Introduction to Attic Greek BOEOTIA Oropus Plataea . .MT. CITHAERON Eleusis Dccclcia MT. PARNES Marathon AchamaeMT. PENTELICUS ATTICA I)Athens '?Peiraeus $'C7MT.Brauron"" ",\"HYMETIUS .pcSf>. -1,.p ON Ie d>\JGl/ lp 00.,0 AtticaintheClassicalPeriod !? l/ Introduction to Attic Greek Donald J. Mastronarde UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIAPRESS BERKELEYLOSANGELESLONDON Contents Prefacevii Introduction:TheAncient Greek Languaxe and Attic GreekI UNIT ONE:TheAlp/whet; Pronunciation6 UNIT TWO:Accentuation16 UNIT THREE:Nouns:TheO-Declension22 UNIT FOUR:Nouns:TheA-Declension I30 UNIT FIVE:Nouns:The A-Declension II34 UNIT SIX:TheArticle; PrepositionsI38 UNIT SEVEN:Vowel-Declension Adjectives; Attrihution and Predication45 UNIT EIGHT:.Q- Verbs:Present Active Indicative54 UNIT NINE:Infinitive; Adjectives withTwoEndings63 UNIT TEN:Present Indicative of clj. aAA'WCPE A?juw napa VfJ.WV-> nap'VfJ.WV If thefollowingwordbeginswithavowelthathasroughbreathing,thenan unaspirated unvoiced plosive (n,T.K)at theend of theelided word ischanged to the corresponding aspirated plosive (cp.e.X): vno VfJ.WV-> vcp'VfJ.WV Similar elisionsandspellingchangesoccurincompound wordsfonnedwith prepositionalprefixes: I I.But the finaliota of 7Tpiisnever elided. 14 7Tapa- + ayw -> 7Tapuyw KaTa- +ZaTYJ!J.L-> Ka8i(JTYJ!J.L UNIT ONE Inothercasesafinalvowelisnotelidedbutundergoescontractionor crasis("mixing")withafollowingvowel:thisoccurs,forinstance,withthe prefix7TpO- andwiththearticle.Thesymbolcalledcoronis("crown"), identicaltothesmoothbreathingsign(,),isusuallyplacedoverthevowel formed by contraction: 7TpOEOO(Jav-> 7TpOVOO(Jav TOf.AaTTOV-> TOVAaTTOV But when thefirstvowelincrasis isa formof thearticlewitharoughbreath-ing, theresulting vowelhas a rough breathing rather than a coronis: 6 alJTo) -> aiJTo) 6 av8pW7To) -> Q.V8PW7TO) Finally,when thesecond vowelincrasishasaroughbreathing,theaspiration istransferredtoanyunaspiratedconsonant of theprecedingsyllableandthe coronis replaces therough breathing: Kd6 7TOVO)-> xw7TOVO) TO.i!J.una -> 8ai!J.una 6.SomeTypographicConventions.Thefollowinginformationisfor laterreference.Notallof thephenomena describedherewillbeseeninthis book, but studentswillmeet them inreading Greek texts. a.Diacriticalmarks(accents,breathings,coronis)belongingtoadiph-thong or voweldigraphareconventionallyprinted over thesecond of the two vowels:alJTo).ofJTo).7TE'ipa.YJVPO!J.EV. b.Whensuch aword iscapitalized, only thefirstvowel of thediphthong iscapitalized,and thediacriticalmarksremainon thesecond vowel:for example, alno) -> AlJTo) c.Whenaninitialsinglevoweliscapitalized,itsdiacriticalmarksare printed before it:aV8pW7To)->" Av8pw7To). d.Whena "long dipthong"iscapitalized,themainvowelisprinted asa capital,lowercaseiotaisprintedbesideit,anddiacriticalmarksare placed before the capital: q.oYJ)-->" ALOYJ). e.Whentwoadjacentvowelsthatcouldformadiphthongarepro-nouncedasseparate,thesecondvowelhasamarkofseparation (diaeresis:twodots)printedoverit:forexample,ypat.f30t(two syllables, not one). TheAlphabet; Pronunciation15 WHAT TO STUDY 1.Learn towrite the Greek alphabet, especially thelowercase fonns. 2.Learntorecitethe Greek alphabet. 3.Practicepronunciationbyreadingaloudthevocabularywordsfoundin Units3,4,etc.Itisrecommendedthatyougiveaslightstresstothe accentedsyllable.Youmayalsowanttobeginmemorizingthemeanings of thewords inUnits3 and 4. UNIT TWO Accentuation 1.Ancient Greekhadatonalaccentor pitchaccent,notastressaccent suchasisfoundinLatin,English,andmanyEuropeanlanguages,including ModernGreek.Theaccentof awordorphraseconsistedinaraisingof the pitch of thevoice at theaccented syllable.The classical Greeksused no accent marks:theyneedednonesincethelanguagewastheir nativetongue,andthe tradition of writing andreading bookswasrelativelyyoung andtheformatnot very"user-friendly." The practice of markingaccentswasinitiated byliterary scholarsinAlexandria ca.200B.C.E.Accentmarkingwasneededtohelpin thecorrect pronunciation of unfamiliar wordsinthegreatpoetry of thepast, to eliminate ambiguities whichwould bepresent inanunaccented text,to help in dealingwithdivergencesbetweendialects,andperhapstofacilitatethe teachingof Greektoforeigners.Accentswereatfirstsporadicallyusedand were especially applied toprevent ambiguities. 2.GraduallytheKoineof theHellenisticandRomanperiodsunderwent achangeinaccentuationalongwithmanyotherlinguisticchanges.By400 C.E.a stress accent had fullysupplanted thepitchaccent.Subsequently, accent markingbecameevenmorenecessaryfordealingwiththegreatliteratureof thepast.IntheninthcenturyC.E.Byzantinescholarsmodifiedtheaccent-marking system, producing theconventionswenowfollow. 3.Althoughscholarscandeducehowthetonalaccentworkedonsingle wordsand short phrases thatweretreated asanaccentualunit,thereisnoway todiscoverhowtheaccentssoundedinlongerutterances,anditistherefore idle(aswellasverydifficult)forthebeginner toattempt a tonalrendering of Greek accents.One approach topronunciationbyamodernstudent of thelan-guageistoignoretheaccent;but formnemonicpurposesitismorepractical andhelpfultogiveaslightstresstotheaccentedsyllable(thispracticewill alsobeusefulif youlater learnModern Greek).Inwritingandreading,how-ever,accentsshould beused and attended to:although some accents arenot of 16 Accentuation17 crucialimportance for understanding, there arealso manywhichprevent ambi-guities, and theaccents do mirror important factsabout theancient language. Thebeginnershouldnotbeworriediftherulesforaccentuationgiven hereseemcomplicatedanddifficulttomaster.Ittakestimeandpractical applicationbeforeabeginnerstartstofeelcomfortablewithaccents;butit doesnothelptoignorethementirelyatthebeginningandtrytorepairthe omission ata later stage.Inlearning accents, thereshould beahappymedium betweeninsoucianceandanobsessionwhichdetractsfromthelearningof other elements of thelanguage. Readthissectioncarefullynow,thentacklethesucceedingunitsoneby one,observingandlearningtheaccentuationofvariousnounsandverbs. Reviewthisunitafterafewweeksandperiodicallythereafteruntilitmakes sense to you. 4.Contonationand Mora.The apparently complex "rules" of Greek ac-centuationcanbeunderstoodintermsof asinglegeneralprincipleinvolving theconceptsof contonationandmora.Contonationisthecombination of the riseof pitch generally thought of astheaccent withthenecessary returnor fall tostandardpitchwhichfollowsit.Inthecaseof anacuteaccent,thecon-tonationincludesboththesyllableonwhichtheaccentiswritten(andon whichthepitchrises)andtheentirefollowingsyllable(onwhichthepitch falls),if any,whetheritcountsaslongor short.Inthecaseof thecircumflex accent,thecontonationoccursontheonesyllableonwhichtheaccentis written,fortherearebothariseinpitchandareturntostandardpitchonthat syllable.Amoraisthe(theoreticallyassigned)"standard"lengthof ashort vowel(ii,E,t,0,v,and finalaLand OLinmost cases).Along vowel(a,EL,Y], t,OV,w,D)oradiphthong(exceptfinalaLandOLinmostcases)occupies (theoretically) a time span equivalent totwomorae. Thegeneralprincipleof Greekaccentuationisthatthecontonationmay befollowedbynomorethanonemorabeforetheendof theword(orphrase pronouncedasonewordunit).Thisprincipleisinmanyrespectssimilarto rulesinotherlanguages(e.g.,Latin)whichconstrainthepositionof accent according tothenatureof thefinalsyllables of aword.InGreek thisprinciple limitsthepositionof theacuteandcircumflexaccents(see6-9below)and requirestheadditionof anextra accentinsomephrasesconsistingof word+ enclitic (see12 below). 5.Onlythelastthreesyllablesof awordmaybeaccented.Thesesyl-lablesaretraditionallyreferredtobytermsderivedfromLatin:ultima= "the last syllable" (abbreviated inthisbook asU);penult = "almost last,second-to-18UNIT TWO lastsyllable"(abbreviatedhereasP);andantepenult= "beforethepenult, third-to-Iastsyllable"(abbreviatedhereasA).Inwhatfollows,thephrase "long ultima"("longpenult," etc.)willmean"ultima (penult, etc.)containing a long vowel or diphthong." 6.Theacuteaccent (')representsasimpleriseinpitchoverashortor longvowel.It may appear on A,P,or U. Thecircumflex accent ( ~ ,also" or - ) representsariseof pitchover the firstmoraof alongvowelfollowedbyareturntostandardpitchoverthe second mora.It cannot appear over a short vowel (a short vowelistoo short to allow time for both rise and fall).It may appear on P or U (never on A). Thegraveaccent(')occursonlyonU.Whatitrepresentedintermsof pitchinclassicalpronunciationisuncertain.Inaconnectedutterance,the gravereplacesanacuteaccent over Uof awordnotfollowedbypunctuation (or anenclitic). 7.Theultima,if short and accented,has anacutewhen awordiswritten inisolationoroccursimmediatelybeforeapause(oranenclitic).Ina connected context,a short accented ultimahasthe graveinstead. If longandaccented,Umayhaveacircumflex(whetherinisolationor not)or anacute(inisolationor beforepunctuation[orencliticl;otherwisea graveissubstituted).Inthiscasethetypeof accentmustbelearnedforeach word or particular form. 8.Thepenult,if short andaccented,hastheacute.If longandaccented, thenP hastheacuteif U islong, the circumflex if U isshort. 9.Theantepenultmaybeaccentedonlyif Uisshortandmayreceive only theacute. 10.Examples of Accentuation aya8oS'short U accentedwithacute,inisolation aya8oS'Q.V8pW7TOS' aya80v (no mora followsthe contonation onU) shortU accentedwithgraveinconnected phrase (no mora followsthe contonation onU) longU accentedwithacute,inisolation (no mora followsthe contonation onU) longU accented withgraveinconnected phrase (no mora followsthe contonation onU) longUaccentedwithcircumflex,regardlessof position(nomora followsthecontonation onU) Accentuation AOy0S'.AOYOV owpov oWPOV aVepW7TOS' 19 short accented p. acuteregardless of quantityof U (no mora followsthe contonation onP+ U) longaccentedP,short U,circumflex (onemora followsthecontonation onP) longaccented P,longU,acute (no mora followsthecontonation onP+ U) accented A, shortU,acute (onemora followsthecontonation onA+P) 11.Proclitics.Certainmonosyllabicwordsnormallylacktheir ownac-cent andattachthemselvesinpronunciationtothefollowingwordtoforma singlewordunit.Thesewordsarecalled proclitics(becausetheyareconsid-ered to"leanforward"onthefollowingwordfortheiraccent).Procliticsare normallywrittenwithoutanaccentanddonotaffecttheaccentuationof the followingword.InAtticthecommonproclitics(tobelearnedinlaterunits) arethenegativeadverbOV,theconjunctionsEL("if")andwS'("as"),the prepositions EiS', EV,EK,and the nominative singular and plural masculine and feminineformsof thearticle(6,~ ,oi,at).(Aprocliticreceivesanacute accentwhenitisfollowedbyanenclitic:seebelow.) 12.Enclitics.Certainwords(mostlymonosyllabic,afewdisyllabic) normallylacktheir ownaccentandattachthemselvesinpronunciationtothe precedingwordtoformasinglewordunit.Thesewordsarecalledenclitics (becausetheyareconsideredto"leanupon"thepreviouswordfortheir accent).InAtticthecommonenclitics(tobelearnedinlaterunits)arethe indefinite pronouns,indefinite adjectives,andindefiniteadverbs,most present indicativeformsof theirregularverbsELjJ..i("tobe")andcpy/jJ..i("tosay"), certainparticles,andcertainunstressedformsofthepersonalpronouns. Enclitics sometimes affect theaccent of thepreceding word. a.AwordaccentedonUkeepsitscircumflexor acute(theacuteisnot changed toa grave,becauseitisnolonger felttobeonthefinalsyllable of itswordunit). Ex.ayaeoS'HS'.ayae0 I ~ b.AwordaccentedwithanacuteonPisunchangedinaccentbeforea monosyllabicordisyllabicenclitic.Butadisyllabicencliticfollowing such aword receives onitssecond syllable either anacute(inisolation or beforepunctuation)or a grave(ina connected context):thatis,theword unitreceivesasecondaccentifmorethanonemorafollowsthe contonation. Ex.AOyOS'H2..AOY'PHvi.AOY'PHVtKaA0 20UNIT TWO -.---------- -- --- - - - - --- -----c.AwordaccentedwithacircumflexonPorwithanacuteonA receivesanextraaccentonU.Again,thismeansthatthewordunit receives a second accent if more than onemora followsthe contonation. Ex.owpov.[t,av8pw7Too;Ho; d.Aproclitic followed by an encliticreceives anacute accent. Ex. 'I'", H"[15,OVK 13.Forthestudent'sinformation,thefollowingterms,oftenusedin traditionalGreekgrammarsandincommentaries,aredefinedhere,though they arenot used inthisbook: aword with acute onU aword with acute on P aword with acute on A oxytone: paroxytone: proparoxytone: perispomenon: propenspomenon: aword with circumflex onU aword withcircumflex onP WHAT TO STUDY AND DO I.Read thisunit carefully more than once.Return to reviewiteverynow and thenduring thecourse.