introduction to anatomy - orange coast...

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LABORATORY ONE

Introduction to Anatomy

Anatomy is a field heavily dependent on the identification of structure. As an anatomy student, you will be spending many hours in the laboratory learning to recognize and name structures in the human body. To aid you in this endeavor, you will be introduced to the organization of the laboratory section of this course, the laboratory protocol, and use of the multimedia laboratory. You will also be introduced to the basic terminology used in naming anatomical structures, the fundamentals of the language of anatomy. The language of anatomy enables students, teachers, and health care professionals to share information precisely. You will need to learn anatomical terminology in order to communicate effectively about anatomy. These laboratory exercises are designed to orient you to the laboratory and familiarize you with basic anatomical vocabulary. You will learn the names of structures, directional terms, and planes of section.

EXERCISE 1A: LABORATORY PROTOCOL

1A INTRODUCTION Human Anatomy courses have two components, the lecture and the laboratory. The lecture component is typically centered around the formal presentation of material by an instructor. In the laboratory, the student will participate in laboratory investigations. The laboratory instructor guides you in this endeavor, but he or she cannot substitute for student effort. Successful laboratory investigation requires a well run laboratory. The rules and criteria established by your instructor, the program coordinator, and the college are designed to support that effort. It is your responsibility to abide by the protocols and procedures followed in this course. It is the intention of your instructors, teaching assistants, and support personnel to facilitate your successful completion of this course. It is our sincere hope that you will enjoy the journey and in the process construct a strong foundation in anatomy that will lead you to success in your chosen field.

1A OBJECTIVES To familiarize yourself with the safety procedures followed in the anatomy laboratory. To read and understand the information concerning the anatomy laboratory contained in the course

syllabus, the course schedule, and the laboratory protocol document. To sign and submit the student agreement required for participation in this course. To review and become familiar with protocol documents for the Hoag Multimedia Laboratory.

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1A MATERIALS 1. The course syllabus 2. The course schedule 3. The laboratory protocol document 4. Conduct documents 5. Hoag Multimedia Laboratory Protocol 6. Textbook

1A PROCEDURE

1. Your instructor will go over the the information you need about the materials you will use in this laboratory.

2. You will be tested on this information. 3. Complete and submit your student agreement form.

EXERCISE 1B: ANATOMICAL POSITION AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS

1B INTRODUCTION The human body is three-dimensional and bilaterally symmetrical. Bilateral symmetry means that the right and left “halves” of the body are mirror images of each other. When describing the human body, the accepted practice is to refer to a specific body orientation called anatomical position (Fig 1.1). A body in anatomical position is standing erect with feet together, facing forward. The arms are at the sides, with palms forward.

The vocabulary presented in this exercise describes body structures as seen in the anatomical position. The terms you will learn are accepted throughout the scientific and medical fields. Many of these terms compare relationships between structures. Remember that it is possible for a structure to be anterior to one of its neighbors, and posterior to another. For this reason, directional terms are paired with their antonyms (i.e., words with the opposite meaning). For example, see the contrasting terms for anatomical directions in Fig 1.2.

The application of anatomical terminology is specific for both two-legged animals (bipeds) such as humans and four-legged animals (quadrupeds) such as cats. Since you will be using the cat as an anatomical model and for dissections, it is important that you use anatomical terminology correctly for both bipeds and quadrupeds (Figs 1.2 and 1.3).

Fig 1.1 Anatomical

position.

Fig 1.2 Anatomical directions (A) anterior

view, (B) lateral view.

Fig 1.3 Typical quadruped.

Introduction to Anatomy 3

Table 1.1 Directional terms.

