl)Mixture – a combination of more than one pure substance

Miscible – liquid dissolves in liquid (ex: alcohol in water)

Immiscible – liquid won’t dissolve in liquid (ex: oil in water)Homogenous – solid dissolves in liquid (ex: salt in water)Heterogeneous – solid won’t dissolve in liquid (ex: flour in water)Gas dissolved in liquid (ex: CO2 in soft drinks)

Physical vs. Chemical ChangePhysical Change – any change that does not change the chemical identity (ex: ice melting, tearing paper)Chemical Change – any change that does change the chemical identity (ex: chemical reaction, rust, burn)

Physical vs. Chemical PropertyPhysical Property – can be observed with a physical change (ex: change of state, malleability)Chemical Property – observation requires a chemical change (ex: flammability, reactivity)

Density – physical property of mass per volumeEquation – D = m/VBuoyancy – less dense items float, more dense items sink

Viscosity – Resistance of a fluid to flow (ex: molasses more viscous than water)Ionic vs. Covalent Bonding

Ionic – electrons are donatedName using metal followed by nonmetal with –ide ending

For transition metals include charge in roman numerals after metal nameCation – positively charged ionsAnion – negatively charged ionsOxidation Number – number that indicates how many electrons gained or lost by an atomPolyatomic Ions – charged group of atoms, know 16 primary name, formula, and charge

PO43-,CN-, SO4

2-, ClO2-, CH3COO-, O2

2-, HS-, C6H5COO-, CrO42-, OH-, CO3

2-, NO3-, MnO4

-, ClO3-, NO2

- SO32-

Covalent – electrons are sharedDiatom – two atoms of the same element bonded togetherName using least electromagnetic first with –ide ending, include the number of atoms of each element

Chemical Equation – a symbolic representation of a reactionReactants – ingredients placed on the left of the equationProducts – final results of a reaction on the right of the equationYield – arrow representing the direction of the reaction, similar to an equal sign of the equation

4 Basic Reactions and CombustionSynthesis – A + B → AB (ex: Na + Cl → NaCl)Decomposition – AB → A + B (ex: NaCl → Na + Cl)Single Replacement – AX + B → A + BX (ex: NaCl + Li → Na + LiCl)Double Replacement – AX + BY → AY + BX (ex: NaCl + LiBr → NaBr + LiCl)Combustion – Involves the burning of Oxygen

Endothermic Reaction – reaction that requires heat energy to proceedExothermic Reaction – reaction in which energy is primarily given off in the form of heatCatalyst – a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being permanently changed itselfBalancing Equations – adding coefficients to each element or compound in an equationStoichiometry – using mathematical conversions and balanced equations to predict product and reactant quantities

Method: For predictions of mass or moles, use moler mass and balanced equationHydrate – any compound containing water, usually in a definite ratio by weightIsotope – variation of an element with a specific neutron numberRadioactivity – process that occurs when a nucleus decays

4 Types1 – Alpha – weakest type stopped by paper, +2 charge, used in smoke detectors, 4

2 He2 – Beta – high energy electron, -1 charge, used in radioactive diagnosis tracers, 0

-1 e3 – Gamma – electromagnetic ray, does not require medium, doesn’t ionize, used in cancer treatment4 – Neutron Emission – high energy neutron released during radioactive decay, strongest type

Half-Life – time it takes for half of a sample to decayFusion vs. Fission

Fusion – combining of 2 nucleiFission – splitting of a nuclei

Functional Groups – a specific group of atoms that frequently bond in molecules (know list)

- alkane, alkene, alkyne, phenyl, alkyl halide, amine, hydroxyl, ether, aldehyde, ketone, carboxyl, ester, amide

ThermodynamicsKinetic Theory – as temperature increases particles move faster and spread out

1. All particles are in motion2. Smaller Particles move faster3. Warmer Particles move faster

Types of heat transferConduction – heat transfer between two items in contact

Conductor – anything that readily allows the transfer of heat energy (ex: iron)Insulator – anything that prohibits the transfer of thermal energy (ex: air)

Convection – heat transfer in fluid through currents of hot (less dense) rising and cold fallingRadiation – electromagnetic heat transfer which does not require a medium (material) to travel through

Temperature – measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a systemCelsius: C = 5/9 (F – 32) or C = K – 273Fahrenheit: F = (9/5 C) + 32Kelvin: K = C + 273

Absolute Zero – temperature of 0 K where particles would stop movingSpecific Heat – the amount of heat required to raise 1 kg of a substance by a degree Celsius

