introduction to biology reviewer

8/12/2019 Introduction to Biology Reviewer

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CHAPTER I- ORIGINS OF LIFE ON EARTH

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE1) CREATIONISM - A BELIEF THAT A DIVINE BEING CREATED EACH TYPE OF

ORGANISM SEPARATELY AT THE BEGINNING OF THE WORLD.

MICHAELANGELO - THIS CREATIONISM WAS HIS AND REMAINEDUNCHALLENGED NOT UNTIL 18 TH CENTURY.

2) SPONTANEOUS GENERATION - ARISTOTLE BELIEVED THAT LIFE COULDCOME INTO BEING BY ITSELF FROM NONLIVING MATERIALS. JEAN BAPTISTE VON HELMONT

- WHEAT KERNELS + DIRTY SHIRT + 21 DAYS= MICE- APPEARANCE OF MAGGOTS IN MEAT- APPEARANCE OF BEETLES AND WASP IN COW DUNG- MICE ARISE FROM THE MUD OF THE NILE

ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK - DISCOVERED ANIMALCULES OR LITLEANIMALS WHILE USING LENSES.

JOHN NEEDHAM- BOILED MEAT BROTH = TRANSFERRED CONTAINER = INCUBATE =

CLOUDY BROTH- BOTH GAVE RISE TO ANIMALCULES.

3) BIOEGENESIS - EXPLAINED THAT LIFE COULD COME ONLY FROM PRE-EXISTING LIFE. FRANCESCO REDI - NO MAGGOTS GREW ON THE CLOSED CONTAINER. LAZARO SPALLENZANI - REPEATED NEEDHAMS EXPERIMENT WITH

DIFFERENCE: CONTAINER WAS SEALED AND BROTH WAS NOTTRANSFFERED.

LOUIS PASTEUR - TESTED YEAST SOUP IN A VARIETY OF CONTAINERS.

HETEROTROPH - AN ORGANISM THAT IS UNABLE TO MAKE ITS OWN FOOD.AUTOTROPHS - ARE ORGANISMS THAT ARE CAPABLE OF PRODUCING THEIR OWNFOOD.


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CHAPTER II- MANIFESTATIONS OF LIFE

MANIFESTATIONS OF LIFE1) CELLULAR ORGANIZATION

CELL - BASIC STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE IN NEARLY ALL

TYPES OF ORGANISMS. CELL THEORY

- ALL ORGANISMS ARE COMPOSED OF CELLS- CELL IS ALSO A UNIT OF FUNCTION OF ALL ORGANISMS- CELLS ARISE FROM PRE-EXISTING CELLS- CELL CONTAINTS CONTAINS HEREDITARY MATERIAL(NUCLEIC ACID)

THROUGH WHICH SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS ARE PASSED FROMPARENT TO DAUGHTER CELL

2) METABOLISM - SUM TOTAL OF ALL CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROCESSESWITHIN THE BODY.

ANABOLISM - BUILDING PROCESSES LIKE PHOTOSYNTHESIS. CATABOLISM - BREAKDOWN PROCESSES LIKE CELLULAR RESPIRATION. AUTOTROPHIC - ORGANISMS THAT CAN CAPTURE INORGANIC ENERGY.

3) REPRODUCTION - A PROCESS IN WHICH ONE OR TWO PARENT ORGANISMSFORM A NEW ORGANISM. ASEXUAL - AN ORGANISM FORMED BY ONE PARENT. SEXUAL - TAKES PLACE WHEN NUCLEI OF AN EGG AND SPERM FUSE TO

FORM A NEW INDIVIDUAL. GAMETES/SEXCELLS - WHEN TWO CELLS FUSE THROUGH COPULATION.

4) GROWTH - OCCURS IN CELL DIVISION.5) RESPONSIVENESS - STIMULI, THE LIVING PROTOPLAST IS CAPABLE OF

RESPONDING TO EXTERNAL CONDITIONS.6) EVOLUTION - THE ABILITY OF THE ORGANISM TO EVOLVE.


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- ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS - NET ABSORPTION OF ENERGY LIKEPHOTOSYNTHESIS.

- EXOTHERMIC REACTOINS - NET RELEASE OF ENERGY LIKE CELLULARRESPIRATION.

ENTROPY - MEASURE OF THE DISORDER OF A SYSTEM.

EQUILIBRIUM - REACHED WHEN ENTROPY IS MAXIMUM.

INORGANIC MOLECULES, IONS AND NUTRIENTS WATER - A WEAK POLAR, ALLOWS IT TO BECOME A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT.

- ADHESION - WATER MOLECULES AND THE MOLECULES OF SOLIDSURFACES ARE ATTRACTED TO EACH OTHER. THIS GIVES RISE TOCAPILLARITY.