TERM DEFINITION ANTONYM DEFINITION EXAMPLE anterior toward the front posterior toward the back The stomach is

anterior to the kidneys.

ventral (used primarily in quadripeds)

belly side dorsal (used primarily in quadripeds)

back side The vertebrae are dorsal to the stomach.

medial toward the mid-line of the body

lateral toward the side of the body

The eyes are lateral to the nose.

superior toward the head inferior toward the feet The hips are inferior to the shoulder.

cranial or craniad toward the head caudal or caudad toward the tail The skull is craniad to the vertebrae.

superficial toward the surface deep toward the core or center

The skin is superficial to the muscles.

proximal (usually refers to the appendages)

closer to the body distal (usually refers to the appendages)

farther from the body

The elbow is distal to the shoulder and proximal to the wrist.

palmar the palm of the hand

dorsal the back of the hand

Fingerprints are located on the palmar surface of the hand.

plantar the sole of the foot dorsal the “top” of the foot

The dorsalis pedis artery is on the dorsal surface of the foot.

1B OBJECTIVES To describe the anatomical position. To use anatomical terminology correctly To describe terms of direction. To correctly apply anatomical terminology to both bipeds and quadrupeds.

1B MATERIALS 1. Human torso models 2. Articulated skeletons 3. Textbook

1B PROCEDURE

1. Using an articulated skeleton, human torso models, your body, and Fig 1.2, identify the relationships listed here to a biped. a. anterior/posterior (front/back) b. ventral/dorsal (belly side/back side) c. medial/lateral (closer to midline/farther from midline)

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d. superior/inferior (above/below) e. superficial/deep (closer to the surface/farther from the surface) (not labeled in figure) f. proximal/distal (closer to body attachment/farther from body attachment) g. palmar/ dorsal (palm of hand/back of hand) h. plantar/dorsal (sole of foot/top of foot)

2. Using an articulated cat skeleton and Fig 1.3, apply the terms listed below to a quadruped. a. anterior/posterior (front/back) b. ventral/dorsal (belly side/back side) c. medial/lateral (closer to midline/farther from midline) (not shown in figure) d. superior/inferior (above/below)

EXERCISE 1C: ORIENTATION TO THE HUMAN BODY 1C INTRODUCTION SURFACE ANATOMY AND REGIONS OF THE BODY

Many anatomical structures can be studied by using visible landmarks in regions on the body surface. Palpating (feeling) the body surface can assist in the detection of muscle actions, bone positions, and pulse points in superficial blood vessels. The names of body regions and surface structures will be used throughout this course. BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS

The human body can be sectioned along several different body planes. It is often necessary to observe the body in sections in order to understand the relative position of internal structures. You will learn about sectional diagnostic images such as CT scans, MRIs, and ultrasound. The instruments that produce these images are based on technologies that enable medical professionals to look into the body without performing invasive surgical procedures. Although the body planes and sections are often used in relation to the whole body, they can also be used to describe sections through individual organs. Sections can be taken on virtually any plane. We will examine the most commonly used planes (Fig 1.4). A median (midsagittal) plane (Fig 1.4c) passes through the midline of the body and divides the body into equal right and left halves. A sagittal (parasagittal) plane parallels the median plane, also dividing the body into right and left parts. A frontal (coronal) plane

Fig 1.4 Anatomical planes.


(Fig 1.4b) runs at a right angle to the median plane. A frontal plane divides the human body into anterior and posterior parts. A transverse (horizontal, cross sectional) plane (Fig 1.4a) crosses the body at right angles to the frontal and sagittal planes, cutting perpendicular to the long axis of the body. A transverse plane divides the body into superior and inferior portions. A transverse plane may also be called a horizontal plane if the human body is in anatomical position. An oblique plane is taken at any other angle. BODY CAVITIES

There are two large enclosed cavities that contain organs in the human body. You are responsible for learning the names of the cavities and the organs each cavity contains (Figs 1.5 and 1.6). The dorsal body cavity is subdivided into the cranial cavity, which houses the brain, and the vertebral cavity, which

encloses the spinal cord. The ventral body cavity is divided into two main subdivisions, the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. Organs in the ventral body cavity are collectively referred to as the viscera, or visceral organs. The superior subdivision, the thoracic cavity, is further divided into the pleural cavity, containing the lungs, and the pericardial cavity that contains the heart. The median space in the thoracic cavity is called the mediastinum. It houses the heart and great vessels, esophagus, trachea, and thymus gland. Note that the diaphragm partitions the