Q = m*(TF-TI)*CHeat of Fusion – the amount of energy required to turn one gram of a substance from solid to liquidHeat of Vaporization – the amount of energy required to turn one gram of a substance from liquid to gasThermal Energy – sum of the kinetic and potential energy of the particles in an object1st Law of Thermo – the increase in thermal E equals work done on the system plus the thermal E transferred2nd Law of Thermo – it is impossible for thermal E to flow from a cold object to a warmer object unless work is doneInternal Combustion Engine – intake, compression, power, exhaustEntropy – a measure of how spread out or dispersed energy is

Forces and MotionDisplacement – the distance and direction of an object’s final position from its initial positionVector – a quantity showing both size and direction of a motionSpeed – the distance an object travel per unit of time (v = d/t)

Instantaneous Speed – the speed of an object at a single instant in timeAverage Speed – the total distance traveled divided by the total travel timeVelocity – the speed of the object and its direction of motion

Acceleration – the change in velocity divided by the change in time (a = (vf-vi)/tf-ti))Force – a push or pull that one object exerts on another

Net Force – the cumulative force of two objectsBalanced vs. Unbalanced Forces

Balanced Forces – equal and opposite forces having a net force of 0Unbalanced Forces – forces combine to produce nonzero net force causing acceleration

Friction – the force that opposes the sliding motion of two surfaces that are in contactStatic Friction – frictional force that prevents 2 surfaces from sliding past each otherSliding Friction – force that acts in the opposite direction to the motion of sliding objectsAir Resistance – friction against an object moving through the air

Terminal Velocity – final velocity where force of air resistance equals gravityNewtons 1st Law – Only unbalanced forces change motion

Inertia – the tendency of an object to resist a change in motionNewtons 2nd Law – the acceleration of an object is in the same direction as the net force on the object

Force = mass x accelerationNewtons 3rd Law – for every action there is an equal and opposite reactionMomentum – the product of an object’s mass and velocity

Momentum (p) = mass (m) x velocity (v)Law of Conservation of Momentum – total momentum is conserved within a system

Gravity – the attractive force between two objects based on mass and distance

F = G(m1m2)/d2

Weight v Mass – mass is amount of substance while weigh is how gravity impacts massCentripetal Acceleration – acceleration toward the center of a curved circular pathCentripetal Force – net force exerted toward the center of a curved path

Work and EnergyEnergy – the ability to do work

Measured in Joules (J)Kinetic Energy – the energy of a moving object has because of its motion

KE = ½ x mass x velocity2

Potential Energy – stored energy due to potentialElastic Potential Energy – energy stored by something that can stretch or compress such as a rubber bandChemical Potential Energy – energy stored in the form of chemical bondsGravitational Potential Energy – energy stored due to an objects position above the earth

GPE = mass x gravity x heightMechanical Energy – the total amount of potential and kinetic energy in a systemProject Motion – curved motion of a thrown or hit object as its energy changes between mechanical and potentialLaw of Conservation – Energy is conserved but some energy in a system may be lost as heat due to frictionFusion and Fission – Mass can be converted to energy through the processes of nuclear fusion and fissionCalorie – unit used by nutritionist to measure how much energy comes from various foodsWork – the energy transferred when a force makes an object move, has direction

Work (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)Power – the amount of work done in one second or the rate at which work is done

Power (W) = Work (J) / Time (s)Machine – device that makes doing work easier by multiplying force or changing direction

Work Input = Work OutputMechanical Advantage – ratio of output force to input force

Mechanical Advantage = output force (Newtons) / input force (Newtons)Efficiency – a measure of how much of the work put into a machine is change into useful work output

Efficiency (%) = work output (J) / work input (J)Simple Machine – a machine that does work with only one movement

1. Lever – a bar that is free to pivot or turn around a fixed pointa. 1st Class – fulcrum in center (pry bar)b. 2nd Class – output force in center (wheelbarrow) c. 3rd Class – input force in center (baseball bat)

2. Pulley – grooved wheel with a rope, chain, or cable running along ita. Fixed Pulley – single pulley attached to a fixed positionb. Moveable Pulley – a pulley in which one end of the rope is fixed and the wheel is free to movec. Block and Tackle – a system of pulleys consisting of both fixed and moveable

3. Wheel and Axel – consists of a shaft or axle attached to the center of a larger wheel and rotate togetherEx: screwdriver, doorknobs, faucets, gears

4. Inclined Planes – a sloping surface that reduces the amount of force required to do worka. Screw – inclined plane wrapped in a spiral around a cylinder b. Wedge – an inclined plane with one or two sloping sides