- CAPILLARITY - ABILITY TO SPREAD THROUGH FINE PORES OR TOMOVE UPWARDS THROUGH NAROW TUBES AGAINST THE FORCE OFGRAVITY.

IONS - ATOMS WHICH HAVE LOST OR GAINED ONE OR MORE ELECTRONS. - SODIUM + AND POTASSIUM + - IMPORTANT IN NERVE IMPULSE

TRANSMISSIONS. INORGRANIC ELEMENTS - FORM A NECCESARY PART OF MANY ORGANIC

MOLECULES LIKE HEMOGLOBIN AND MAGNESIUM IN CHLOROPHYLL.

ACIDS, BASES AND BUFFERS ACID - ANY MOLECULE CAPABLE OF RELEASING A HYDROGEN ION.

- HYDROCHLORIC ACID - FOUND IN MANS STOMACH WHICH ARESTRONG ACIDS BECAUSE THEY LOSE PROTONS EASILY.

BASE - ANY MOLECULE CAPABLE OF ACCEPTING A HYDROGEN ION.

BUFFERS - ORGANISMS PROTECT THEMSELVES FROM PH FLUCTUATIONSWITH THESE. CHEMICALS THAT COUPLE WITH FREE HYDROGEN ANDHYDROXIDE IONS.

BIOMOLECULES CARBOHYDRATES - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS COMPOSED OF CARBON,

HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN IN A RATIO OF 2 H ATOMS TO 1 O ATOM. - MONOSACCHARIDE/SIMPLE SUGAR - CONTAINS CARBON, HYDROGEN,

AND OXYGEN. EX: GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, GALACTOSE, RIBOSE, ANDDEOXYRIBOSE. A) GLUCOSE - A SIX CARBON COMPOUND IS FORMED DURING

PHOTOSYNTHESIS, MAIN SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR BOTH PLANTSAND ANIMALS.

B) FRUCTOSE - SWEETEST AND FOUND IN FRUITS. C) GALACTOSE - FOUND IN MILK .D) ISOMERS - GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE AND GALACTOSE SINCE THEY ALL

HAVE AN IDENTICAL FORMULA C 6 H 12 O 6 . E) DEOXYRIBOSE AND RIBOSE - 5 CARBON COMPOUNDS FOUND IN

NUCLEIC ACIDS.


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- DISACCHARIDES/DOUBLE SUGARS - COMBINATION OF 2 SIMPLESUGARS. A) MALTOSE - 2 GLUCOSE B) SUCROSE - GLUCOSE AND FRUCTOSE C) LACTOSE - GLUCOSE AND GALACTOSE

- POLYSACCHARIDE - COMPLEX MOLECULE COMPOUND OF 3 OR MOREMONOSACCHARIDES. A) GLYCOGEN - ANIMAL STARCH B) STARCH C) CELLULOSE - GIVES STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY TO THE PLANT CELL

WALL. LIPIDS - COMPOUND MADE OF CARBON, HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. IT HAS

A LARGER NUMBER OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN ATOMS AND A SMALLERNUMBER OF OXYGEN. - GLYCEROL - BUILDS UP LIPIDS - SATURATED - CARBON CHAINS CARRY ALL THE HYDROGEN POSSIBLE,

TEND TO SOLIDIFY AT ROOM TEMPERATURE AND IT IS HEALTHIER:BUTTER, GREASE ETC.

- UNSATURATED - COMBINE WITH FEWER H ATOMS AND JOINED BYDOUBLE BONDS AND IT IS UNHEALTHIER.

- WAXES - MOLECULES WITH VERY LONG AND SATURATED FATTY ACIDCHAINS WITH LONG CHAINED CARBON RINGS.

PROTEINS - MOST ABUNDANT ORGANIC MOLECULES IN THE CELLS, MADEUP OF PRIMARILY OF C, H, O AND N. - AMINO ACIDS - THERE ARE 20 KINDS AND BUILDING BLOCKS OF

PROTEIN.

A)

PEPTIDE BONDS - LINK THE AMINO ACIDS. - POLYPEPTIDES - CHAINS OF AMINO ACIDS THAT CONSTITUTEPROTEIN.

- ENZYMES - PROTEINS THAT SPEED UP CHEMICAL REACTIONS BYLOWERING THE ACTIVATION ENERGY. USUALLY NAMED BY ADDINGSUFFIX(ASE) EX: MALTASE, LIPASE ETC. SPECIFIC ENZYMECATALYZES ONLY A SPECIFIC REACTION EX: MALTASE= STARCH TOMALTOSE NOT TO SPLIT SUCROSE OR LACTOSE.

- SUBSTRATE - A REACTANT IN A CHEMICAL REACTION THAT ISCATALYZED BY THE ENZYME.