thoracic and abdominal cavities. Below the diaphragm is the abdominopelvic cavity. This large cavity is further divided into two regions. The abdominal cavity is superior, and contains the stomach, liver, intestines, and other organs. The pelvic cavity is inferior and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum. The abdomen and pelvis are continuous. Organs in the abdominopelvic cavity are located by using superficial landmarks. To simplify this task, the abdominopelvic cavity is divided into quadrants or regions. Each organ occupies one or more of these areas. Medical professionals typically use quadrants to indicate abdominopelvic areas. The boundaries of a quadrant are determined by drawing one imaginary line along the median plane, and a line perpendicular to it that crosses the umbilicus or navel. The quadrants (Fig 1.7) are then named according to their relative positions: upper right quadrant (URQ), lower right quadrant (LRQ), upper left quadrant

Fig 1.7 Quadrants.

Fig 1.6 Thoracic cavity.

Fig 1.5 Body cavities.

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(ULQ), and lower left quadrant (LLQ). These abbreviations for the quadrants are frequently used in medical records. Anatomists favor a system that divides the abdominopelvic cavity into nine regions (Fig 1.8). To create these regions, imaginary vertical lines are drawn parallel to the median plane along the mid-clavicular lines (Fig 1.8a). These lines bisect the clavicles, or collarbones. An imaginary horizontal line is also drawn through the transpyloric plane (Fig 1.8b). This line crosses the lower portion of the stomach. The transtubercular plane (Fig 1.8c) touches the top of the hipbones at the iliac crest. Some organs in the upper regions are located deep to the ribcage.

1C OBJECTIVES To learn the regions and major surface anatomy features of the human body. To be able to determine whether a section is in a sagittal, frontal or transverse plane on a biped or a

quadruped. To identify the major body cavities and the major organs within them. To identify the four quadrants and nine regions of the abdomen.

1C MATERIALS

1. Articulated skeleton 2. Human torso models 3. Human cadaver, if available 4. Charts showing the arrangement of internal

organs 5. Transversely and longitudinally sectioned

organ specimens, if available 6. Models demonstrating sections 7. Textbook

1C PROCEDURE 1. Identify the following anterior anatomical

regions and landmarks. Common names have been italicized. When common names are indicated first, it is because that term is used most frequently. You are responsible for both the scientific term and the common name when both are listed. Use the figures in your textbook for this identification.

AXIAL REGION APPENDICULAR REGION

HEAD (CEPHALIC REGION) UPPER APPENDAGE (OR EXTREMITY)

frontal (forehead) eeltoid (shoulder)

orbital (eye) brachial (arm)

nasal (nose) antecubital (front of elbow)

Fig 1.8 Abdominal regions.



buccal (cheek) antebrachial (forearm)

oral (mouth) carpal (wrist)

mental (chin) manus (hand)

NECK (CERVICAL REGION) palmar (palm)

TRUNK digital (finger)

THORAX (CHEST) LOWER APPENDAGE (OR EXTREMITY)

axillary (armpit) femoral (thigh)

sternal (sternum) patellar (knee)

pectoral (chest) crural (leg)

mammary (breast ) pes (foot)

ABDOMEN (ABDOMINAL) tarsal (ankle)

PELVIS ( OR PELVIC) dorsum (-al) (top)

inguinal digital (toes)

pubic

2. Identify the following posterior anatomical regions and landmarks. Common names have been italicized. When common names are indicated first, it is because that term is used most frequently. You are responsible for both the scientific term and the common name when both are listed. Use the figures in your textbook for this identification.