Compound Machine – two or more simple machines that operate together

WavesWaves – repeating disturbance that transfers energy (not matter)Mechanical vs. Electromagnetic

Electromagnetic – a wave not requiring a medium (ex: ultraviolet light can pass through outer space)Mechanical – a wave requiring a medium (ex: sound waves cannot be heard in outer space)

Medium – matter though which energy travels (ex: the medium for an ocean wave is the water)Transverse vs. Compressional Mechanical Waves

Transverse – wave which energy and matter move perpendicular to each other (up and down)Example: water wave

Compressional – wave which energy and matter move parallel to each other (long ways)Example: sound wave

Parts of WavesCrest – high point of transverse waveTrough – low point of transverse waveCompression – compacted part of compressional waveRarefaction – less dense or spread out portion of a compressional waveNormal – middle or rest line

Amplitude – amount of energy transferred by the wave which determines the intensity- measured from the normal to either the crest or the trough

Wavelength – the distance of one wave (represented by the symbol Lambda {λ})Period – the time it takes for one wave to passFrequency – the number of waves that pass a point each second

- Calculated by f = 1/T where T is the time period- Units – Hertz (Hz)- Pitch – human perception of the frequency of sound waves

Electromagnetic SpectrumGamma Rays – highest energy, highest frequency, lowest wave length, used to treat cancerX-Rays – used in medicineUltravioletVisible Light –

Color Spectrum-Lights – as lights add together they produce white

- objects can only reflect the colors available in the light- white light includes all colors of light

Pigments – as pigments add together they produce blackInfraredMicrowavesRadio Waves – lowest energy, lowest frequency, longest wave length, used for communication (includes TV)

Interactions of waves with the environmentReflection – bouncing back of a wave (examples: mirrors and sonar)

Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflectionReal vs. Virtual Image

Real Image – Image seems to pass through (curved mirrors)Virtual Image – Image seems to be behind mirror (plane mirrors)

Sonar – echolocation (ex: submarines, bats, dolphins)Refraction – bending of a wave as it goes from one medium to another (ex: straw in glass of water)

Dispersion – light refracting through a prism is broken into individual colorsDiffraction – bending of a wave around a corner (ex: double slit experiment)

- When a wave goes through a slit it forms a new wave on the other side- When a wave goes through two slits the two new waves interfere with each other

Interference – two waves interact with one anotherConstructive Interference – two waves add togetherDestructive Interference – two waves subtract from one another

Standing Wave – wave pattern where two equal and opposite wave continually interfere (used in music)Node – point of no movement (at normal)Anti-nodes – points of maximum vibration (crests and troughs)

Wave Travel and State of Matter – waves travel faster when particles are closer together but stop soonerResonance – vibration of one particle at a natural frequency causes vibration of the next (ex: guitar)Doppler Effect – wave moving towards observer increases frequency and away decrease frequency

Electricity and MagnetismStatic Electricity – the accumulation of excess electric charge on an objectLaw of Conservation of Charge – charge can be transferred from object to object but not created nor destroyedCharges exert forces on each other, opposites attract while likes repel

Electric Field – area surrounding every electric charge where force is exerted on other electric charge- Arrows point in to negative and out from positive

Conductor – a material in which electrons are able to move easily (ex: metals)Insulator – a material in which electrons are not able to move easily (ex: plastic, wood, rubber, glass)Charging – transfer of electrons between two objects near one another

Charging by Contact – process of transferring charge by touching or rubbingCharging by Induction – the rearrangement of electrons on a neutral object caused by a nearby charged objectStatic Discharge – transfer of charge between two objects because buildup of static electricity (ex: lightning)Grounding – connecting an object to earth to prevent unwanted static discharge to another object

Electric Current – the net movement of electric charges in a single direction- Measured in amperes, 1 ampere = 6,250 million billion electrons flowing past a point each second

Voltage Difference – place where electric charge flows due to difference in electrical charges- Measured in volts

Dry-Cell Battery – consists of two electrodes surrounded by electrolyte (dry paste) enabling charges to moveWet-Cell Battery – contains two connected plates of different metals and a conduction solution, usually several wellsLead-Acid Battery – contains series of 6 wet cells of lead/lead dioxide plates, sulfuric acid solution, ex: car batteryResistance – tendency of a material to resist the flow of electrons

- Measure in OhmsOhm’s Law – current is equal to the voltage difference divided by resistanceCircuit – a closed path that electric current follows