(Further aidstoaccentuationwillbegiveninlater units.) 2.Continue to practice thealphabet. 3.Practicepronunciationbyreadingaloudthevocabularywordsfoundin Units3,4,etc.Itisprobablybesttogiveaslightstresstotheaccented syllable.Youmayalsowanttobeginmemorizingthemeaningsof the wordsinUnits3 and 4. 4.Do the exercises of thisunit. EXERCISES 1.Foreachof thefollowing,identifythetypeof accentandthesyllableon whichitoccurs,and give thelength of U.Optional:tellwhichrule(s)givenin *6 -9 or * I 1-12 the example illustrates. Ex.av8pw7ToL:acuteaccent on A (antepenult);U isshort I.aVEJ.i.ov 2.'frr,cpoo; 3.,/njcpoL'> (recallthat final- OLcounts as short) Optionalpart:9 (acute accent on A onlywhen U isshort) 4.ayopuo;7. Ho; 5. 6.H}D7 8.7TOAEJ.i.Oo;7TOV 9.8avaToo; Accentuation 21 10.7fOTajJ.o)12.E7fEjJ.7fE14.000) 11.7fOTajJ.o)paev) 13.aeavaTo) 15.njJ.aL) II.For eachof thefollowing,placethecorrectaccent(acute,circumflex,or grave) ontheindicated syllable. Ex.7fEjJ.7fELP:7fEjJ.7fEL (U long, so accented P must have acute) 1.owpaP5. YAwTTavP9.7fWOELq.P 2.aVepW7fEA6. YAWTTll)P10. aVEjJ.0)A 3.AajJ.f3avE P7. AOYOVP11.ayaeovU 4. A8.AOYOV)P12.KaAov(U) owpov UNIT THREE Nouns:The O-Declension - ~ - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -PRELIMINARIES' A.TheParts of Speech.The words of a languagearecommonly classi-fied,accordingtotheir functioninasentence,intocategoriescalled partsof speech.This categorization was developed inclassicaltimes inGreece (though similar classificationsweredeveloped,independently and contemporaneously, byIndian grammarians forSanskrit),formalizedbytheStoicsinpostclassical times,and passed via theRomansinto modern linguistics. Thegenerallyrecognizedpartsof speecharenoun,pronoun,adjective, article,verb,adverb,preposition,andconjunction.InGreek grammar certain connectiveandlogicaladverbsandconjunctionsarealsoreferredtoaspar-ticles.Thepartsof speechwillbeindividuallyintroducedintheappropriate units. B.Noun.Anoun[Greekovop.a,Latinnomen,both= "name"]isthat partof speechwhichnamesor referstoaperson,place,or thing.Inthemost obviousinstances,theperson,place,or thingisconcreteandcanbepointed out.Butothernounsareusedto"name"orrefertoaqualityoranaction, something intangible or abstract: Ex.intelligent: to select: to move: intelligence selection movement I.Thesection called "Preliminaries"tobefoundatthebeginningof someunitsisdesignedto providethestudentwithareview of (or introduction to)somebasic terminology and concepts of grammar.ItisimpracticaltostudyancientGreek,alanguagerichininflectionalformsand permitting ahighlyvariableword order, without anunderstanding of these concepts.References tootherlanguagesaregivenbothforthepurposeof comparisontobenefitstudentswhomay havestudiedotherlanguages andinorder todemonstratethatEnglishinflectionandgrammar areanomalousintheir simplicity and thattherichness and complexity of Greek areparalleledin manyother languages. 22 Nouns:TheO-Declension23 A proper nounisthename of anindividual creature, place, or thing (e.g., Julia Child,Newfoundland)andiscapitalizedinEnglishandmanyotherlan-guages(alsoinprintedGreekbymodernconvention).Acommonnounisa generic term that can be applied to many individuals (e.g., chef,island). InGreekandmanyotherlanguages,nounshavegender.Inmanylan-guages gender isreflected inthe form of thenoun (e.g., Italian ~ i o ,Spanish t(o = "uncle"vs.Italian ~ i a ,Spanish t(a= "aunt") and in the formof itsmodifiers. The gender of nounsinEnglish isusuallynot related to theform(but cf.actor vs.actress),and grammatical gender issignificant onlywhen anounservesas antecedenttoasingularpronoun(suchasshe,him,it):nounsreferringto femalecreatures have femininepronouns associated with them, thosereferring tomalecreatureshavemasculine,andallothershaveneuter (unlessthereis somepersonification).InGreek,however,everynounhasgrammaticalgen-der:thingsmaybereferredtobymasculine,feminine,orneuternouns,and someneuternounsrefertomaleor femalecreatures.Thegender of aGreek nounmust thusbe learned and memorized when thenounitself isfirstlearned. Nounsareinflected inmanylanguages,including Greek.Inflectionisthe modificationof theformof aword(initssuffixor stemor both)toindicate whichof afixedset of variablesisbeingemployed.Theinflectionof anoun, pronoun, or adjectiveiscalled declension.For anounthevariables arenumber and case. Inmostlanguagesnounshavesingular andpluralnumber todistinguish betweenareferencetoonepersonor thingandareferencetomorethanone. InEnglishmostpluralsareformedbyaddings,buttherearealsoirregular formations:day,dan;woman,women.Greeknounshavesingular, dual,and pluralnumbers.Thedualisusedtorefertoapairof personsorthings.In manydialectsuseof thedualdiedoutbeforetheclassicalperiod,butAttic preservedthedual,especiallyfornaturalpairs(like"hands"or"eyes")or inseparablepairs(like"theItwo]goddesses"forDemeter andKore).Evenin Atticthepluralisoftenusedtorefertotwopersonsor things,andanauthor mayswitchbetweendualandpluralwithnodistinctioninmeaninginthe same sentence or passage.Thedualissorareinproportion tothesingular and pluralthatbeginnersareusuallynotrequiredtolearnit.Sincestudentswill soonmeetthedualiftheycontinuebeyondthisbook,thedualformsare presentedinparadigmsinthisbook,alwaysinparentheses,forinformation andreference.But dualformsarenotused intheexercises. Inmanylanguages,includingGreek,nounsalsoarecharacterizedby variationincase.Caseidentifiesthegrammaticalfunctionof thenouninits sentenceorphrase.NounsinModernEnglishshowonlyvestigesof case declension:there aretwo casesinboth singular and plural, anall-purpose form 24UNIT THREE ----------------------andapossessivefonn(e.g.,doctor,doctor's,doctors,doctors ';man,man's, men,men's).InclassicalAttictherearefivecases(Greek7fTJ)(TU I) ,Latin casus = "failings[fromastandard],modifications of ending"),whichindicate functionssuchassubject,object,indirectobject,orpossession.TheGreek casesarepresentedindetailin2of thisunit.Sincetherearefivecasesand threenumbersinGreek,eachnountheoreticallycanbeinflectedinto15 fonns;but in factsome fonnsservemorethan one case, and mostnounshave 9 endings to learn (orII if one includes the dual). Another tenn oftenused to refer tonounsissubstantive.Substantive isa moregeneraltenn.It includesnouns,pronouns,verbalnouns,and anyother noun-equivalent (e.g., the ugly,the beautiful; thewhy and thewherefore). I.Greeknounsareingeneralinflectedaccordingtothreesystemsor declensions.Two of thesearevoweldeclensions:theo-declensionandthea-declension.Thethirddeclensioniscalledtheconsonantdeclension,though thisisinfactagroupingofvariousvowelandconsonantdeclensions. Inflectionisbased on anoun stem, to which isadded aseries of case endings' toindicateeachof thefivecasesinsingUlar,dual,andplural.Thestemof a Greeknounisalwaysaccuratelyobtainedbyremovingtheendingfromthe genitive singular fonn. 2.The fivecases (see above)inAttic Greek are: nominative:thesubjectivecase,usedforthesubject of afiniteverb and forpredicatenounsafter afinitefonnof thecopula(thisconstruction willbelearned inUnits 5 andII). Abbreviated nom.or n. genitive:thecaseusedtoindicatepossession,source,origin,andmany other relations (many of the useswillbe learned inUnitsIO and 29).A catch-allEnglishtranslationforthegenitiveisaprepositionalphrase with of Abbreviated gen. or g. dative:thecaseusedfortheindirectobject(whenceitsname,fromits frequentusewiththeverbtogive)and foravarietyof other relations (many of thesewillbelearned inUnitsIOand29).Acatch-allEnglish translationforthedativeisaprepositionalphrasewithtoor for. Abbreviated dat.or d. accusative:thecaseusedforthedirectobject,theinternalobject,anda fewother relations(thesewillbelearned inUnit17).Abbreviated acc. or a. I.Sometimes thesereallyconsist of a combination of finalstem-vowel and case ending. Nouns:TheO-Declension25 vocative:the caseusedto addresssomeone or calla person byname.For alltypesofGreeknounsthevocativepluralisidenticaltothe nominative plural.Abbreviated voc.or v. 3.Nounswhosestemsendin-0belongtotheo-declension(also called the"second"declension).Everycaseending(exceptthevoc.sing.of mas-culine and femininenouns and thenom.acc.voc.pl.of neuter nouns) contains ano-sound (0.w.ov.Ot.or '{J)' 4.There are two groups of o-declension nouns. a.Masculineand femininenounswithnominativein-OS'.(Gendersare often abbreviated masc., fern.,neut.[or m.,f.,n.].) Thevastmajority of nouns inthisgrouparemasc.,butnamesin- OS'of countries,cities,islands,trees, plants, andplant products arefern.,asarea fewisolatedwordssuch asOODS'= "road" and vO(J'oS'= "sickness." Ex. "human "road" (/)"word" (m.)being" (m.)endings sing.nom.oooS'r..oyoS'o.V$pW7TOS'-OS' gen.oooi) r..oyovQ.v$pOJ7TOV-ov dat. 000r..oycp Q.v$pOJ7Tcp -cp ace.ooovr..oyovo.V$pW7TOV-ov voc.oOEI\OyEo.V$pW7TE-E (dualn.a.v.oowr..oyw Q.V$pW7TW)( -w) (g.d.OOOl.VI\oyow Q.V$pW7TOW)(-ow) plur.n.v.0001.l\oYOto.V$pW7TOt-Ot gen.oowvI\oywvQ.v$pOJ7TWV-wv dat.000l.S'r..oYOtS' Q.V$pW7TOtS'-OtS' acc.ooovS'l\oyovS'Q.V$pW7TOVS'-OVS' b.Neuternounswithnominativein-ov.Theparadigmisshownatthe top of thenext page. Threefactswhichapplyto all neuter forms(o-declension nouns, consonant-declensionnouns, and adjectival forms)should benoted:(I) the genitive and dative endings of allnumbers areidentical with those of masc. nounsof thesametype;(2)thenom.,acc.,andvoc.of eachnumberhavea single form;(3)thenom.acc.voc.plural ending isalways-a. 5.Accentuation.Theaccentuationof allnounsandadjectivesisper-sistent:that is,thesamesyllable tendsto beaccentedinallformsexceptwhen the changing length of theultima forcesthecontonationtomove, either bythe changeof acircumflexonPtoanacuteorbythedisplacementof theacute 26UNIT THREE NEUTER NOUNS IN -{)v Ex."work" (n.)"gift"(n.)endings sing.nom. EPYOV owpov-ov " owpovgen. EPYOV -ov dat. " oWP,aVEJJ.0V,m. av8pw7ro,>,av8pw7rov,m. /31.0'>,/31.0V,m. ~ A W ' > ,Y,AI.OV,m. 8avaTo,>,8avaTOv,m. 8E,v0JJ.0v,m. 7rOAEJJ.0'>,7rOAEJJ.0V,m. messenger,herald[angel] wind[anemometer] human being,man (occasionally fern.= "woman") [anthropology] life, manner of living,livelihood[biology] sun[helium] death[euthanasia] god, divinity (occasionally fern.= "goddess") [theology] horse (also fern.= "mare")[hippopotamus] word, speech, tale, story; reckoning,account, proportion; reason, rationality[philology] custom; law[economic] war[polemic] o-declension: feminine nouns VO(To,>,VO(TOV,f. 000'>,ooof;,f. "'f7cjJo,>,",ricjJov,f. o-declension: neuter nouns PLPAI.OV,/3Lj3AI.OV,n. owpov,owpov,n. "" f.pyOV,f.pyOV,n. JJ.ETpOV,JJ.ETpOV,n. 7raLOI.OV,7raLOI.OV,n. sickness, disease road,path,way; journey[odometer,method] smallstone,pebble (usedinreckoning,ingames,in voting);vote[psephologist] book[bibliophile] gift[Eudora] work, action, deed[erg, energy] measure, size, distance;moderate amount, proportion[meter) child[pediatrics] I.InclassicalGreeknovocativesingular fonnisfound;inpostclassicalGreekboth 8Hl>and 8EEareused asvocative. Nouns:TheO-Declension29 EXERCISES I.Identify the followingnoun fonnsand give atleast one meaning. Ex. " nom.(or acc.)pI.of EPYOV.EPYOV,n., "work"Epya: 1.1]AWV9. , 17. , 25.7fOAEp.. 5.eEr{>13. f3iwv 21.owpov29.7faLOLa 6. , 14.GOWV22. f3Lf3ALOV 30.8avuTwvVOO"OL 7. 'InioLoaO"KaAov9.O"TUOWVO"TaOLa 5.O"TpaT07fEOOVO"TpaT07fEOoL'>10. ', , VW'>VLWV UNIT FOUR Nouns:The A-Declension I 1.Nouns whosestems end inalpha belong tothea-declension(or alpha-declension),also knownasthe "first" declension.Thealpha-vowelappearsin someforminalmostallthecasesof the dualandplural:a,ii,or q..Inthe singular,however,becauseof thevowelshiftfromlongalphatoetainthe Ionic-Attic dialects (see Introd.6),longalpha hasbeen replaced by eta inthe Attic case endings except after E, or p. 2.The nouns of the a-declension maybedividedinto three groups,each of whichhastwosubgroupsbecauseof thealpha-etavowelshift.Thethree groupsdiffer indeclensiononlyinthesingular.Thedualandpluralof alla-declension nounshave thesame endings.The firstgroup consists of thelong-vowel femininenouns:inthesethevowelof thenom.,acc.,andvoc.sing.is long. a.Alphasubgroup:whenthenounstemendsinE, or p,thevowel alpha appears throughout thesingular and inmost of theplural. Ex."goddess" (f)"education"(l)"land" (l)endings sing.nom.eECI.7TaLOEl.a xwpa -a gen.eEQ.'> dat.eEq.7TaLOEI.q. xwpq. -q. acc. eE(W 7TaLOEl.aVxwpav -av voc.eEa7TaLOEl.a xwpa -a (dualn.a.v.eEa7TaLOEl.a xwpa) ( -a) (g.d.eWtV7TaLOEl.aWxwpaw) (-aw) plur.n.v.ewl.7TatOEtat xwpaL -at gen.eEWV7TatOELWV xwpwv -wv dat.