HEAD UPPER APPENDAGE (OR EXTREMITY)

cranial deltoid (shoulder)

auricular (ear) brachial (arm)

occipital (back of the head) antebrachial (dorsal forearm)

NECK (CERVICAL REGION) manus (hand)

TRUNK dorsum (back of palm)

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THORACIC (BACK) LOWER APPENDAGE (OR EXTREMITY)

vertebral (spinal column) gluteal

femoral (thigh)

thoracic popliteal (back of knee)

sural (calf)

ABDOMINAL tarsal (ankle)

LUMBAR (LOWER BACK) pes (foot)

perineal calcaneal (heel)

sacral plantar (sole of foot)

3. Identify the anatomical planes in Fig 1.4. a. transverse plane (also horizontal plane, or a cross sectional plane) b. frontal plane (also coronal plane) c. median plane (also midsagittal plane) d. sagittal plane (also parasagittal plane) (not shown in figure)

4. Locate the following structures using the articulated skeleton, anatomical models, and Figs 1.5 and 1.6. a. dorsal body cavity b. cranial cavity, encloses the brain c. vertebral cavity, contains the spinal cord d. ventral body cavity e. thoracic cavity f. abdominopelvic cavity g. pericardial cavity, contains the heart h. pleural cavity, contains the lungs i. mediastinum

Continue your study by removing the liver, stomach, and intestines from the abdominal cavity of the torso model. Note that the abdominopelvic cavity is considerably larger in volume than the thoracic cavity.

5. Observe the sectioned specimens. Notice that the cut surface is two-dimensional. Compare the sections to the torso model (after returning the organs to their proper locations). Can you determine where the sections were taken?

6. Obtain a banana from the laboratory instructor. Slice it along the “body” planes you learned today. 7. Identify the following abdominopelvic quadrants (Fig 1.7). Determine which major organs are usually found in

each of the four quadrants. a. upper right quadrant (URQ) b. lower right quadrant (LRQ) c. upper left quadrant (ULQ) d. lower left quadrant (LLQ


8. Identify the following abdominopelvic planes and regions (Fig 1.8). Determine which major organs are usually found in each of the nine regions. a. right and left mid-clavicular lines b. transpyloric plane c. transtubercular plane d. right hypochondriac region e. epigastric region f. left hypochondriac region g. right lumbar region h. umbilical region i. left lumbar region j. right iliac region k. hypogastric region l. left iliac region

EXERCISE 1D: LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND ORGAN SYSTEMS 1D INTRODUCTION LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

There are six levels of structural organization, from the simplest to the most complex. The simplest organizational level is the chemical level, the most complex is the organismal level. Each level is constructed of subunits from the previous level, resulting in ever increasing complexity of structure and function. ORGAN SYSTEMS

The study of anatomy called systemic anatomy is based on the organ system level of organization. It is important that you know the organs and functions in each system. Organ systems are described in your textbook. Not all anatomists agree on the exact number of organ systems. Most agree that there are 11 systems. The cardiovascular and lymphatic systems are often combined into one system known as the circulatory system since they both transport materials in body fluids. Many anatomists now recognize the immune system as separate from the lymphatic system. The immune system is designed to defend the body from invasion by foreign materials such as bacteria and viruses. We will use the approach outlined in your text in this class. You should keep in mind that this is not necessarily the approach recognized by all anatomists. You are also responsible for the definitions of the circulatory and immune systems.

1D OBJECTIVES To learn the levels of organization and what each level contains. To list the systems of the human body, the major organs of each system and the main function(s) of

each system.

1D MATERIALS 1. Textbook 2. Human torso models 3. Human cadaver, if available

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1D PROCEDURE 1. Identify the following levels of organization. Use the figures in your textbook for this identification. Be able to

give examples of each level. a. chemical level b. cellular level c. tissue level d. organ level e. organ system level f. organismal level

2. Identify the following organ systems. Use the figures in your textbook for this identification. Be able to list the major organs of each system, and the primary function of each system. a. integumentary system b. skeletal system c. muscular system (skeletal muscle system) d. nervous system e. endocrine system f. circulatory system

1) cardiovascular system 2) lymphatic system

g. respiratory system h. digestive system i. urinary system j. reproductive system k. immune system

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PRINT Your Name: _____________________ ______________________ First Name Last Name Your I.D. Number: _________________ Lab Section: _____________

REVIEW FOR LABORATORY ONE

Introduction to Anatomy

REVIEW 1A: LABORATORY PROTOCOL

1A RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS The following statements relate to the information regarding laboratory protocol provided in the course syllabus, the course schedule, the laboratory protocol document, and the Hoag laboratory protocol document. Fill in the blanks:

1. The two segments of the human anatomy course are the _______________________class and the __________________________ class.