Series Circuit – single pathway for current to flow, “bad Christmas lights”Parallel Circuit – multiple branches or pathways for current to flow, “good Christmas lights”

Fuse – contains small piece of metal that melts if temperature gets too high, must be replacedBreaker – contains a small piece of metal that bends if temperature gets too high, must be bent back or “flipped”Electrical Power – the rate at which electrical energy is converted to another form of energy

Power (watts) = current (amperes) x voltage difference (volts)Electrical Energy – amount of electrical power consumed in an amount of time, how power companies calculate bill

Electrical Energy (kWh) = power (kW) x time (h)Magnetism – the properties and interaction of magnetMagnetic Field – exerts a force on other magnets and other magnetic materials

Stronger closer to poles and closer to magnetMagnetic Poles – polarized part of magnet (North or South) where magnetic field is strongest

Location is dependent upon the shape of the magnetCannot be separated, cut magnet has two new poles

Magnetic Field Direction – point out from North and in to south, compass points along lines toward southEarth’s Magnetic Field – earth behaves like a giant bar magnet due to iron and nickel core

Poles switch every 10,000 years or so, can be seen through rock layersGeographic North is Magnetic South, and Geographic South is Magnetic North

Magnetic Materials – Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, and others with electric current flowingMagnetic Domains – groups of atoms with aligned magnetic poles

Can be realigned by nearness to a magnetCan be randomized through heating or banging

Electricity and Magnetism1820 Hans Christian Oersted observes relationship

Electric Current creates a magnetic fieldElectromagnet – temporary magnet made by wrapping a wire coil carrying current around an iron core

Electromagnet in a speaker converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and into soundGalvanometer – devices that use an electromagnet to measure currentSolenoid – a single wire wrapped into a cylindrical wire coil

Electric Motor – device that changes electrical energy into mechanical energyIncludes a wire coil, permanent magnet, and electric current source

Electromagnetic Induction – the generation of a current by a changing magnetic fieldGenerator – uses electromagnetic induction to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy

The current in coil changes direction each time ends of coil move past the permanent magnet polesTurbine – large wheel that rotates when pushed by water, wind, or steam, connect to rotating magnets

AC vs DCDirect Current – “DC” current flowing in only one direction from a batteryAlternating Current – “AC” reverses direction of the current in a regular pattern, used in wall outlets

Transformer – device that increases or decreases voltage of an alternating currentStep Up Transformer – increases voltage as power leaves plant to high powered lines

Low number of primary coil wraps to high number secondary coil wrapsStep Down Transformer – decreases voltage as power leaves high power lines and enter homes

High number of primary coil wraps to low number secondary coil wraps

Earth’s Internal ProcessesNotes coming soon…

Weather and ClimateNotes coming soon…

Natural Resources and Sustainable EnergyNotes coming soon…

Animal AnatomyTissues – Four main types of animal tissue

1. Epithelial – protects, absorbs, filters, and secretesa. Often in body coverings and linings, as well as in glandsb. 3 types – squamous, cuboidal, and columnar

i. Squamous – flattened, forms membranes and lines body cavitiesii. Cuboidal – cube shaped, common in glands and ducts

iii. Columnar – column shaped, often provides mucus producing gobletsc. Also defined by layering as Simple, Stratified, Transitional, or Pseudostratified

2. Connective – binds body tissues together, supports body, provides protectiona. Types – Bone, Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage, Dense, Areolar, Adipose, Reticular

i. Bone – hard matrix supports the bodyii. Hyaline – most common and makes entire fetal skeleton

iii. Elastic – provides elasticity and supports external eariv. Fibrocartilage – highly compressible, found in cushion between vertebral discsv. Dense – Collagen fibers of fibroblasts making tendons and ligaments

vi. Areolar – soft and pliable and functions as packing tissuevii. Adipose – Fat globules contain lipids which insulate and protect the body, energy reserve

viii. Reticular – interwoven fibers in lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow3. Nervous – transmits nerve impulses throughout the body4. Muscle – Produces movement

a. 3 types – Skeletal, Cardiac, Smoothi. Skeletal – Under voluntary control and pulls bone/skin

ii. Cardiac – Involuntary control in heart to pump bloodiii. Smooth – Involuntary control in walls of hollow organs

Organ Systems – There are 11 organ systems in the human body1. Nervous System

a. Structures – CNS made of brain and spine, PNS made of peripheral nervesb. Function – recognize and coordinate body’s response to the environment

2. Integumentary Systema. Structures – Skin (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis), hair, nails, sweat and oil glandsb. Function – serves as a barrier against infection and injury, regulate temperature