acc. 30 Nouns:TheA-Declension I31 b.Eta subgroup:when thenoun stem ends in anyother letter, eta appears in the singular endings, but alpha in most of theplural. Ex."opinion"(/)"flight"(/)endings sing. , nom.yvwJJ:T]-YJ , cpvyr" gen. yvwJJ.YJ'-YJ' dat. , cpvygyvwJJ.T/-T/ , acc. yvwJJ.YJv-YJv voc. yvwJJ.YJ-YJ (dual , cpvya)(-a)n.a.v.yvwJJ.a (g.d. , cpvya/:v)(-aw) yvwJJ.aw plur.n.v.yvwJJ.atcpvyai-at gen.yvwJJ.wvcpvywv-wv dat. , cpvya/:,yvwJJ.at,-at, , cpvya,-a,acc.yvwJJ.a, 3.Accentuation.Therearetwospecialrulesforallnounsofthea-declension.(1)Alla-declensionnounshave a circumflex accent on theomega of thegen.pI.(the formwasoriginally -awvandhasbeen contracted to-wv). (2)Anynounof thea-declensionwithanaccentedultima(acuteonUinthe nom.sing.)hasthecircumflexonU inthegenitiveand dativeof allnumbers (examples: eEa.qwy1j). 4.Thelongalphawhichappearsintheacc.pI.hasnotshiftedtoetain thesecond subgroup becausethelongalpha thereisnotoriginal,butrathera product of compensatorylengtheningwhichtookplacewhen vwasdropped from the original ending (The long alpha in then.v.a.dualis a relatively recent analogicalformationbased ontheo-declension andso didnotundergo thevowelshift.) 5.Notethegeneralsimilaritiesofcaseformationinthe0- anda-declensions: a.Nominative plural hasiota-diphthong, counted asshort:-Ot.-at. b.Genitive plural has-wv. c.Dative singular hasa long stem-vowel withiota subscript:-q..-Tl' d.Dative plural hasiota-diphthong withsigma: e.Accusative singular hasstem vowelplusnu:-ov.-fw.-YJV. f.Accusative pluralisderived fromstemvowelplus -> -> g.If accented onU,thesenounshavecircumflexingenitiveanddative of allnumbers. 32UNIT FOUR WHAT TO STUDY AND DO 1.Learn thepatterns of thelong-vowel feminine a-declension nouns. 2.Learn thevocabulary of thisunit. 3.Do the exercises of this unit. VOCABULARY a-declension:long-vowel feminine nouns in a ayopa.,ayopo.q:HAia'> 16.Ent.TWVTpanE(wv 8.napa T0V(J'TpaTYJYov17.napa T7JVOOOV 9.OLaTOVcp8ovov18.npo,>T O ~ ' >OWpOL'> IV.TranslatethefollowingprepositionalphrasesintoGreek.(For someex-pressions thereismore than one correct rendering.) I.on account of the hard work8.regarding the Fates 2.in thehouse of the children9.next to the table 3.beside the doors10.upon the horse 4.fromthe general11.beyond reason 5.inpursuit of thesoldier12.out of the land 6.toward the sea13.by means of the voice 7.among the gods14.with fear UNIT SEVEN Vowel-Declension Adjectives; Attribution and Predication PRELIMINARIES A.Adjectives.An adjective(Greek E7Ti8nov,Latin adiectivum= "word added to[anoun]")isthat part of speech which modifies (or describes or qual-ifies) a noun.Examples:the largebook; The foodis good. Inmanylanguagesadjectivesareinflectedtomark concord (seebelow) withthenounstheymodify.Englishhasnoinflectionshowing gender,num-ber,andcaseof adjectives(thelargehouse,thelargemen),butinflectionin number andgender occurs,forinstance,inSpanish,French,andItalian(e.g., French unvieux livrevs.lavie lienourrice).In Greek, asinLatinor German, adjectives areinflected to indicatenot only gender and number, but also case. Another characteristicof adjectivesisthattheyhavethreedegrees.The positive degreeisthestandard form.Thecomparative degreeisused to com-pare onenounwithanother inregard totheirpossessionof thesame quality: for example,Englishstronger, more virtuous.Thesuperlative degreeisused tomarkanexcessor supremacyinthepossessionof aquality:forinstance, English strongest, most virtuous.The formationof thecomparative and super-lative degreesissometimes called "comparison of adjectives" (Unit 30). B.Concord.Concordistheagreementinvariousgrammaticalcate-gories between wordswhich areassociatedinthegrammar of asentence or in the logic of an extended passage. Theremaybe agreementinnumber.Thesingular noun farmeragreesin numberwiththeverbformplowsinthesentenceThe farmerplows,whereas theplural farmersagreeswith theverb form plow inThe farmersplow.Or the pluralpronoun theyisused to refer to the farmers,while thesingular he refers to the farmer.These types of concord arealso evident in Greek. Theremay be agreement ingender.Thefemininepronounsheisused to refer toafemininenounsuchasactress,whereas theneuter itisused torefer to a neuter nounlike car.This type of concord isalso evident inGreek. 45 46UNIT SEVEN Theremay beagreement in case aswell,although thisisrarely evident in English (cf.however I expect thewinner tobe him.).Inahighlyinflectedlan-guagelikeGreek,agreementincaseiswidespread.Themost common typeis theagreementof anarticleoranadjectivewithitsnouningender,number, and case. C.Phrases and Clauses.A clauseisa group of words whichcontainsa subjectandafiniteverb(tobediscussedindetailinUnit8).Aphraseisa group of grammatically or semantically associated wordsthat doesnot contain a subject-finite verb group. A noun,takenbyitself,isused only to refer to,toidentify, or tospecifya person or thing.Without departing fromthisfunctionof referring,a nounmay haveassociatedwithitanarticleand/oradjectivalelements(adjective, adjectival prepositional phrase,participle,relative clause).Theresulting group of wordsmaybecalledanounphrase.Theadjectivalelementsinsucha phrasearesaidtobeattributive(orarecalledattributes).Thespeaker's applicationoftheseadjectivalelementsiscalledattribution.Attribution simply makes theact of referringmore detailed and precise. Ex. man the man thetall man thetall man the dancing figure the young man the old man by thewindow by thewindow now leavingtheroom wholeft theroom noattribute article article, adjective art.,adj.,prep.phrase art.,participle, prep.phrase art.,adj.,participialphrase art.,adj.,relative clause Innounphrasestheword order variesindifferentlanguages.InEnglish, adjectives come between the article and thenoun,participles precede or follow thenoun,andrelativeclausesfollowthenoun.InGerman,attributiveadjec-tivesandadjectivalphrasesareplacedbetweenarticleandnoun.InFrench, Spanish, or Italian, most attributive adjectivesimmediately followtheir nouns. InGreek,attributivewordsaccompanyinganounthathasthearticlearere-stricted toa couple of positions,but an attributive wordaccompanying anoun without thearticleislessrestricted.Inflection clarifies most grammaticalrela-tionshipsin Greek, so that,in general,word order inGreek isfreer thaninless inflected tongues. Inorder toutter a complete andmeaningfulsentence or clause (inwritten English or formalspoken English), a speaker must not only refer (by means of anounor other substantive)toapersonor thingwhichisthesubject or topic Vowel-DeclensionAdjectives; Attribution and Predication47 of hisor her utterance, but also predicate something of that subject, that is,the speaker must comment on thegiven topic,must assert or affirmanaction or a stateof beingasapplicabletothesubject.Themainverbof asentenceor clausecarriestheforceof predication,andthepredicateof asentenceor clauseincludestheverbitselfandallitsmodifiersand/orcomplements. Whereas areference can besuccessful or unsuccessful(if we don't understand to what thespeaker istrying to refer),apredication hasa truthvalue:what the speaker assertsiseither true or false. D.PredicateNounsand Adjectives.Verbsthatexpressastateof being (suchasbe,seem,look,smell,sound)oftenservetolinkthesubjectnounei-ther toanothernouninthepredicate(whichisidentifiedwiththesubjector otherwiseasserted toapply toit)or toanadjectiveinthepredicate.Inthetra-ditionalterminologyused inmany Greek grammars and commentaries,sucha verb iscalled a copula (Latin for "link"). Ex. predicatenouns:That man ismy father. Shewas anastronaut. The students became expertsinGreek. predicate adjectives:The man istall. This seems correct. The restaurant smelled fishy. She looked tired. Notethedifferencebetweenaphrasecontaininganattributiveadjectiveand performingthefunctionof referenceonlyandasentenceinwhichtheadjec-tiveisinthepredicateand(alongwiththeverb)isessentialto theactof pre-dication: the blue hook Thehook isblue. (reference only, attributiveadjective) (reference and predication, predicative adj.) I.AdjectiveDeclension.Greekadjectivesareinflectedintwogeneral classes:thevowel-declension adjectives(also called "first-and-second-declen-sion"adjectives),andtheconsonant-declensionadjectives(also called "third-declension"adjectives).ThelatterwillbetreatedinUnit22.Thevowel-de-clensionadjectives,treatedinthisunit,haveasinglestemtowhichmasc., fern.,and neut.endings areadded to formallthecases andnumbers.The mas-culineendingsarethesameasthoseof o-declensionnounsin- o ~(learnedin U3).Thefeminineendingsarethesameasthoseof thelong-vowelfeminine 48UNIT SEVEN nounsof thea-declension(learnedinU4):inthesingularlongalpha appears whenthestem endsinE,t,or p;eta appearswhen thestem endsinanyother letter.Theneuterendingsarethesameasthoseof theo-declensionneuter nouns in -ov(learned in U3). Ex. a.with alpha-type feminine singular: atw() = "worthy" masc.fern.neut. sing.nom.