2. The name of your lecture instructor is _____________________________________________.

3. The name of your laboratory instructor is ___________________________________________.

4. This is a ___________ unit course.

5. Each segment of this course contributes ________% of your overall grade.

6. The name of your required lecture textbook is _______________________________________.

7. The names of your required laboratory texts/manuals are ____________________________and __________________________________________

8. The two main chemicals used in the preservation of specimens are _______________________ and ________________________.

9. There are ___________ lecture exams and ____________ laboratory practicums.

10. Quizzes will be administrated at the __________________________ of most laboratory classes.

11. The total number of points that it is possible to earn in the lecture class is _______.

Attendance Verification

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12. The total number of points that it is possible to earn from laboratory practicums is about ______.

13. What kind of microscope will you be using in the laboratory? ____________________________.

14. To preserve your cats, you will spray them periodically with _____________________________.

15. You must have your dissection materials by __________________________________________.

In questions 16-25, answer “T” for true or “F” for false.

16. _____ You must take your exams and quizzes during your scheduled class period.

17. _____ You are expected to bring all required texts to the laboratory class.

18. _____ Each student is expected to participate in the dissection of a preserved cat.

19. _____ You will be working in teams in the laboratory.

20. _____ Human cadavers will be used for demonstration in the laboratory.

21. _____ You must attend an orientation session before you can use the Hoag multimedia laboratory.

22. _____ The use of cell phones is permitted in the laboratory.

23. _____ You only need to sign in at the Hoag laboratory the first time you use it.

24. _____ It is recommended that you plan to spend 2 to 3 hours of outside study for every 1 hour you spend in laboratory.

25. _____ Food and drinks are allowed in the laboratory.

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1A STUDENT AGREEMENT I am currently a student in the Human Anatomy (Biology 220) course at Orange Coast College. I have participated in the introductory activities of this course, and understand the requirements of this course explained in those activities. I have read and understood the introductory documents provided for students in Biology 220 which include, but are not limited to, the following:

The course syllabus The course schedule The Laboratory protocol document, which includes safety regulations The Multimedia Laboratory protocol document I understand that it is my responsibility to: Fulfill the requirements of the course in order to receive a grade Adhere to safety regulations Adhere to conduct expectations, especially in regard to cheating or disruptive behaviors I understand that I can be dropped from the course for any of the following: Cheating Disruptive behavior Excess absence (the college considers more than three unexcused absences as excessive)

Print name: ___________________________________________ Date: __________________

Signature: ___________________________________________

Laboratory Instructor initials: _______________

Name _________________________ Introduction to Anatomy 15

REVIEW 1B: ANATOMICAL POSITIONS AND DIRECTIONAL TERMS

1B RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS The following statements relate to the application of anatomical terms of direction. Fill in the blanks using the terminology in Laboratory Exercise 1B. 26. The elbow is ____________________to the shoulder and __________________ to the hand. 27. The diaphragm is _________________ to the liver and ____________________ to the heart. 28. The vertebral column is on the __________________/_______________ surface of the body. 29. The mammary glands are on the ________________/________________ surface of the body. 30. The skin is __________ to skeletal muscle, and skeletal muscle is _____________ to the skin. 31. The lungs are ________________ to the heart, and the heart is ______________ to the lungs. 32. You stand on the ________________ surface of the foot. 33. Fingerprints are on the _____________________ surface of the hand. 34. The “top” of your foot is the ________________ surface. 35. The “back” of your hand is the ______________ surface. 36. The skull is ________________ to the brain, and the brain is ________________ to the skull. 37. The ears are on the _________________ surface of the head. 38. The term that refers to “belly side” is ____________________. 39. In a quadruped, ventral and _________________________ refer

to the same body surface. 40. In a biped, ventral and _____________________________ refer

to the same body surface. 41. A structure that is located toward the midline of the body is

considered _______________________. 42. A structure that is located at the rear, or toward the tail end of

the body is considered ______________________. 43. The body surface presented in Review Fig 1.1 is