3. Respiratory Systema. Structures – Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungsb. Function – provide oxygen needed for cellular respiration and removes excess carbon dioxide

4. Digestive Systema. Structures – Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum

b. Function – converts food into simpler molecules used by the cells, absorbs food, eliminates waste5. Excretory System

a. Structures – skin, lungs, kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethrab. Function – eliminate waste products from the body to maintain homeostasis

6. Skeletal Systema. Structures – Bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendonsb. Function – support the body, protect internal organs, allow movement, blood cell formation

7. Muscular Systema. Structures –Skeletal Muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscleb. Function – works with skeleton in voluntary movement, helps to circulate blood and move food

8. Cardiovascular Systema. Structures – Heart, blood, arteries, arterioles, veins, capillaries, b. Function – bring oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells, fight infection, remove cell waste

9. Endocrine Systema. Structure – Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testesb. Function – control growth, development, and metabolism, maintain homeostasis

10. Lymphatic/Immune Systema. Structure – White blood cells, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph vesselsb. Function – helps protect the body from disease, collects fluid lost from blood vessels and returns it

11. Reproductive Systema. Male Structure – Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, and penisb. Female Structure – Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vaginac. Male Function – produce reproductive cellsd. Female Function – produce reproductive cells, and nurture and protect embryo

DO NOT USE THE FOLLOWING FOR 2015-2016

Plant DiversityPlant – multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls made of cellulose and carry out photosynthesis

- 4 types of plants evolved from green algae1. Bryophytes (Mosses) – nonvascular plants including mosses, hornworts, and liverworts

a. Life cycle that depends on water for reproductionb. No vascular tissue and must live near water to draw by osmosisc. Rhizoid – root like structure that anchors plant to the ground and absorbs water/minerals

2. Pterophytes (Seedless Vascular) – earliest vascular plants include ferns, club mosses, and horsetailsa. Vascular tissue is made of xylem and phloem and can move fluids through plant bodyb. Fronds – large leavesc. Rhizome – creeping or underground stem

3. Gymnosperms (cone plants) – seeds are bore directly on surface of cone (naked seed)a. 4 types – Gnetophytes, Cycads, Ginkgoes, and Conifers

i. Gnetophytes – 70 current speciesii. Cycads – palm-like plants growing in tropical and subtropical places

iii. Ginkgoes – Only one species remaining in Ginkgo bilobaiv. Conifers – 500 known species including pines, spuces, firs, cedars, redwoods

4. Angiosperms (flower plants) – develop unique reproductive organs known as flowersa. Flowers contain ovaries which surround and protect the seedb. Fruit – a wall of tissue surrounding a seedc. 2 Classes – Monocots and Dicots

i. Monocots – single cotyledon, parallel leaf veins, 3x flower petals fibrous rootsii. Dicots – two cotyledons, branched leaf veins, 4x or 5x flower petals, taproot

d. Life Spansi. Annual – complete life cycle within one growing season such as wheat and pansies

ii. Biennial – complete life cycle in two years such as parsley and primroseiii. Perennials – live for more than two years such as maple trees and honeysuckles

Plant AnatomyThree principal organs of plants are roots, stems, and leaves

1. Roots – absorb water and dissolve nutrients, anchor plant, hold soil in placea. Two types – taproots and fibrous roots

i. Taproots - long and thick with small secondary roots (dicots)ii. Fibrous – branch to large extent (monocots)

b. 3 zones at growth – zone of cell division, zone of elongation, zone of maturationc. Contains Casparian Strip which prevent backflow of water out of the vascular cylinder

i. Enables root pressure to force water up instead of down2. Stem – support system for the plant body, transport system that carries nutrients, defense against predators

a. Primary growth – growth in length of the plantb. Secondary growth – growth in width of plant and can produce wood

3. Leaves – main photosynthetic system, controls gas exchangea. Most photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll which makes up the bulk of the plant

i. Spongey Mesophyll – loosely packed ground tissue allowing gas exchange in leaf bottomii. Palisade Mesophyll – tightly pack ground tissue where most photosynthesis occurs

b. Transpiration – the loss of water through its leavesc. Leaves take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen during photosynthesis

Water is transported into and through the plant via root pressure and uptake, capillary action, and transpirational pullFour types of plant tissue are dermal, vascular, ground, and meristematic

1. Dermal – “skin” of the plant that protects ita. Epidermis – outside covering of the plantb. Endodermis – often covers inside portions of the plant