gen. dat.

acc. voc. (dualn.a.v. (g.d.

plur.n.v. gen.dat.acc. b.with eta-type femininesingular: ciya8o()="valorous,good" masc.fern.neut. sing.nom. aya80v gen.aya80v aya80v dat. aya80 aya8f1aya80 acc.aya80v aya80v voc.aya8iaya80v (dualn.a.v.aya8waya8ciaya8w) (g.d.aya8oi:vaya8ai:vaya8oi:v) plur.n.v.aya80iaya8aiaya8ci gen.aya8wvaya8wvaya8wv dat.acc.aya8ci 2.Accentuation.Theaccentuationof adjectives(likethatof nouns)is persistent(seeU3.5):thatis,thesamesyllabletendstobeaccentedinall formsexceptwhenthechanginglengthof theultimaforcesachange.The specialrulethatappliedfornounsof the0- anda-declensionswithaccented ultima also applies to theadjectives of this class:an adjective of thistype with acute on U in the masc.nom.sing.hasthe circumflex inthe gen.and dat.of all Vowel-Declension Adjectives; Attribution and Predication49 numbersandgenders (example:aya8os').Note,however,that the fern.gen.pI. of adjectivesof thisclassisnot treatedlikethegen.pI.of thecorresponding nouns:thenounsalwayshave-wv,butintheadj.theaccentuationisassimi-latedtothatof themasc.gen.pI.(thUS-wvappearsonlyiftheultimais accented, asin aya8o), notinadjs.accented like Citw)). I 3.AttributiveAdjectives.Thesimplestformof nounphraseinGreek consistsof anounwithoutthearticleandanadjectiveagreeingwithitin gender,number,andcase(concord}.Theadjectiveisnormallyadjacent tothe noun, but the order isvariable. 7TOAiTy/)Citw) /J.LKpal,iJoovai a worthy citizen small pleasures Morecommonisthenounphrasewithdefinitearticle.Thepositionof anad-jectiveinrelationtothedefinitearticleandthenounservestomarkitasan attribute:anattributiveadjectiveisinsidethearticle-noungroup.Three possible attributivepositions arefound: a.(most common) article- modifier- noun b.(less common)article- noun- article (repeated)- modifier c.(uncommon) noun- article- modifier Theattributive modifier maybenotonlyanadjective,but also a prepositional phraseor aparticipleor (occasionally)evenanadverbor certaindependent genitives. Ex.6 aya8o) /3io) 6 EVTna y o p ~(TTpanWTy/) OtCiv8pW7TOLotTOTE otOLKaCTTQI,OtOiKaWL the good life thesoldier inthe marketplace the people of that time the just jurymen 4.Substantive-creating Forceof the Article.A frequentidiomatic use of theGreek articleisthecreationof asubstantivebyplacement of anytypeof modifierinattributivepositionwiththearticlebutwithnonounexpressed.2 Themodifier canthusbecomeamasc.,fern.,or neut.substantivewhenused withtheappropriateformof thearticle.Forinstance,themasc.sing.article plusattributemayformasingularsubstantivereferringtoamale(e.g.,6 I.The contrast inaccentuationissemanticallyimportant when afern.nounin-Lacoexists with anadjectivein-LO,-La-LOVfromthesameroot:e.g.,cittwv.QCHWV,cpduwv,gen.pI.of fern. nouns citLa,QULa,cptt..Lavs.citLwV,O(J"LWV,CPtt..LWV,gen.pI.of anygender.including feminine, of adjectives fromthesameroot. 2.Insomecontextsanadjectivemaybeusedwithoutthearticleasanindefinitesubstantive: e.g ..KaKov= "a bad thing.harm." 50UNIT SEVEN - - - - - ~ ~ - - - --- ---(J"0cp0'>= "the wiseman" or "a wiseman"[in general]); the fern.pI.mayforma pluralsubstantivereferringtowomen(e.g., ai OiKawL= "[thel just women"); or aneuter sing.mayformanabstract substantive(e.g., TOKaAov= [literally 1 "thebeautifulthing"= "beauty"or "thatwhichisbeautiful").Comparealso thefollowing: ,, OLTOTE oi 7TPO'>Til8aAuTT?} TO.xaAE7TU TO.OiKaw the people of that time the people near thesea (the)difficult things the just things= just deeds = what is just 5.PredicateAdjective.Whenanadjectivefallsoutsidethearticle-noun unititispredicativerather thanattributive.InGreek(especiallyinpoetry,in proverbialsayings,andonanyoccasionof conciseutterance)anominative nounplusanagreeingadjectiveinpredicatepositionmayformasentence without theappropriate formof the copula be being expressed: The juryman is just.(predication) (Contrast 6 OiKaLO'>(JLKa(J"nj,>= the just juryman[attributionl.) Becauseancient Greekisso highlyinflected,thewordorder isnotrigid.The subject-predicaterelationshipissufficientlyclear fromtheformsof thenoun andadjective.Theorder of wordsmaybealteredtosuitstylisticgoalsor to affect theemphasis: non-emphatic adj.: emphaticadj.: 6 oLKa(J"T'l]'>oiKaw'>. oiKaw'> 6 OLKa(TTrl'>. The juryman is just. The juryman isiust [not unjust]. 6.PredicateNoun.Another simpleformof sentence consistsof subject nounandpredicatenounlinkedbythecopulabe.Aswiththepredicate-adjectiveconstruction,theverbissometimesomittedinGreek.Apredicate nouninGreekmustagreewithitssubjectnounincase.Usuallythesubject nounisaccompaniedbythedefinitearticleandthepredicatenouniswithout thearticle. Ex. 6 oLKa(J"T'l]'>vaVTIJ,>. ,,, 7TOLYJTIJ,>0(J"TpaTYJYO'>. The jurymanis a sailor. Thegeneral isa poet. (Notethecase:nominativesubject,predicate noun isalso nominative.Because thisisthemostfrequentconstruction,apredicatenounissometimescalled "predicate nominative.") Vowel-Declension Adjectives; Attribution and Predication51 7.Possessive Genitive.Thegenitive of a noun(withitsarticleand other modifiers,if any)maybeplacedinattributivepositiontoexpresspossession. (More details about this construction will be learned inU1O.) the general's tent or TOTOVClLKaiovClLKaCTTOV{:3L{3A.iov the tent of the general the just juror's book or the book of the just juror 8.Identificationof AdjectiveForms.Whenyoulearnanadjective,you need tolearnallthenom.sing.fonns(includingtheaccent),andtheEnglish meaning. Ex. clLKaia,OiKaLOV,just Whenyouareasked toidentifyanadjectivefonn(or article),firstspecifythe threevariables(caseandnumberandgender)andthengivethe"dictionary" infonnation about theword,namely,thenom.sing.fonns(either allinfull,or themasc.infullandtheotherendingsabbreviated),andtellwhatnounthe adjectivemodifies,specifyingitasattributiveorpredicative(orsaythatthe adj.isusedasa substantiveif it doesnot modify anexpressed noun). Ex.identify the adj.in TVjJ.aKpq.000 answer:dat.sing.fern.of jJ.aKPo.,jJ.aKpov (or -a,-ov), attributivemodifying 00c{> WHAT TO STUDYANDDO 1.Learn thedeclension of vowel-declensionadjectives. 2.Learn thevocabulary of this unit. 3.Do theexercises of thisunit. VOCABULARY vowel-declension adjectives aya80v aia-xpo.avo(J"wv unjust undying,immortal unholy, profane UNIT NINE pa.ppapo>.pap(3apov OLpappapoL

non-Greek-speaking, foreign;(pejorative) barbarian foreigners,esp.thePersians fightingalongwith, allied with ., OL(J"vIJp.aXOLallies EXERCISES I.Write inGreek. \.to lead6.they strike 2.you(pI.)order7.to loosen 3.wearenot hanning8.to persuade 4.to arrange9.she rules 5.as a result of speaking10.I ride II.Translate the following sentences. 1.T1JV(TTpanaVjJ.EVEW7TEL8ETE. 2.6 valmr; TOl(TTpanWTa)TOSL7T7TOV)AEL7TEWKEAEVH. 3.hrupE7TEwE8EAHTO.XaAE7TaEpyaTOL)KaAOL)VEaVLW). 4.OVKE8EAW(1.7T08VVCTKEWEVTil 8aAaTT[l. 5.jJ.rypAa7TTEwTOl7TAOVCTLOV)7TOALTa)KEAEVH)TOl>,07TALTa). 6.0 8Ea, OVKE8EAHK07TTEWTryV8Eav. 7.OOKELTOL,CTOCPOL,TryVaAry8EwvAEyEW. 8.TOl>,avoCTLov)OELEAavvHva7TaTr"TWV7TaLoLwvCTKTWr". 9.oi CTvjJ.jJ.axoLTOl>,pappapov) TryVayopav AajJ.pavEwKEAEVOVCTW. 10.oi a8avaToLjJ.ryAEyHVavoCTwTOl>,av8pw7ToV, 7TEL80VCTW. 1 I.OLaTaTOl7TOAEjJ.LOV,EVTilXWpq.jJ.EVEWCPEVYOVCTWoi 7TOALTaL. 12.TOL)aya80L' PiOLOVvOjJ.ov)ypacpEw. 13.TOl>,vavTa, xpryaVEjJ.ovKaAaVjJ.EVEW. 14.TOl>,7TOAEjJ.LOV,[3Aa7TTEwEtECTnTOL,CTTpaT1JYOL,. III.Render the followingsentences into Greek. Ex.Itisunseemly for an unjust person to rule the just (people). ov7TPE7THTaVaOLKovTWVoLKaLwvapXEw. 1.With friendsitis easy to endure evils. 2.The generalof the enemy anny ismarshaling hishoplites. 3.The poet urgesthe citizens to entrust their fateto the gods. 4.It isimpossible for the immortal gods to feel[= have] jealousy. Infinitive; Adjectives withTwoEndings69 5.Itispossible for a wicked mannot to have a bad reputation. 6.Itisn't wisetodamage one's health. 7.Because of their wealththericharepermitted tofleedifficult tasks.[Hint: convert to impersonal form:"it ispermitted ... "] 8.A poet ought tobeunwilling[= not + bewilling]to say bad things. 9.Inaddition tohonor, ruling brings envy. UNIT TEN Present Indicative of E lILl; Some Uses of the Genitive and Dative 1.TheVerb"tobe."Oneof themostcommonlyusedwordsinthe language,theGreekverbtobeshowsirregularitiesof conjugationinalldia-lects.TheAtticformsof thepresent activeindicative are: sing./st pers. 2nd pers. 3rd pers. (dual2nd pers. (3rd.pers. plur.Jst pers. 2nd pers. 3rd pers. ', H}.I.L "H E(TTi(v) E(TTOV) ECTTOV) ', EOp.EV ', HTTE fi(J"i(v) Jam you(s.) are he (she,it)is weare you(pl.)are they are Note that thethird person sing.and pI.formsmaytakenumovable (seeU8.5). 2.Accentuation.Allformsof thepresentindicativeofE ijJ.Lexcept secondsingularEl(andthethirdsingular insomeuses:3)areenclitic(see U2.12).Thisistraditionallyindicatedinparadigmsbytheuseof theacuteon theultima.The enclitic formsareaccented withacute or grave onUwhenthe preceding word hasacute onP:7rOALTy/I)f(lTL;6 7rOALTy/I)f(TTLKaAOl).Inother circumstances,theencliticformshavenoaccent,buttheymayaffectthe accentof thepreviousword(reviewtherulesgiveninU2.12):aV8pW7rOL f(J"jJ.EV;owpovf(J"TL;KaKoLd(J"L;TWV(J"TpaTLWTWVf(J"TWi](J"Ky/Vry. 3.Emphatic E(J"TL.When used emphatically,thatis,placedatthebegin-ningof thesentence,thethirdpersonsingular formisaccented onP:E(J"Tdv). ThisformisalsousedwhentheprocliticOVK,Ei(if),or WI)(as,that)or the conjunctionKaL(and)or aAAa(but)orthedemonstrativeT01h'(this) immediatelyprecedes.EmphaticE(J"TLmaystress existence ("thereis... ") or maybeusedwithaninfinitivesubjectinthesamesenseasthecompound EtE(J"TL("it ispossible toX"). 70 Present Indicative of f l ~ / ;SomeUsesof theGenitive and Dative71 4.Infinitive ElvaLThepresent activeinfinitive of EijJ.{isElvaLWhen an infinitivephrasewithElvaLincludesapredicatenounorpredicateadjective, thewordinthepredicatemust agreeincasewiththesubject of theinfinitive. Sincethesubject of aninfinitiveisnormallyaccusative,thepredicatenounor adjectivewillnormally be accusative. Ex.EKTOVTOVS7rOA{TaSoLKa{ovsdvaL as a result of the fact that thecitizens are just xaAE7rOVaya80v ElvaL. Itis difficult tobe brave. (Theunexpressed subject of ElvaL,"one," "a man," or whatever,is feltto be acc.,so the adjective isacc.) Occasionally the predicate adj.willbein another case: Ex.OVKEtHTTLT0 oLKa{cravo(J{crElvaL. Itisnot possible forthe just man to beunholy. 5.SomeUsesof theGenitive.The genitive in general limits themeaning of thesubstantive,adjective,adverb,or verbonwhichitdepends.TheLatin namegenitivusisatranslationof theGreekYEVLKry(7rTW(JLS)= "the casede-noting the class [to which something belongs 1." a.Genitiveof Possession.LiketheEnglishpossessiveor prepositional phrase with of, the genitive may denote ownership, possession, or thelike. (I)AttributiveUse.Thegenitiveof anounorof ademonstrativeor reflexivepronounplacedinattributiveposition(i.e.,withinarticle-nounphrase)]maydenotepossession.(Personalpronounsdenoting possession falloutside of the article-noun group:seeU22.6.) 01.TWV'A8nva{wv VOjJ.OL TO(3L(3A{OVTOTOV7raLOtOV TO.TWVvaVTWv the Athenians' laws the child's book the affairs, possessions, or deeds of the sailors (seeU7.4) Anattributivegenitiveof possessionmayalsobeattached toanoun that isnot accompanied by thearticle: Ai(Jw7roVAOYOLfables of Aesop (2)PredicateUse.Thegenitiveof anounor pronouninthepredicate may denote possession. i]L7r7rO){(JTLTOVoLKa(JTov. Themare belongs tothe juryman.(Themare isof the juryman.) I.Thisisthenormalposition.butthegen.of possessionisoccasionallyfoundoutsidethe article-noun group. 72 TOV(J"OcpovE(J"nEPELV7rovov,>. Itischaracteristic of thewise man toendure toils. [literally, Toendure toilsisof,belongs to,thewise man.] UNIT TEN b.Partitive Genitive.Thegenitiveisused to denotethewhole,a part of which isexpressed bythenounit limits.This genitive takes thepredicate posi-tion, that is,it fallsoutside the article-noun group. oi 7rAEL(J"TOLTWV(J"vggaxwvmost of the allies c.Subjectiveand ObjectiveGenitive.Whenanounexpressesaverbal notion,thesubject of theactionreferred tobythenounmaybeexpressed by the subjective genitive (often in attributive position). clause form:Theunjust man committed perjury.(subject-verb) verbalnoun form:theunjust man's perjury ryTOVaOLKovE7rWpKLa(verbalnounwith gen.) clause form:The foreigners are afraid.(subject-verb) verbalnoun form:the foreigners' fear 6 TWV[3ap/3&pwv0130'> (verbalnounwith gen.) (Thesubjectivegenitiveiseasily confused with thepossessivegenitive andin many cases such confusion makes no difference.) Theobject of theactionreferred tobyanounexpressingaverbalnotion may beexpressed bythe objective genitive (normally inpredicateposition). verb--bjectform:to desire pleasures verbalnoun form:the desire of (for) pleasures ryE7rLeVjJ.LaTWVizoovwv(verbalnounwith gen.) verb--bject form:to be afraid of the Athenians verbalnoun form:fear of the Athenians 0130'>TWV'Ae!]VaLwv(verbalnoun with gen.) 6.SomeUsesof theDative.TheGreekdative(oonKry,Latindativus, caseof "givingto")hasinstrumentalandlocativeuses(Greekhavinglost thesecasesatanearlystage:seeIntrod.4)aswellasusesbelongingtothe dativeproper. a.Dative of Indirect Object.SeeU8.9. b.Dativeof Interest.Thedativeisusedtodenotethepersonforwhom somethingisorisdone.Severalusesof thedativeareclassifiedunderthis general heading: Present Indicative of elfa'; SomeUses of theGenitive and Dative73 (1)Dativeof Possession.Withverbsmeaningtobe,tobecome,tobe available,andthelike,thedativemaybeusedtodenotethe possessor. Iii!oLKai'{J7TapaTWVeEWVowpaE(}TW. Thereare gifts fromthe gods for the just man. orThe just man has gifts fromthe gods. (}vjJ.jJ.axoLaya()oi Ei(}w. There are brave allies for the Athenians. orTheAthenians have brave allies. Thedativeof possessionemphasizeshavingvs.nothavingsome-thing;thegenitive of possession,on theother hand,emphasizesthat something belongs toX and not toanybody else. E(}TL{3L{3AiaT0 7TOLY/TfI OVKE(}H{3L{3AiaT0 7TOLY/TfI TO.(3L{3AiaE(}Tiwi) OLKa(}TOV,OVTOV7TOLy/TOV. The poet has books. The poet has no books. Thebooks belong tothe juryman,not tothe poet. (2)Dativeof Advantageor Disadvantage.Thedativeisusedtodenote thepersonor thingforwhoseadvantageor disadvantagesomething isor isdone. TO.7TaLoiaaLTLa7TOVWVChildren are a cause of toil for mankind. 6E(}TLThevirtuous man isrich for (inthe interest of,totheadvan-tage of) his fellow citizens,not for himself. (3)Dative of Reference.See U9.5. c.Dative of Means(orInstrument).The dativeisused todenote that by which or with which an action isdone(instrument, means, or cause). {3aAAOV(}LTOV(}TpaT1JYovThey strike the general with stones. 7TEi()H He persuades the jurymen by means of bribes. d.Dativeof TimeWhen.Thedativeisusedtodenotethepointintime when or atwhichanaction occurred. onthe previous day 74UNIT TEN WHAT TO STUDY AND DO 1.Learn thepresent of ELjJ.l.. 2.Study theusesof the genitive and dative. 3.Learn thevocabulary of thisunit. 4.Do the exercises of thisunit. VOCABULARY verbs j36.Mw H/J-L nouns (f(n/.) f f.7n8v/J-La,E7rL8v/J-La"f E7rLOpKLa,f AL8o"Ai8ov. m. (asfern.) f adjectives