_______________, or _____________________. 44. Review Fig 1.1 is in a body orientation termed

__________________ ___________________.

Review Fig 1.1

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REVIEW 1C: ORIENTATION TO THE HUMAN BODY

1C RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

Table 1.1: Surface anatomy and regions of the body. Fill in the blanks. REGION DESCRIPTION

45. part of the upper limb between the elbow and the shoulder

46. region between the anus and the external genitalia

plantar 47.

cephalic 48.

cervical 49.

50. back

51. back of knee

52. part of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle

53. groin

54. thumb

abdominal 55.

coxal 56.

thoracic 57.

Table 1.2: Organ locations: body cavities. Fill in the blanks. ORGAN(S) LOCATION OF ORGAN(S) (Body Cavity)

brain and spinal cord 58.

59. pericardial cavity

60. pleural cavity

urinary bladder 61.

62. vertebral cavity

small intestine 63.

heart and lungs 64.

65. cranial cavity

uterus 66.

stomach 67.

Name ____________________ Introduction to Anatomy 17

ORGAN(S) LOCATION OF ORGAN(S) (Body Cavity)

heart, aorta, esophagus 68.

viscera 69.

urinary system 70.

71. physically separates components of the ventral cavity

In Review Fig 1.2, draw lines that divide the abdomen. In 1.2A, indicate quadrants with green lines and label each quadrant. In 1.2B, indicate regions with red lines. Label each region.

Color the parts of Review Fig 1.3 as indicated. RED frontal plane GREEN transverse plane YELLOW midsagittal plane

Review Fig 1.3

Review Fig 1.2 (A) quadrants, (B) regions.

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Table 1.3: Organ locations: quadrants and regions. Fill in the blanks. If an organ is found in more than one quadrant or region, include all quadrants or regions in which it is found.

ORGAN QUADRANT REGION

liver 72. 73.

appendix 74. 75.

spleen 76. 77.

urinary bladder 78. 79.

stomach 80. 81.

gall bladder 82. 83.

pancreas 84. 85.

left kidney 86. 87.

right kidney 88. 89.

adrenal glands 90. 91.

sigmoid colon 92. 93.

ascending colon of large intestine 94. 95.

duodenum of small intestine 96. 97.

transverse colon of large intestine 98. 99.

blood vessel branches into lower limbs 100. 101.


Table 1.4: Planes of section. In column two, draw the cut surfaces of the banana you sliced. Identify the plane of section associated with each cut surface in column one.

PLANE OF SECTION ILLUSTRATION

102. 103.

104. 105.

106. 107.

108. 109.

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REVIEW 1D: LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND ORGAN SYSTEMS

1D RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

Table 1.5: Levels of organization. Fill in the blanks.

ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL EXAMPLE/DESCRIPTION

110. highest structural level 111. includes mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum 112. includes the heart, the stomach, the spleen and the brain 113. simplest level of organization 114. protein or water molecule 115. includes epithelial and connective 116. respiratory, digestive, and cardiovascular

Table 1.6: Organ systems. Fill in the blanks.

ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR ORGANS MAJOR FUNCTION (S)

117. 118. filters blood, concentrates waste products in urine and expels urine from the body

119. 120. produces sperm and sex hormones; needed for perpetuation of the species

121. 122. Produces oocytes and sex hormones; needed for perpetuation of the species

123. 124. exchange of the respiratory gases (molecular oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the external environment and blood

125. 126. digests and absorbs nutrients, expels waste products from the body

127. brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense receptors

128.

129. pancreas, hypothalamus, gonads, and thyroid

130.

131. heart, blood vessels 132.

lymphatic system 133. 134.


ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR ORGANS MAJOR FUNCTION (S)

integumentary system 135. 136.

skeletal system 137. 138.

muscular system 139. 140.

cardiovascular system

141. 142.

immune system 143. 144.

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