2. Vascular – “vascular system” of plant that passes water and nutrients throughout plant

a. Xylem – consists of tracheids and vessel elements that pass waterb. Phloem – consists of sieve tube elements and companion cells and passes nutrients

3. Ground – “in-between” tissue of plant that provides its structurea. Consists of Parenchyma, Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma

4. Meristematic – reproductive tissue of the planta. Found in two places at shoot tip and root tipb. Cells differentiate as they maturec. Indeterminate Growth – Plants grow throughout lifetime

TaxonomyClassification is a way to group organisms in a logical manner so scientists can study the diversity of life

- Currently 1.5 million species have been identified- Between 2-100 million more need to be discovered and identified

Taxonomy – the science of classifying organisms and assigning universally accepted names- Common names vary so universal names are assigned

o Universal names are written in Latin and Greeko Binomial nomenclature – two-naming system

Created by Carlus Linneaus Genus – the first part of the name which identifies a group of similar species Species – the second part of the name which identifies the specific organism Both Genus and species are italicized, the Genus is capitalized

8 levels of classification – domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species- Domain – Largest taxon

o Bacteria – includes kingdom eubacteria which include most common bacteria Single celled prokaryotes

o Archaea – includes kingdom archaebacteria which include bacteria living in extreme environments Single celled prokaryotes

o Eukarya – includes kingdoms plantae, animalia, protista, and fungi Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes

- Kingdom – 6 Kingdom Systemo Eubacteria (formerly ½ of Monera) – Unicellular prokaryotes, peptidoglygan in cell wall

Typical bacterial (ex: Staph, Strep)o Archaebacteria (formerly ½ of Monera) – Unicellular prokaryotes, lipids in cell wall

Live in extreme places (ex: Halophiles, Thermophiles)o Protista – Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes, can be heterotrophic or photosynthetic

Any eukaryote that doesn’t fit in plants, animals, or fungi (ex: amoeba)o Fungi – Multicellular or unicellular eukaryotes that feed off dead or decaying organic matter

(ex: mushroom, yeast)o Plantae – multicellular eukaryotic photosynthetic autotrophs, cell walls with cellulose, nonmotile

4 types: bryophytes, seedless vasculars, gymnosperms, angiospermso Animalia – Multicellular eukaryotes, hetertrophic, motile

Defined by Symmetry Bilateral – mirror image when divided down the middle

o Phyla: Platyhelminth, Nematoda, Mollucsa, Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata Radial – can be cut to multiple identical sections

o Phyla: Cnidaria, Echinodermata No Symmetry – cannot be divided into identical parts

o Phyla: PoriferaPhylogeny – the study of evolutionary relationships among organisms

- The higher the level of the taxon the further back in time of the common ancestor- Cladistic Analysis – identifies and considers only new characteristics that arise as lineages evolve

o Cladogram – diagram that shows evolutionary relationships- The genes of many organisms show important similarities at the molecular level

o The more similar the DNA, the recent shared ancestor

- Molecular Clock – uses DNA comparison to estimate the length of time that 2 species have been evolvingDichotomous Key – method used to identify an object based on the structures, consist of 2 paired statements

Intro to Biology and BiochemistryBiology – the science that uses the scientific methods to study living things (Bios=life, logy=study of)Living things have 8 common characteristics

1. Made of cellsa. A cell is the smallest unit of an organism that is considered aliveb. Unicellular are made of one cell while multicellular are made of multiple cells

2. Reproducea. Sexual reproduction – 2 different parents unite to form first cell of new organismb. Asexual reproduction – a single parent produces offspring that are identical to itself

3. Based on genetic code (DNA)a. Organisms store what they need to live, grow, and reproduce in genetic code called DNA

4. Grow and developa. Growth – an increase in the amount of living material and the formation of new structuresb. Development of all of the changes that take place during the life of an organism

5. Obtain and use materials for energya. Metabolism -combination of chemical reactions where an organism builds up/breaks down material

i. Autotroph – organism self-produces foodii. Heterotroph – organism must seek out food from other places

6. Respond to environmenta. Environment – surroundings including air, water, weather, temperature, and other organismsb. Stimulus – any condition in the environment that requires and organism to adjustc. Response – a reaction to a stimulus

7. Maintain a stable internal environmenta. Although conditions outside an organism change, conditions inside tend to remain constantb. Homeostasis – regulation of organism’s internal environment to maintain conditions for survival

8. Change over timea. Over many generations, groups of organisms adapt to their environmentb. Evolution – a change in a population of an organism over time