OLaLno"aiTia,ai'nov TrAEI,O"TO"TrAEI,O"TOV OLTrAEI,O"TOL throw,strike[ballistics] belontology (from theparticipial stem)] find,findout, discover[heuristic.Eureka] have(something) done to one, experience; suffer Isympathy] effect,accomplish, do; experience (a certain fortune), fareIpractical] force,constraint, necessity (impersonal expression) itisnecessary (compuls-ory, unavoidable)2 (+ dat.or acc.of person +inf) (often to betranslated withmust ina personal construction) peace;peace treaty[Irene] desire, yearning falseswearing,perjury stone[monolith] aparticular variety of stone, e.g.,magnet, crystal battle, combat[Titanomachy] Athenian theAthenians responsible;responsiblefor,cause of (+ objective gen.)[aetiology] most,greatest, largest; (oftenwithart.)thegreatest number,themost[pleistocene] themajority, the greatestpart(of a group) I.Non-Attic 7rpu(]"(]"w(or Ionic 7rPr,(]"(]"w):cf.Intro.6. 2.o.VUYKrIinthisuseconnotesstrongexternalconstraint,whereasCElandXpr,connote needfulness,propriety,moralobligation, andthelike. Present Indicative of SomeUsesof theGenitive and Dative75 ,, 7rPOTEpO'.7rpOTEpa. fonner, earlier,previous[hysteronproteron] , 7rpOTEpOV V(J"TEPO>.v(J"TEpa.V(J"TEPOVlatter,later, next EXERCISES I.Translate the followingshort sentences. l.a8avaToi EL(n.6. , "7TOVTJPO'}EL. 2.OUKaya80i EaTE.7.ou(JocpoiE(JjJ.EV. 3.aOLKovE(JTL.8. (JocpryE(JTW. 4.cpiAO')ELjJ.i.9. E(JTL. 5.Or,AOVE(JTL.10.O(JWLE(JH. II.Render thefollowingsentencesinto Greek,usingtheappropriatefonnof ELjJ.i.Think carefully about the accentuation and review therulesif necessary. Ex.I am harsh.xaAE7To'}ELjJ.L.orxaAE7TryELjJ.L. l.It isworthy.6.You (sing.)arepious. 2.The Athenians areresponsible.7.You (pI.)are just. 3.The battleislong.8.Perjury isnot just. 4.We areimmortal.9.Sheisresponsible. 5.I am asailor.10.The pebble issmall. III.(a)Translate thefollowingsentences.Then(b)namethecaseof theun-derlined word and give thereason for thecase. Ex.T0(Jock.k{3L{3AiaE(JTiv. (a)Thewise man has books.(b)dative of possession I.Ot7TAEL(JToLTWV7TOALT0RELmoiKawL. 2.T0OtVOjJ.OLOVKEL(JL'KaAoi. 3.ryE7TL8vjJ.iaTOV7TA01JTOVTO'v'}av8pw7ToV'}KaKG.7Ta(JXEw7TEi8EL. 4.Til V(JTfpq.ELpryVTJVypacpov(Jw. 5.Ota8avaToi EL(JwarnOL TWVTOL'}av8pw7ToL'}. 6.TWV'A8nvaiwv E(JTLVryViKTJ. 7.OtaVO(JWLTOtEPOVAi80L,} (3aAAov(Jw. 8.ouoELAfYEWTOVTWV7ToAEillwR cpof3ov. 9.E(JnTOKaAOv. 10.EVTil7TpOTfpq.jJ.aX?7Ot7TAEL(JTOLTWV07TALTWVOUCPEVYOV(JW. IV.Render into Greek. I.By means of difficult toilstheallies aretaking themarketplace. I.Remember that aproclitic followedbyanencliticreceives an acute accent (lJ2.12d). 76UNIT TEN 2.It isnecessary for men to do what is just [= just things]. 3.After thebattle thesoldiers fleeinto theland of theAthenians. 4.Thedesireforpeacepersuadesthecitizensnottoharmtheenemy's messengers. 5.The jurors arediscovering the majority of the unjust deeds. 6.Itischaracteristic of wise men to discover the finepleasures. 7.On account of thewar against the foreignersthe citizens must suffer. 8.It doesnot befit a virtuousman to be unjust. 9.Inthe eyes of the majoritypleasure isnot the measure of virtue. UNIT ELEVEN o Verbs:Present MiddlelPassive Indicative 1.Middleand Passive.At anearly stage Greek had two sets of personal endingswhich served tomark twovoices (cf.U.8Prelim.):activeand middle. Intheactivevoicethesubject istheagent.Inthemiddlevoicethesubjectis agentbutactswithsomespecialreferencetohimself/herself,ortohis/her possessions or owninterest (toor for or withinhimself/herself or thelike). The middle sometimes hasa reflexive or reciprocalmeaning: YV/J.va(o/J.aLI exercise myself.(direct reflexive) 7T'apaaxEVa(o/J.aL I prepare the tent for myself. or I prepare my tent. (indirect reflexi ve) oi(J"Tpan(iJTaL7T'apaKEAE1JOVTaL.Thesoldiers encourage one another.(reciprocal) From thereflexive forceof themiddle there developed thepassiveuseof themiddleform,sothatinclassicalGreekmostmiddleformsalsoserveas passive(thatis,thesubjectisacteduponbysomeotheragent).Thedevel-opment may be thought of asfollows: 7T'EL8o/J.aL:I persuademyself.-> I get myself persuaded.-> I am per-suaded (bysomeone else). cpEpETaL:Itcarries itself.- > It getsitself carried.- > Itis carried. (Comparereflexiveformationsinotherlanguagesthataretranslatedbythe Englishpassive,suchasFrenchif setrouveor Germanessich findet= "it is located" or Italian mi chiamo = "I am called. ") Inthecontext of a Greek sentence, amiddle/passiveverb willusuallybe identifiableaseither middleorpassiveinsense;butinisolationtheseforms arereferred tointhisbook asmiddle/passive. WhenaGreekverbisusedinthepassive,thepersonalagent,ifmen-tioned,isusuallyexpressedinaprepositionalphrasewithlJ7T'O+ gen.(equi-valent toEnglish by someone). 77 78UNITELEVEN 2.PresentMiddle/PassiveIndicative.Thisisfonnedfromthepresent stem plus the themevowel 0/ E(0before p.or v, Ebefore other sounds)plus the middle/passivepersonalendings(-p.al,-(Tal,-Tal,[-(TeOV,-(TeOV, I -p.Eea, -(TeE,-VTal).Thepersonalendingsareclearlyrecognizableexcept inthesec-ondpersonsingular,wheretheeliminationofintervocalicsigmal in-E(Tal allows contraction of -Ealto -n. Ex. sing. (dual plur. "ransom,""be released" present stem:AV- +olE 1st pers.AVojJ.at 2ndpers.AV'[l 3rdpers.AVETat 2ndpers.AVHJBov (3rdpers.AVHJ-eOV 1st pen.AVOjJ.Eea 2nd pen.AVHJeE 3rdpers.AVOVTaL "obey,""be persuaded" 7rELe- + olE 7TEieojJ.at 7TEie'[l 7TEieETat 7TEieHJ-eov) 7TEieHreOV) 7THeOjJ.Eea 7TEieE(TeE 7TEieoVTaL theme vowel + e n d i n ~ ( -HreOV) (-weov) -OjJ.Eea -E(JeE -OVTaL Notethattheaccentuationisrecessive,asforallfinitefonns.Inthepresent middle/passiveindicativeitturnsout that theaccentisontheverbsteminall fonnsexceptthefirstpersonplural,wherethenumberofsyllablesinthe ending forcesthe accent to move to the theme vowel. 3.PresentMiddle/PassiveInfinitive.Themiddleinfinitiveendingis -(TeaLWhen thisisadded tothepresent stem withthemevowelE,theresult is thepresentmiddle/passiveinfinitive.Likethepresentactiveinfinitive,itis accentedonthefinalsyllableof theverbstem:forexample,AVE(Teal= "to ransom"or "to be released." 4.Deponent Verbs.Many Greek verbsarefoundonlyinmiddle/passive fonnsandhavenoactivefonns.Suchverbsarecalled deponent(anotvery helpfultenncoinedbyLatingrammarians).Youwillrecognizedeponent I.Sigma "betweenvowels"(intervocalic)waslostinthedevelopmentof manyGreekforms, and inAttic thisloss usuallyresulted inthe contraction of thevowels. 2.Fromabout350H.C.E.thesecondpersonsingular middle/passiveendingwasoftenspelled (and pronounced) -Hrather than -TIinAttic, and the formin-Hwillbe foundinmodem editions of someGreekauthors(eitherundertheinfluenceof themanuscriptsorbecausetheeditor believes theparticular author originallyusedthisform).Notethat suchmiddle/passiveformsas AVH,7rd8Hlook exactly like thethird sing. active form;but inthe context of a sentence thereis usuallyno ambiguity. .f2- Verbs:Present Middle/PassiveIndicative79 verbsinvocabularylistsor adictionarybecausethefirstprincipalpartisthe firstperson singular present middle/passive forminstead of -w). Ex. ,

a ia-$(wo}1aI become.I am born I desire.I want I perceive 5.IdiomaticMeaningsof theMiddle.It takestimeforthestudent to get anadequatesenseof therange of implicationsconveyed bythemiddlevoice. Herearesomeexamplesof commonverbstoillustrateshiftsinmeaning noticeable between activeand middle. EXW+ acc. + gen. ypacpw ypacpo}1aL CPEPW

(T7rEVOW

AVW POVAEVW

7rEiew+ acc. + dat. I have.hold I hold on to,cling to I write Iindict,bringasuitagainst(literally,IgetXl's name J recorded by the magistrates) I carry I carry offfor myself,I win(aprize) I (asa judge) decide asuit I (asa plaintiff) conduct asuit I pour a libation I make a truce (solemnized byalibation) I release I ransom I plan I deliberate I am a citizen IbehavelikeacitIzen,Iparticipateinpublic affairs.I am a politician I persuade.urge I obey.trust,believe (aperson) Ascanbeseen,themiddleusuallyimpliesthatthesubjectismoreclosely involved or interestedintheaction.Themiddleiscommonwhenemphasisis laidonmentalorperceptualactivities(notethedeponent and severalverbsof intellectualactivitywhichlackafutureactivebutpossessa futuremiddlel U 18.9]). 80UNIT ELEVEN WHAT TO STUDY AND DO I.Learn theconjugation of thepresent middle/passiveindicativeand the for-mation of thepresent middle/passiveinfinitive. 2.Study theidiomatic meanings of themiddle (5). 3.Learn thevocabulary of thisunit. 4.Do theexercises of thisunit. VOCABULARY w-verbs ,, aKOVW a7ToKTEivw(a7To) j30VAElJW YV!J.va{W 7TOALTEVW deponent verbs aia-eavo!J.aL f3ovAo!J.aL " EpX!J.aL !J.aX!J.aL oLo!J.aLor oZ!J.aL.l hear (usuallywithacc.of thingheard + gen.of personfromwhomitisheard,usuallywithprep. a7To.EK,etc.)[acoustics] kill,put to death plan, devise;(mid.) take counsel, deliberate [probouleutic] train(naked), exercise; (mid.) exercise oneself,bein trammg[gymnastics, gymnasium] judge; serve as judge or juror; (mid.) plead a case, participate ina suit prepare, provide,procure; (mid.) prepare for oneself, make preparations be a citizen; have a certain form of government; (mid.)live or behave asa free citizen; participate inpolitics pour a libation;'(mid.) exchange libations,make a truce, make peace[spondaic] perceive, sense,understand[esthetics] want, desire,wish(+ complementary inf.)2 come into being, be born, become[genus] come, go fight (+ dat.of the enemy person or +prep.phrase) think,suppose, believe I.InGreco-Roman antiquity a"libation"was aritualoffering of liquid to the gods;itwasmade bypouring theliquid on an altar or on theground.The liquid could bewine,milk. honey, oil, or amixture. 2.Inpoetry povll.OfJ.aLand i.OElI.wmaybesynonymous,butinclassicalprosethereisoftena clear distinctionbetween active desire V30vll.0fJ.aL)andwillingness or consent (i.OElI.W). 3.OLfJ.aLisacontractedformof OLOfJ.aL.Theremainingformsof thepresentarenormal:OLT/, oLHaL, etc .inf.OLHTOaL. .Q- Verbs.'Present Middle/PassiveIndicative EXERCISES exhort, encourage (+ dat.of person, sometimes + inf.) learn,hear;learnbyinquiry,inquire 81 I.Give a complete identification of each verb fonn and translateitprecisely. Ex.7fapa(JKEva(ojJ.EOa:1stpI.pres.mid/pass.indoof 7fapa(JKEvci(w, we are making preparations I.(J7TEVOOjJ.EV11.A.EyETaL21.CPEpOVTaL 2. , 12.OLWOE22.pA.o.. 7TTETE

3.13. , 23.po..AA.ETaLK07fT0jJ.aL

4. ypo..CPOVTaL14.24. " H(JL ayn 5.A.ajJ.(3o..vw;15.7fOA.L TEvwOaL25.7fapaKEA.EvE(JOE 6. , 16.pOVA.ETaL26.7fVVOo..vovTaLYLyvETaL 7. , 17.OLKo..(ovm27.oLKo..(ETaL7TpaTTEw 8.(3oVA.EvojJ.aL18.(J7fEVoojJ.EOa28. ', aKOVOjJ.EV 9. " 19. ', 29.A.EL7TETaLEpxovTaLa7fOKTEWEL 10. Exn 20.aL(JOo..Vn30.yiyvOVTaL , II.Render into Greek. 1.we are going16.they are fighting 2.he serves as judge17.you (s.)suppose 3.you (pI.) cling to18.it isbeing led 4.they desire19.we areindicting 5.you (s.) aremaking preparations20.they become 6.he ispleading a case21.we are being ruled 7.they pour a libation22.to learn by inquiry 8.you (pI.)are deliberating23.I am not willing 9.you (s.) exhort24.to prepare 10.we inquire25.she supposes 11.she isransoming26.weare 12.they hear27.to be 13.you (pI.)arebeing marshaled28.heisbeing stricken 14.to be in training29.to becarried 15.I participate inpolitics30.you (pI.)arefinding III.Translate. 1.EVTC{;7fpa'.>TOU'.>pappo..pov'.>7fOA.EjJ.'{JayaOoL'.>jJ.o..xovTaLoL , AOryvaLOL. 2.TOU'.>(JTpaTryyou'.>xpryPOVA.EVWOaL. 3.TOU'.>o7fA.iTa'.>KEA.EVOV(JLTo..TTwOaL7TapaTav7TOTajJ.OV. 82UNIT ELEVEN 4.OVCPEVYEWE8EAovrnvoi TWV(J"TpanwTwv. 5.VtKYJ 6.TnV(J"TEpq.r,}J-Epq.. 7.XP7] 8.V7fO[= by]TWV7fOAE}J-tWVov pAa7fTE(J"8E. 9.OVKEtE(J"Tl(J"7fEVOHV. 10.oiT7]VTWVj3apj3apwvxwpavEAaVVOVTat. UNIT TWELVE Adverbs;Conjunctions; Prepositions II;Relative Pronoun PRELIMINARIES A.Adverbs.Anadverb(GreekhrippiJjJ.a,Latinadverbium= "word addedtotheverb")isthatpart of speechwhichmodifies(qualifies,limits)a verb, anadjective, or another adverb.Adverbs usually expressideas of manner or degree or time or place. Theywalk quickly. The pitcher isfairlygood. Thehouseisvery poorly constructed. (modifying verb walk) (modifying adj.good) (modifying adverb poorly) Inmanylanguagesalargenumber of theadverbsarederived fromadjectives bytheadditionof astandardsuffix.InEnglishthesuffixis-ly(cf.German -lich,French -ment,Spanish and Italian -mente). B.Sentences and Clauses.A simple sentence contains one subject-verb unit (althoughsubject or verb or bothmaybemultiple).It consists of asingle independent or main clause(a clause that can stand by itself). Ex.Thesailor leavesthemarketplace. Thesailor picks uphis gear and leaves. Thesailor and the merchant leavethe marketplace. Thewoman and her daughter hug and kiss. Acompoundsentenceconsistsof two(ormore)independentclauses joined together (though each clauseiscapable of standing on itsown). Ex.Thewomanwaves.and her daughter waves back. A complex sentence consists of anindependent or main clauseand one or moredependent or subordinate clauses,that is, clauseswhich donot bythem-selvesformasentenceandcannotbeutteredinisolation.Inthefollowing examples thesubordinate clauses areunderlined: Whenthesailor arrived.they called a meeting. 83 84UNIT TWELVE Themessenger who came yesterday told a different story. C.Conjunctions.Aconjunction(Greek (rVVoEOp.. O ~ ,Latinconiunctio = "bond, joining") isthat part of speech which joins together two or morewords, phrases,orclauses.Therearetwokindsof conjunctions.Acoordinating conjunctionlinkstwoelements(words,phrases,clauses)whichareonan equalfooting.Asubordinatingconjunctionlinksadependentclausetoa clauseof moreindependentstanding(either anactualindependentclauseor another dependent clause which isgrammatically superordinate).For instance, theboy and his dog inthe city or inthe country Heknocked,but nobody answered. (coordinating two nouns) (coordinating two phrases) (coordinating two independent clauses) !i heis found guilty,he will pay a large fine. (subordinatingtheconditionalclausetothemainclausehewillpaya large fine) Thetruce whichwas concluded after Cleon died lasted more than a year. (subordinatingthetemporalclause after Cleondied totherelative clause whichwas concluded,which isitself subordinate to themain clause the truce lasted) Anumber of commonGreekconjunctionsandadverbswithconnectiveand emphaticforcearetraditionallytermedparticles.Inabeginningcoursea studentisexposedtoonlyafewparticles,buttheyareanimportantpartof Greek idiomand shouldbestudiedindetailinconjunctionwiththestudent's later reading of Greek texts. D.Pronouns.Apronoun(Greek o.vTwvvp..ia,Latin pronomen= "sub-stituteforanoun")isthatpartof speechwhichtakestheplaceof anoun alreadyused or obvious fromthecontext.The nounwhich apronounreplaces (or the person or thing to which it isunderstood to refer) isits antecedent. Janecalled Jim,who had called her earlier. (The antecedent of who isJim;theantecedent of her is Jane.) Likenouns,pronounshavegender(he,she,it;who,which),number(I,we), andcase(she,her,hers;who,whom,whose).Normally,apronounhasthe samegenderandnumberasitsantecedent,butitscaseisdeterminedbyits functioninits own sentence or clause. Thereareseventypesof pronouns:personal, demonstrative,relative,in-terrogative,indefinite,reflexive,andreciprocal.Therelativepronounispre-sented inthis unit;the others will be considered in detailinlater units. Adverbs; Conjunctions;Prepositions II;Relative Pronoun85 E.RelativeClauses.Adependentclausewhichservesasanadjective modifyinganouniscalledarelativeclauseandisintroducedbyarelative pronoun (who.which.that)or a relativeadverb (where.when).Thesewords arecalledrelativebecausewhileintroducingasubordinateclausetheyrefer back to (relate to)anelement of the main (or other superordinate) clause. Ex.Theman whom we saw looked familiar. (whomismasculineandsingulartoagreewithitsantecedent man, but itisinthe objective casebecauseitistheobject of the verb saw inits own clause) Thisis the thing that bothers me. Leave it inthe place whereyoufoundit. NotethatinEnglishtherelativepronounmaybeomitted(Themanwesaw looked familiar),butthatother languages,includingGreek,requirethatital-waysbeexpressed. l.Formationof Adverbs.Adverbsexpressingmanner areformedfrom adjectivalstemsbytheadditionof theadverbialending-WS"(inoriginan ablativecaseending).Thestemofvowel-declensionadjectivesisobvious fromthenominativesingularforms.Theaccentuationof theadverbalways followsthepattern of the gen.pI.formof the adjective. Ex. adjective(gen. pl.)adverb KaAo,(KaAwv)KaAW,l1obly.beautifully.well , (KaKwv)KaKw,badly. poorly.illKaKO, atw,(atiwv)atiw,worthily p4'6w,(PCfoiwv)PCfoiw,easily Althoughadverbscanbeformedinthiswayfromvirtuallyanyadjectivein Greek,no -WS"adverb isformedfromayaBoS"inclassical Greek,theadverb fV (= well)being usedinstead. 2.CoordinatingConjunctions.Therearefivecommoncoordinating conjunctions inGreek. a.Kat = and, joining words,phrases, or clauses.Inadditionto thesimple useasa conjunction, there are other uses of Katto note: Kat.XKat.y= both X and Y 86UNlTTWELVE adverbialKai:Kaiwasinoriginanadverb meaning also,andisoften still used asadverb adding emphasis to theword or phrase that followsit.In itsadverbialuse,K a ~XmaybetranslatedevenX,X too,X also,or in English one may simplygive extra emphasis to Xinpronunciation. Ex.Q.vaYKy/Kd T0 croCP07TacrXEwKaKa. Itisnecessary that even thewisemansuffer hardships. or Thewise man,too,must suffer hardships. b.TE= and,anenclitic postpositive conjunction joining clauses, phrases, or singlewords.Apostpositiveisawordwhichcannotbeplacedfirstinits clauseorphrasebutnormallyfollowsthefirstwordof itsclauseorphrase. ThisconjunctionisetymologicallyrelatedtoandsimilarinusagetoLatin -que.TEmaybeusedaloneorincombinationwithKai.(TEiselidedtoT' beforeavowelwithsmoothbreathingortoe'beforeavowelwithrough breathing. ) Ex.XY TE= X and Y ocrw ov (;CTTparqyo,>K07rTHKaKo'>ECTTW. (ovismasc.sing.because antecedent CTTpanWTr/'>ismasc.sing.; itisacc.becauseitisdirect object of K07rTH) Wedonotwanttoabandonthewomanwithwhomweare fleeing. ov JjOvAop.EBaAEi7rEWT ~ VavBpw7rovp.EBVi cpE1JyOP.W. (1]'>isfern.sing.because antecedent avBpu)7f'ovisfern.sing.;itis gen.becauseitisobject of preposition P.ETG..= with) WHAT TO STUDY AND DO I.Learnthe formation of adverbs and declension of therelative pronoun. 2.Studytheexamplesofusageoftheconjunctionsandprepositions presented above. 3.LearnasvocabularytheconjunctionsandprepOSitIOnsandrelative pronounpresentedabove(2,4,6)andtheremainingwordspresented below. 4.Do the exercises of this unit. VOCABULARY Cd-verb strike. beat[tympanum I adverbs not formed from adjectives cut (early Attic + poetic aift.always also poetic aiEv) a ~again;intum . , aVTLKa ~ fV aVet'>again;inturn;hereafter,inthefuture f7TH Ta at once,immediately then.next; accordingly. therefore then.next;therefore here. there well Adverbs; Conjunctions; Prepositions 1/; Relative Pronoun91 1/011 llaAU vvv Ton already;immediately; actually, now very, exceedingly now,presently at that time, then EXERCISES I.Translate the followingphrases. 1.7rPOTWV()KTJVWV9.aVTtTWV7rDVWV 2.V7rOTi{lavo()iO!OW'7rDT[110.iJ7rf.p(3aAaTTav 3.KaTo.T1JVTOUOtKa()TOUyvw}J.TJvII. t,\I V7rOTTJV()KTJvrJV 4.7rEpt TWV'AOTJvaiwv12. '"I 7TEptTTJVa yopav 5.V7TEPTWVcpiAWV13.KaTo.TWVKptTwV 6.V7TO14. 7TPO 7.avO.TrJUOODV15.aVTtTOU7TA01JTOV 8. ", 16. 7TEptTnviK!1KaTaT77v7TpoTEpav77}J.Epav II.Translate. I.oi}J.EV()OCPOtEll7TpaTTOVCTLV.oiOEKaKOtoV. I 2.OV7TDAE}J.OVpOvAo}J.EBaEXEWaAA'ELpryVTJV. 3.oi7TOALTat()7TEVOOV()t BWLI)oi'}J.axovTatV7TEP xwpal)'arnOtyap EL()tTOUKaAWI)7TpaTTHv. 4. 1]xwpa 1]V7TEPTOU7ToTa}J.ouELI) TO.7TatoiaEPXETat. 5.V7TOTwVT''ABTJvaiwvKatTWV()v}J.}J.axwvij077pAa7TTOVTaLOt pappapoL. 6.TOoiKaW7TpaTTHVxaAE7TOV}J.EVTOLl) pqowv OE7.TOLl)7TOAl.TaLI)7TapaKEAEVETaLO()LOtl)ELvaLKatVUVKatavetl).2 8.oiayaBot T1JV aVTLTOU7TAOiJTOVEXHVaEtPOVAOVTaL III.Render into Greek. 1.wisely,shamefully, badly, easily, unjustly 2.on behalf of the allies 3.inaccordance with thelaws of theforeigners 4.concerning democracy 5.Thehoplitestowhomweareentrustingthechildrenarebothjustand pious. 6.One istelling thethe other isnot. I.Notethataprocliticreceivesanacuteaccentwhenitprecedesapauseatamarkof punctuation, ashere. 2.For theagreement of thepredicate adj.here,reviewU 10.4. 92UNIT TWELVE 7.Thesailorsaregoingup(along)theriverwithdifficulty,fortheyare being pelted with stones by theenemy. 8.Themaresaboutwhichyouarespeakingbelongnottothecitizens,but to the gods. 9.One must always deliberate exceedingly wisely on behalf of the citizens. 10.It isnot easy toobey a harsh law. UNIT THIRTEEN Contract Verbs in-ECJJ; Demonstratives 1.ContractVerbs.Alargenumber of Greekverbshavepresentstems which end inone of the three vowels a.E.o.Thepresent-tense formsof these verbshavepersonal endingpreceded by the themevowel,preceded inturnby thefinalvowel of thestem.InAttic,asinseveral other dialects, the finala.E. or 0of the stem contracts with the theme vowel(or themevowelplus personal ending, where these have coalesced). 2.Verbsin-EW.Thesearethemostcommontype.TheAtticcontrac-tions which are relevant to the present indicative are: E+E->H E+H->H E+ 0->ov E+OV->ov E+W->w (Fuller general schemes for contraction areset out in Appendix1.) Inthefollowingparadigm theuncontracted formisillustratedinparen-theses next to thecontracted formwhich results fromit in Attic: Ex.7rOtEW."make" present active indopresent middle/passive indo sing.1st( 7roLEW)7roLw(7TOLEOjJ.ud7TOWVjJ.UL 2nd(7TOLEH';-)7TOLEt,( 7TOLETI)7TOL i7 3rd( 7TOLEEd7TOLEt(7TOLEETUd7TOLEtTUL [dual2nd(7TOLfETOV)7TOLEtTOV(7TOLE weov)7TOLE l:a-eOV 1 [3rd(7TOLEETOV)7TOLEtTOV(7TOLEWeOV)7TOLELa-eOV 1 plur.1st(7TOLfOjJ.EV)7TOWVjJ.EV( 7TOLEOjJ.Eea)7TOWVjJ.Eea 2nd( 7TOLEETtl7TOLELTE(7TOLEWeE)7TOLELa-eE 3rd( 7TOLfOVa-d7TOWVa-L(V)( 7TOLEOVTad7TowvvTaL 93 94UNIT THIRTEEN Thepresent activeinfinitiveendsin-ELV(e.g., 7rOLELVfrom7rOLEEw);the presentmiddle/passiveinfiniteendsin-ELcreaL(e.g.,7rOLELcreaLfrom7rOLE-EcreaL). Accentuation: theuncontracted formsof theindicative havethe recessive accentuationthatisnormalinfiniteformsof theverb(intheinfinitivethe accent of theuncontracted formisonthelast syllable of thestem,asfor other w-verbs).Incontractionacircumflexaccentresultswhenthefirstof thetwo originalvowelshastheacute(ashappensinalltheformsaboveexcept1st pluralmiddle/passive -EOjJ.Eea).Anacute accent resultswhen the second of the twooriginalvowelshastheacute(asin7rOWVjJ.Eea).Whenthetwooriginal vowelsareboth unaccented,theresultingvowelisalsounaccented:thisdoes not occur in thepresent, but youwill encounter it in theimperfect inU16. 3.Demonstratives.Demonstratives arewordswhichrefer with extra em-phasis,asif bypointing (hencethename):inEnglish,this,that,these,those. Demonstrativesfunctioneitheraspronouns(standingalone,withanante-cedent expressed or implied) or asadjectives (modifying a noun).The pronoun whichbecame theAtticarticlewasoriginallya demonstrative.Therearethree demonstratives inAttic. a.o ~ kryOE,TOOE= this or that,referring tosomething near,usuallypre-sent or insight.Insome contexts it refers forward and maybe translated asthe following.OOEconsists of theold demonstrative athat became theAttic article plus anindeclinable demonstrative suffix -OE.The fact that -OEwas originally a separateencliticelementaccountsfortheaccentuationof formslikeryOEor TovcrOE,whichareapparentexceptionstotherulethatlongaccentedP followed by shortU must have the circumflex. masc.fern.neut. sing.nom.OOE~ O E TOOE gen.TOUOE T11CTOETOUOE dat.To/OETfJOETo/OE acc.TOVOET ~ V O ETOOE (dualn.a.TWOETWOETWOE) (g.d.TOLVOETOLVOETOl.VOE) pluralnom.OLOEaLOETelOE gen.TWVOETWVOETWVO. Tf.',andispresent inalong-vowel fonn-Yf'>innom.sing. TYf'.Inalargegroup of neuter nounsthe-E(J"- ending appearsintheo-grade fonn-0'>innom.acc.voc.sing.(e.g.,yEVO,.Intheother cases thesigma of -fCT- has dropped out between vowels and contraction has taken place. The acc. pI.of masc'/fem.nounsin-Yf'>.however. isassimilated to the nominative rather thanbased ontheusualending -as.Afewsigma-stem neutershavefinal-alJ"-(e.g., YEpa':again,whenever thesigma dropsout, contraction takesplace.In theparadigmsonthenextpage,theuncontractedfonns(sometimesfoundin poetryandinother dialects)areshowninparenthesesaftertheAtticprose fonns. 108 Ex. "trireme"(f) stem: TpL7]pdrr)-sing.nom. gen.