Levels of OrganizationBiosphere – The part of the earth that contains all of the ecosystemsEcosystem – a group of communities and their nonliving partsCommunity – a group of populationsPopulation – a group of organisms of one type that live in the same place and timeSpecies – a group of organismsOrganism – individual living thing made up of organ systems that are mad of organs that are made of tissuesOrgan System – a group of organs working together to perform a specific functionTissue – multiple cells of the same type functioning togetherCell – smallest unit of structure and function of lifeMolecule – groups of atoms, the smallest unit of most chemical compoundsAtom - smallest particle of an element that still retains the properties of it

Microscope – includes parts of ocular, tube, nose, objective, stage clip, stage, diaphragm, light, base, adjustments, armOrganic vs Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic compounds – do not contain carbono Chemicals required that do not contain carbon include water, nitrogen, and oxygen

Organic compounds – contain carbonMacromolecules – “giant molecules” made from thousands of molecules formed by polymerization

Four basic macromolecules – Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins1. Carbohydrates – made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

a. Sugars that provide cell with energy Monosaccharide – single simple sugar (ex: glucose) Polysaccharide – complex sugars (ex: glycogen)

2. Lipids – macromolecules made mostly of carbon and hydrogen

a. Not soluble in water (ex: fats, oils)3. Nucleic Acids – contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and Phosphorus

a. Made of nucleotidesb. Contain genetic information and make up DNA and RNA

i. DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acidii. RNA – Ribonucleic Acid

4. Proteins – contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygena. Made up of amino acids

i. Amino Acid – composed of carboxylic acids, amines, and side chainsii. More than 20 different amino acids found in nature

b. Control how fast chemical reactions occurc. Enzyme – Protein that acts as biological catalyst (speeds up reaction)

i. Lowers activation energyii. Induced Fit Model – substrate and enzyme mold together

1. Return to original shape after reaction completesiii. Substrate – reactant of enzyme-catalyzed reactioniv. Denaturing – high temp, pH misshapes enzyme, becomes ineffective

CellsCell – basic unit of lifeHuman body is made up of 75-100 trillion cellsHooke – used early microscope to view cork and discover cellsVan Leeuwenhoek – used microscope to view pond water and saw “critters”Schleiden – plants are made of cellsSchwann – animals made of cellsVirchow – all cells come from existing cellsCell Theory

1. All living things made of cells2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function3. Cells are produced from existing cells

2 Types of Cells1. Prokaryote – cell with no nucleus and DNA free floating inside (mostly single-celled)2. Eukaryote – cell contain nucleus with DNA inside and has membrane-bound organelles (mostly multi-celled)

Cell Membrane – thin flexible barrier around a cell that regulates what enters and exitsCell Wall – rigid structure located ouside of membrane that provides additional support and protection (plants, fungi)

Plasmodesmata – microscopic channels in cell walls of plant cells enabling transport and communicationCytoplasm – clear gelatinous fluid inside cell that surrounds organellesOrganelle – structure within a eukaryotic cell that performs important function

Nucleus – largest organelle surrounded by double membrane and contains DNA to make proteinsNucleolus – organelle with nucleus that makes ribosomesNuclear Envelope – Double membrane with nuclear pores that surrounds nucleusRibosome – move out of nucleus and produce proteinsEndoplasmic Reticulum – site of cellular chemical reactions that transports proteins to golgi apparatus

Rough ER – covered with ribosomes and makes proteinsSmooth ER – contains no ribosomes and makes lipids

Golgi Apparatus – sorts proteins into packages to be sent to appropriate destinations in or out of cellVacuole – temporary storage of materials (one large in plants, many small in animals)Lysosomes – small organelle filled with enzyme to break down lipids, carbohydrates, waste, and invadersPlastids – organelle mostly in plants used to store starches, lipids, and contains pigment to give color

Chloroplast – only in green plants and some protists, captures light energy and produces foodMitochondria – powerhouse of the cell that makes energyPeroxisome – break down fatty acids and hydrogen peroxide

Cytoskeleton – gives cell support and structure, made of microtubules and microfilamentsCentrioles – microtubules that help with cell divisionCilia – short numerous hair-like projections that increase surface area and aid in movement

Flagella – long tail-like projection that moves cell with whip-like motionDifferences in Plant and Animal Cells

Plant Cell: photosynthesis, chloroplasts, chlorophyll, cell wall, large central vacuole, square, largeAnimal Cell: no photosynthesis, no chloroplast, no chlorophyll, no cell wall, many small vacuole, round, small