dat. ace. TPLYJP7] voe.Tptr,pE,) [dualII.a.v. [g.d.Tpt7]pOW plur.n.v. gell. dat.ace. stem: sing.nom. gen. dat. ace. V()C. [dualn.a.v. [g.d. plur.n.v. gen. dat. ace. UNIT FIFTEEN -----

honor" (n.) YEpa(rr)-, yEpa,> yEPW') YEpaLorYEpq yEpa.m. ails.ciAo>.m. aA>.ciAo>.f. aV17P.avopo>,m. oaiflwv.oaiflovo>.m.or f. "EAA17v."EAA1]vo>.m. evyaT1]p.evyaTp0.f. 7TaTpo>.m. m. contest. struggle; assembly.nationalgames [agony.agonistic] salt, grain of salt[halides] (poetic) sea man. male; warrior; husband; "real man." "man" (in contexts emphasizing sexist or macho traits)! [android. androgynous] god. divinity; tutelary divinity, the power controlling anindividual's destiny; one's destiny.lot[demon] a Greek (man),Hellene[Hellenic] daughter mother[metropolis.metronymic] father[patriarchy 1 speaker. orator[rhetoric] consonant-dec1ension nouns:sigma-stems 6.1]flOO"eEV1]>.6.1]flO"eEVOV>. m. LWKpaT1]>.LWKpaTov>. m. f. yEVO,n. yEpa>.yEpW>.n. yi}pa>. n. "" ETO>.ETOV>.n. KpaTo>.KpaTov.flEPOV.n. Demosthenes (Athenian orator and politician, 4th cent.S.C.E.) Socrates (Athenianphilosopher, teacher of Plato) trireme (amilitaryvesselwiththreebanks of oars) [trierarch] race,stock; offspring; class, sort,kind[genocide, genealogy] gift of honor,privilege old age[geriatrics] year[etesian] strength,power;victory[timocratic] share,portion;part; one's tum[meroblastic. penthemimeral] multitude; the masses, themajority; quantity; size [plethora] wall[teichoscopy] I.Contrastav8pw7To,.whichreferstohumanbeingsasaspecies.Herodotus(7.120) commentedontherepellingofnumerousPersianforcesbythefewSpartandefendersof Thermopylae thatit showed 7TOA.A.OtfJ.EVav8pw7Toi i(TLv.OA.iYOLoavop'>. Consonant-Declension Nouns II;Interrogative PronounI I I fulfillment,completion; end, finish;authority; (pI.) service, duty; offerings, rites; taxes [teleological] interrogative pronoun/adjective n *EEX-).1 b.Temporal augment isthelengthening of theinitialvowel or diphthong of astemthatbeginswithavowel.If thestemalreadybeginswithalong vowelora"long"diphthongor OV,nochangeismade;butotherwisethe vowelischanged asfollows:ii-> Y/,E -> Y/,[-> f,0-> w,V -> ii,at -> n,EL-> n,av-> Y/V,EV-> Y/V,Ot-> .f(J"TW. atpOVVTaLTOV};wKpaT1)V(J"TpaT1)yovatpOVVTaLTOV};wKpaT1)v (J"TpaT1)yov. 126 a-declension nouns f. rrocpia.f. consonant-declension nouns OVOlla. n. m.' XP771la, n. verbs oWCPEpw(ow) adjectives, etc. irrxvpa.irrxvpov ,,, rrTEV7].rrTEVOV n E7TTa ,, OKTW OEKa , 7TOTE 7TOTE ", OV7TOTE.1l7]7TOTE 7TOV 7TOV

UNIT SEVENTEEN prayer,vow blow. stroke[paraplegic] cleverness, skill; intelligence, wisdom,learning [philosophy] name[synonym, onomatopoeia] foot[octopus, podiatrist] thing,matter, affair; (pl.) goods, property,money [chrematistic] carry across; endure; differ, excel (+ gen.of person or thing compared; sometimes + acc.of respect) pray,pray for;profess openly, boast speak against, accuse (+ gen.of person accused) [category] hide, cover, conceal[cryptographer] strike[apoplexy] strong, forceful,violent narrow; close, confined[stenography] (enclitic) (pron.) any, some, anyone, someone, anything, something; (adj.) any,some, (a) certain (indeclinable)3 seven[heptagon] (indeclinable) eight[octopus] (indeclinable) ten[decade] when? (interrogative) (enclitic) at any time, ever; (idiomatically reinforces a preceding interrogative:e.g.,7TOTE = who intheworld?) never where? (interrogative) (enclitic) somewhere, anywhere; to some degree, perhaps how? (interrogative) (enclitic) somehow,inanyway,atall 1.The dat.pl.of 7TOVS'is 7TOcr[(V);thevoc.sing.is 7TOVS'. 2.Non-Attic 7TA:rj(TlJ"w. 3."Indeclinable"meansthattheworddoesnotvarywithcase:thesame fonncanaccompany any case of a noun. Indefinitertf; Usesof theAccusative127 EXERCISES I.WriteinGreek.Rememberthatanencliticcannotbeplacedfirstina sentence or isolated phrase:thus acertainmeasure by itself should be j.J.f.TpOV TL,inthat order (withinasentenceone might findnj.J.f.TpOV,provided some other element of thesentence precedes). 1.any leaders (dat.)7.in return for a certain blow 2.a certain daughter (gen.)8.next to a certain narrow road 3.certain Greeks (nom.)9.some (acc.) ofthe hoplites 4.a certain clever soldier (acc.)10.in the presence of any teacher 5.some small power (nom.)11.with some goddesses 6.because of a certain one of the12.ina certain one of the tents prayers II.Reading. 1.6 TWV'EA)u7VWVEVEKEtVTlTnxWpq.OEKa j.J.EVHKaL Aaj.J.(3aVEL7TapaTWV(3ap(3apwvoi'f.7TLTn8aAaTTTlOLKOV(JW. E0(30VVTO0'oiKaLai imEpTWV7TatOwV,aAA'67TAI.Tat aya80LKaKOVn7TOLEI.V EKWAVOV. 2.j.J.ETaTaVTai](JTpanaEAaVVELf7TTa(JTaOLaKaLa VO}J-LEW-> VO}J-LW(inflectedlike f3aAw). 7.NoteonTerminology.Thefuturemiddleiscalled"middle"rather than"middle/passive" becausethereisa separatefutureform,based ona dif-ferent tensestem, that has traditionally been termed "future passive" bygram-marians(to be learned inU35).Infact thefuture"middle" isa middle/passive formand in many verbsit can be translated asa passive: Ex.6 OiKaw)TOU)7TOAiTa)WCPEAEl:Vad AEtETaL. The just man will always be said tobenefit his fellowcitizens. 8.Futureof Ei}J-iand xpr,. Ei}J-ihasa futuremiddle,withstemE(J"-;the futuremiddle infois E(J"E(J"8aL. singular(dual)plural 1stEO"O}laLEO"O}lE8a 2nd " (EO"w8ov)EO"E0"8E EO"?1 3rd " (EO"w8ov) " EO"TaLEO"OVTaL Notetheelimination of themevowelEin3rd sing.E(J"TaL.The futureof xpr,is XP17(J"TaL= itwillbenecessary,acontractionof xpr,(noun)+ E(J"TaL(fut.of Ei}J-i). WHAT TO STUDY ANDDO 1.Learn the various types of futureconjugation presented above. 2.Learnthefutureprincipalpartsof theverbslearnedtodate(theseare compiled in the Appendix at the end of thisunit).Note that inthis book the futureprincipalpartisalwaysgiveninitsuncontractedformforthesake of clarity;inmanybooksanddictionariesonlythecontractedformis listed. 3.Learn the vocabulary of this unit. 4.Do theexercises of this unit. 1.This alternativesuffixproducesvariantfuturesinafewother verbs:e.g., cf>f1;ywhasfuture middle(future activelacking) (withnormalsuffix) or (fromfromthe suffix O"E-), 132UNIT EIGHTEEN VOCABULARY Studying theprincipalpartsof theverbslearnedtodatewillbeamajor assignmentinthenext twounitsaswell.Youmaywish to begin learningthe thirdprincipalpart alongwith thesecond asyoustudythelist inthe appendix of thisunit,andfromthisunitonthefirstthreeprincipalpartsaregivenfor newverbs intheVocabulary. w-verbs KaAEW,KaAEw, JlaVeUVw,EJlaeOV' JlEAAW, EJlEAA1wa2 vOJli(w,VOJlLEW,negative conjunctions OVOE,JlTJOE OVTE. .. OVTE, ,, flYl TE...Jl1JTE particle 9 W EXERCISES call, summon; call byname,name[ecclesiastic] learn;perceive;understand[mathematics] bedestined to,belikely to(+ inf.); be about to(+ fut. inf.); delay(+ pres.inf.) have asa custom; acknowledge, consider as;believe, think (+ infoof indirect discourse[U20]) [numismatics] fall[peripety] andnot, but not;(adverb)not even neither ... nor o!(exclamatory particle that often accompanies vocatives, oftenbest left untranslatedinEnglish) I.Translate each formprecisely. 1.7.f3aAELv13.a 7TOeavE 2. J.laerWo J.lE ea 8.EvtHTeE14. 3.V0J.lWl)(TL9.15.4. 10. 16.5.11.AEitw17. 6.12. ', 18. KpvtTl I.Notethatmanyverbswithactiveformsinthepresenthaveonlymiddle formsinthefuture (withthesamemeaningastheactive).Thisisoftentrueofverbsofperceptionormental activity (aKov(J"ol.t.aL,but is also foundinother verbs (cpEvtOj1aL, etc.). 2.Thisverbsometimesshows doubleaugmentation:imperfect17WAAOVaswellasEj1EAAOV, aorist T,j1f.AATWaaswellas Ej1f.AATwa. .Q-Verbs:Future Active and MiddleIndicative133 19. , 23. " 27.

HTTI 20.acpEtojJ.EV24.cpEVtovp.aL 28. 21.25. 7rEP.if!ELV 29. AEtETE 22. acpitTl 26.7rEiO"HT8aL30. ,, E7raLVEO"H II.Render into Greek. 1.weshall not farewell11.you (s.)willprevent 2.theywillmake a truce12.theywillguide 3.hewillnot fear13.it willbewritten 4.about to be on one's guard14.weshall be wronged 5.you(pI.)will be15.shewill carry 6.Ishallbe in training16.I shall never fall 7.weshall throw17.you(pI.)will tum 8.you (pI.)will beinneed of18.theywill obey 9.it used toseem19.itwill be possible 10.about to haveasa custom20.hewillsuppose III.Reading. 1.b..apEiovKat.[gen.of Parysatis,wifeof DareiosII, kingof Persia423-404B.C.E.]yiYVOVTaLovo[two].E7rEt.[when]o6 EP.EAAEa7r08avEL0"8aL,Ef3ovAETo 7rapELVaL[be present,from7rapa+ Eip.i]. Of7rEP.7rHoi.'KaAOVO"LKvpov,6 o acpLKVELTaL7rapaTOV7raTEpa.Vo"TEpOVo6 7rEPt.Tfiapxfi TOV aOEAcpov[brother] p.aXELTaLKat.o'ih'EV7rpatHOVTEViK1]VOrO"E-TaL,aAA'EVTfip.aXTl7rHTELTaL.o6aptH aVT'EKEivov. 2.OV7rOTE ;;;7rOV1]PE,ovo'EKELvaTO.p.LKpaKaAOVyapoatHp.1]7rEi8E()8aLTaVTaAEYELV 3.6 TOVAv()iov[gen.of Lysias]7rEi8ETaLP.fV1moITEPL- [gen.of Pericles]T1]VTWV'A8YJvaiwvxwpavEPXE0"8aL,xpovov Ofp.aKpovEKELoiKELKat. yiyvETaL. IV.Render into Greek. 1.The Greeks will choose theAthenians to beleaders. 2.Thisthing which I am about tosayiswondrous, but I shallnot conceal the truth. 3.Neither thesailor nor thejuror willever doanyharmtoanyof thoserich citizens. 4.The factthat not even thechildren areafraid willaid thearmy. 5.For the duration of those yearswehad ten triremes. I. .isheretobetranslatedaseither. .. or.FormalEnglishdoesnottolerate doublenegatives;butGreekidiomoftenemploysmultiplenegativeswithinasentencefor el1}phasis. 134UNIT EIGHTEEN APPENDIX TO UNITEIGHTEEN ThefollowinglistpresentsalltheverbslearnedinUnits8-20 withtheir present,future,andaoristprincipalparts.Thenumberprecedingeachverb indicatesthelessoninwhichitwasfirstintroduced.Usethislistwhile studyingUnits18-20 tolearntheprincipalparts.Alongdashindicatesthat theverb lacks a principal part and hasno formsfor that tense system.Contract futures,likecontract presents, aregiven in uncontracted form. 19 8 13 13 II 16 II 16 16 8 II 8 13 10 9 II II announce lead dowrong seiz.e perceive ask/or hear lead away be distant die kill lead arrive throw harm plan desire IIbecome 19recogniz.e 8write IIexercise 9be necessary 13lack 17excel IIjudge 9seem best 13seem 8be willing 19saw 10be 19said ayyf.AAw " ayw aOLKf.W aipf.W aiu8avoJlaL aiTf.w aKovw a7Tayw(a7To):see ayw a7Tf.xW(a7To):see EXW a7To8viWKW(a7To) a7ToKTEivw(a7To) apxw acpLKVf.OJlaL(a7To) j3aAAw j3Aa7TTw j30VAEvw j3ovAOJlaL YLyvoJlaL yLyvwUKw ypacpw yVJlva(w OEL:seeOf.W aYYEAf.W aOLKryuw aipryuw aiu8ryuoJlaL ,, aLTYJUW aKOVUOJlaL a7To8avf.OJlaL a7TOKTEVf.W

j3aAf.W j3Aa",w j30VAEVUW j3ovAryuOJlaL , YWYJuoJlaL yvwUOJlaL ypa"'w , YVJlvauw Of.WoE1juw owCPf.pW(ow):see CPf.pW oLKa(woLKauw OOKEL:seeOOKf.W ,, " HJlL EUOJlaL

EiAOV(stem f.A-) iW80JlYJv nTYJua

a7Tf.8avov ,, a7TEKTHva acpLKOJl YJV Ej3aAov Ej3Aa",a Ej30vAEVua ,, EYEVOJlYJV EYVWV(U24) Eypa"'a ELOOV:see opaw fl- Verbs:Future Active and MiddleIndicative135 8driveEAavvwEAaw(U29) 19hopeEA7ri(wEA7rtEW 9be possible"tct)"EEOTtE: see EtfJ.t 16praisehratvEw (hrtl ', ,, E7m tv EfT WE7rIlvEfm 16desirehrt8vfJ.EW(hrt)E7l"t8vfJ.-r]awE7rE8vvrwa[ vJ 8entrustE7l"tTPE7rW(E7rtl:see TpE7rW 19[no present inAttic] ,, " "sayEpEWEt7rOVor Et7ra (stem E17r-) IIgo EPXfJ.at EAEVa0fJ.at (stem EM-) JOfind ', ,, '" EVptaKwEVpYJawYJvpov 17pray EVXfJ.at EVtfJ.atYJvtafJ.YJv 8have EXW Etw and aX-r]awEaxov 16seek(YJTEW(YJT-r]awE(-r]TYJaa 16lead.believe ', ,, YJYYJa0fJ.atYJYYJaafJ.YJv 18callKaAEwKaAEwEKaAEaa 17KaTYJyopEW(KaTa)KaTYJyop-r]aw , accuseKaTYJyopYJaa 9orderKEAEVWKEAEvawEKEAEVaa 9beat , KO"'WEKo"'a K07rTW 13be strongKpaTEw , EKpaTYJaaKpaTYJaw 17hide , KPV"'W EKpv"'aKPV7rTW 16preventKWAVW[ vIKWAvaw[ vJEKwAvaa 8takeAafJ.j3avw A-r]"'0fJ.at EAaj30v 8sayAEYWAEtwEAEta 8leaveAEi7rwAEi",wEAt7l"OV 8releaseAVW[ vJAvaw [ vJEAvaa 18learnfJ.av8avwfJ.a8-r]a0fJ.at EfJ. a8ov IIfight fJ.aXfJ.atfJ.axE0fJ.atEfJ.aXEaafJ.YJv 18be about tofJ.EAAWfJ.E AA -r]a WEfJ.EAAYJaa 8remain " fJ.EVWfJ.EVEWEfJ.Etva 18believev0fJ.i(w , EVOfJ.taaV0fJ.tEW 13be ill ,,, voaEWvoaYJawEVoaYJaa 13dwell01KEW ', " OtKYJawII " " , , supposeotOfJ.ator otfJ.atOt YJa0fJ.at 19seeopaw(U28) O"'0fJ.at E(OOV(stem 10-) 16lead astray7rapayw (7rapa):see ayw IIexhort7rapaKEAEV0fJ.at(7rapa):see KEAEVW(usemiddle forms) I 17rapaaKEva(w(7rapa) , 7rapEaKEvaaaprepare7rapaaKEvaaw 16furnish7rapEXW(7rapa):see EXW 10suffer , E7ra8ov 7raaxw7rEta0fJ.at 136UNIT EIGHTEEN 8persuade7TEiew7TEirrw " E7THrra 8send , 7TEjJ."'WE7TEjJ."'a 7TEjJ.7TW 18fall7Ti7TTW7TErrEojJ.aLE7TErrov 17strike-7TAryTTw-7TArytw-E7TAT/ta 13make7TOtf.W7ToLryrrwE7TOiT/ua IIbe a citizen7TOALTf.VW7TOALTf.VrrWE7TOAi Tf.vrra[ ;:I 10do7TpaTTw[ a I7Tpatw[aIE7Tpata 9befitting , 7TpE7TH IIinquire7Tvv8avojJ.aL7TEvrrojJ.aLE7TV8ojJ.T/v IIpour libationrr7TEvow , EU7THrrarr7THrrw 9 , Tatwhata arrangeTaTTW 16turnTPE7TW TPE"'W ETpE",aand hpa7Tov' 12strike ,, TV7TTWTV7TTT/rrw 8bear CPEPW oLrrw7]VEYKOVand " T/vEYKa (stem EVEYK-) 8flee CPEVYW cpEvtojJ.aLandECPVYOV cpEVtEojJ.aL 20saycp1/jJ.icpryrrw ECPiWa 13loveCPLAEWCPLAryuwEcpiAT/rra 13frighten CPOPEW cpopryrrwEcpopT/Ua 16guardcpvAaTTwcpvt..6.twEcpvAata 9be necessary xpry2 XP7]UTaL 13helpWCPEAEWwcpEAryrrwwcpEAT/rra 1.The second aorist ispoetic and intransitive insense; inprose the second aorist middleisused with theintransitive meaning "fled." 2.Imperf.orinf. UNIT NINETEEN o Verbs:Aorist Active and Middle Indicative 1.Aorist PrincipalPart.Thethirdprincipalpartof a Greekverbisthe firstpersonsingular aoristactiveindicativeform(orif theactiveislacking, the firstpersonsingular aorist middleindicative form).This formprovides the tensestemfromwhichareformedtheaorist indicative,subjunctive,optative, imperative, infinitive, and participle in both active and middle voices. 2.Formationof Aorist Stem.Thesafestwaytorecognizeor tobeable to formtheaorist of a given verb is to know the principal parts of the verb.But itisalsousefultoknowsomeof thebasicpatternsinvolvedinformationof theaorist stem,asthishelpsinlearningprincipalpartsandhelpsinrecogniz-ing aorist formsyou come acrossfor thefirst time inreading. Therearetwotypesof aoriststemandtwocorrespondingschemesof aorist conjugation. a.Strongaorist,traditionallycalledsecondaorist.Thisisthemore primitivetypeof inflectionandisfoundinmanyof themostcommonand basic verbs.(Cf."irregular" verbsin modem languages, such asEnglish break, broke;teach,taught;bring,brought.)Thestrong aorist stemisusuallya sim-ple form of the verb stem itself with a weak-gradevowel, such asii,E,C,V. Ex. presentaorist stem j3o.Mwj3ur..-r..UJ.l.j3o.vwr..uj3-YLYVOJ.l.UL yEV-7Ti7TTW 7THj-r..Ei7TWr..L7T-, 7TU$- 7TU(jXW CPElJywcpvy-say (no pres.) , EL7T-see (no pres.)LO-137 138 present " uyw EXW cpipw EPXOjlUL aorist stem , ayuy-ax-EVEYK-Et..e-UNIT NINETEEN Therootformof a verbisnotalwaysobviousfromthepresentprincipalpart (seefurtherdetailsonstemformationin8below).Afewverbs(tosee,to say) havenopresent stem fromthe same root in Attic Greek.For a fewverbs a fullconjugationiscreated byusingetymologicallydistinctrootsindifferent principalparts:for instance, three separate rootsin CPEPW,OL,andnot ELnE'>,wasthenormalsecondsingularforminAttic.Inpostc\assicalGreek prosethea-endingsalsoappear sometimesinotherstrongaoristverbs(e.g., Enwav for EnE(J"ovinPolybius). 8.TheFormationof TenseStems.Thissectioncontainsoptionalinfor-mationforthecuriousstudent.It maymakethevarietyof Greekprincipal parts somewhat moreunderstandable and learnable. a.Present stems are derived fromverb rootsina variety of ways: (l)simple root without suffix:e.g., AVW.IlEVW.nEi8w.nOLEw; (2)labialplosive stems withpresent suffix T:e.g., (3AanTWfromf3Aa(3-, KCJ7rTWfromKon-.KpvnTwfromKpVcp-; (3)withpresentsuffixsemi vocaliciota(y),whichhasalwaysdisap-pearedwhileproducingeuphonicchanges(changesmadeforthe sake of ease of pronunciation): (a)added to dentalstems,such asKOlli(wfromKOIlLO-.EAni(wfrom EA7rLO- [but notethat-L(Wand-a(wwereproductivesuffixesin their own right,asinvOlli(wfromVOIlO'>or napa(J"KEvu(Wfrom (J"KEV1j] ; (b)added to stems iny, such as apnu(w from apnay-; (c)added tovelar plosivestems,producingAttic-TT- andnon-Attic -(J"(J"-,e.g., CPVAUTTW(cpvAaK-).npuTTw (npay-),TUTTW(TaY-); (d)added to stemsinliquid or nasal,producing either a doubling of Aoracompensatorylengtheningandalterationof thevowel precedingv:e.g.,ayyEAAw(aYYEA-).PUAAW(paA-).cpaivw (cpav-).KTdvw(KTEV-); 142UNIT NINETEEN (4)with present suffix ending in v, ofteninvolving theinsertion of jJ.or v within thepresent-tenseverb stem (nasalinfix):e.g., AajJ.[3cwwfrom Aa(3- (suffix av, infix jJ.),EAavvwfromEAa-,7rVv8cwojJ.aLfrom 7rv8-(suffix av, infix v), jJ.av8uvwfromjJ.a8- (suffix av, infix v); (5)withpresentsuffix-U"KWor -LU"KW(usuallywithinceptivemeaning, i.e.,"beginningtoX,becomingX," or thelike):e.g.,8vfwKWfrom root 8v1]- (a variant of root 8av-), YLYVWu"KWfromroot yvw-, 7ruU"xw fromroot 7ra8- (*7ra8U"Kw- > 7ruU"xwby elimination of 8and trans-ferenceof its aspiration to K[assimilation]). b.Reduplication(repetitionof theinitialsound)occursinsometense stems.In theperfect stem reduplicationwiththevowelE isregular,aswillbe seen inU37 (e.g., AEAoma,yEyova).Some present stemsfeatureiota-redupli-cation:forinstance,yiyvojJ.aLfromrooty(dv-, YLYVWu"KWfromrootyvw-, 7ri7rTWfromroot 7r(dT-