Cell Boundary and TransportPhospholipid Bilayer – gives cell membrane flexible structure and strong barrier

Fatty Acid Tail – hydrophobic interior of membranePhosphate Head – hydrophilic exterior of membrane

Fluid Mosaic Model – phospholipid bilayer includes transport proteins and channelsConcentration – the mass of solute in a given volume of a solutionDiffusion – particles moving from an area of high concentration to area of low concentrationDynamic Equilibrium – when concentration of solute is same throughout the system, substances still move in and outOsmosis – diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membraneSolution Types:

1. Isotonic – solution concentration is same as inside the cell2. Hypertonic – solution concentration is higher than cell, water moves out of cell causing plasmolysis, shrinking3. Hypotonic – solution concentration is lower than cell, water moves into cell causing cytolysis, swelling

Facilitated Diffusion – membrane channels help diffusion of concentrate across membraneTransport Protein – allows transport in and out of cell via a transport channel

Active Transport – use of energy (ATP) to transport small molecules against concentration gradientEndocytosis – process of taking material into the cell by means of enfolding

Phagocytosis – taking in solid food particlesPinocytosis – taking in liquid

Exocytosis – forcing contents out of cell

Mitosis and MeiosisChromatin – long strands of DNA wrapped around proteinChromosome – rod-shaped structure that forms when a single DNA molecule coils tightly before cell divisionChromatid – one or two copies of each chromosomeSister Chromatids – two identical copies of a chromosomeCentromere – protein disk that attaches the two chromatidsCell Cycle – series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide

Regulated by protein cyclinCancer – uncontrolled cell replication

Interphase – cell spends most of its life growing and replicating DNAG1 – cell grows and synthesizes new proteins and organellesS – chromosomes replicate and DNA synthesis occursG2 – organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced

M-Phase – mitosis/meiosisCytokinesis – division of cytoplasm during cell division

o Cell Plate forms to make new cell wall when necessaryMitosis – part of eukaryotic cell division during which the somatic cell nucleus divides, 4 phases, produces replica

Somatic Cell – diploid body cellDiploid – 2 of each kind of chromosome

1. Prophase – chromosomes coil, centrioles separate, spindle fibers form, nuclear envelope breaks down2. Metaphase – chromosomes line up in center, each chromosome connects to spindle fiber3. Anaphase – sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and move apart4. Telophase – chromosomes gather at opposite poles and two new nuclear envelopes formProduces 2 daughter cells identical to original cell

Meiosis – process by which the number of chromosomes is halved through separation of homologous chromosomesHomologous Chromosomes – pairs of chromosomes, 1 from each parent, with similar genetic make-upDiploid to haploid in humans is 46 to 23 chromosomes

Haploid – one of each kind of chromosomeGerm Cell – a type of cell that goes through meiosis to make gametes

Sexual Reproduction – involves the production and fusion of haploid cellsFertilization – the uniting of male and female gametes producing a zygote

Gamete – sex cell (sperm or egg)Zygote – produced by union of egg and cell

Phases of MeiosisMeiosis I:

1. Prophase 1 – First phase of Meiosis IChromosomes coilNuclear envelope breaks downCentrioles form and move to polesSpindles fibers formPairs of homologous chromosomes come together and form a tetradCrossing Over occurs – homologous chromosomes exchange portions of chromatids

Happens an average of 2 to 3 times per pair Results in new combinations of DNA Genetic Recombination – reassortment of chromosomes and genetic information

2. Metaphase 1 – spindle fibers attach to centromere, tetrads line up3. Anaphase 1 – pairs of chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles4. Telophase 1 – spindle fibers/centrioles break down, chromosomes uncoil, envelope reforms5. Cytokinesis – cytoplasm divides into 2 new cells, each with ½ genetic info of original cell

Meiosis II:1. Prophase 2 – First phase of Meiosis II

Chromosomes coilCentrioles form and move to polesSpindles fibers formNuclear envelope breaks down

2. Metaphase 2 – spindle fibers attach to centromeres, chromosomes line up single file3. Anaphase 2 – centromere splits and sister chromatids separate moving to poles4. Telophase 2 – spindle fibers/centrioles break down, chromosomes uncoil, envelope reforms5. Cytokinesis – cytoplasm divides into 2 new cells producing 4 total

Meiosis provides genetic variation for 4 daughter cells in 3 ways1. 2 possibilities when chromosomes line up in Metaphase 1 (8 million possibilities)2. 8 million sperm x 8 million eggs leads to 70 trillion possible combinations3. Crossing over leads to basically infinite combinations