NUCLEIC ACIDS - COMPLEX ORGANIC MOLECULES THAT STOREIMPORTANT INFORMATION IN THE CELL. - DEOXYRIBOSE NUCLEIC ACID(DNA) -CONSISTS OF 2 LONG

POLYNUCLEOTIDE STANDS COILED TO FORM A DOUBLE HELIX. A) NUCLEOTIDE

1) 5 CARBON SUGAR GROUP 2) ORGANIC PHOSPHATE GROUP 3) RING SHAPED NITROGEN CONTAINING BASE


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B) NITROGEN BASES

1) PURINES A) ADENINE - (THYMINE) B) GUANINE - (CYTOSINE)

2) PYRIMIDINES A) CYTOSINE - REPLACED BY URACIL IN RNA B) THYMINE

- RIBOSE NUCLEIC ACID(RNA )- SINGE STRAND

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS DNA REPLICATION - THE DNA REPLICATES ITSELF BY DIVIDING TWO

BASES AND PAIRING WITH THEIR ANOTHER HALF. TRANSCRIPTION - WHEN A DNA UNZIPS ITSELF, THE RNA COPIES THE

CODE FROM THE DNA AND BECOMES THE MESSENGER RNA AND THE DNAZIPS ITSELF BACK TOGETHER. THE MRNA LEAVES THE NUCLEUS AND

MOVES INTO THE CYTOPLASM. TRANSCRIPTION IS THE FIRST STEP OFPROTEIN SYNTHESIS.

TRANSLATION - PROCESS OF ASSEMBLING PROTEIN MOLECULES FROMINFORMATION CODED IN MRNA. AMINO ACIDS ARE TRANSPORTED TOTHE RIBOSOMES BY TRANSFER RNA. THE AMINO ACIDS ARE ATTACHEDTO A SPECIFIC RIBOSOME. THE PRODUCT IS A POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN. - RRNA - MAJOR CONSTITUENT OF RIBOSOMES.

CHAPTER IV- CELLULAR ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

METABOLIC PATHWAYS - METABOLISM OF ALL CELLS IS CARRIED OUT BY MANYSERIES OF INTERCONNECTED CHEMICAL REACTIONS.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS - IS A PROCESS BY WHICH PLANTS AND OTHER AUTOTROPHSPRODUCE HIGH ENERGY COMPLEX FOOD MOLECULES FROM SIMPLERCOMPONENTS IN THE PRESENCE OF LIGHT ENERGY.

CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER - TO BE USED IN THE CYCLE. GLUCOSE, OXYGEN, WATER- PRODUCTS ENDERGONIC REACTION - UPHILL PRCESS IN WHICH LOW ENERGY

MOLECULES SUCH AS CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER INTERACT TO FORMHIGH ENERGY CARBOHYDRATES(GLUCOSE) AND EVENTUALLY PROTEINS.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION - BREAKDOWN OF MOLECULES LIKE GLUCOSE IN THEPRESENCE OF OXYGEN RESULTING IN THE RELEASE OF ENERGY IN THE FORM OFATP

GLUCOSE AND OXYGEN - TO BE USED CARBON DIOXIDE, WATER, ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE - PRODUCTS


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CHAPTER V- CELLULAR BIOLOGY

HISTORY OF THE CELL

ANTON VAN LEEUWNEHOEK - USED THE MICROSCOPE AND DETECTEDSMALL ORGANISMS.

ROBERT HOOKE - SAW CELLS IN CORK. DUJARDIN - FOUND A MATERIAL CALLED SARCODE AND LATER TERMED

PROTOPLASM. MATHIAS SCHLEIDEN - PLANTS, MADE OF CELLS. THEODORE SCHWAN - ANIMALS, MADE OF CELLS. RUDOLPH VIRCHOW - CELL COMES FROM CELLS.

CELL MORPHOLOGY PROKARYOTE - LACKS A TRUE NUCLEUS AND HAS NO NUCLEAR

MEMBRANE AND LACKS MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES. EX: BACTERIA,BLUE GREEN ALGAE.

EUKARYOTE - HAS A TRUE NUCLEUS SURROUNDED BY NUCLEARMEMBRANE.

CYTOPLASM - LIES INSIDE THE CELL MEMBRANE, CONTAINS WATER ANDSALTS AND SURROUNDS THE ORGANELLES.

ORGANELLES - STRUCTURES WITHIN THE CELL. CYTOSOL - LIQUID SUBSTANCE OF THE PROTOPLASM.

PARTS OF CELL CELL MEMBRANE - CALLED THE PLASMA MEMBRANE. SELECTIVE

PERMEABILITY. - DIFFUSION - NET MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES FROM AN AREA OF

GREATER CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF LESSER CONCENTRATIONW/O THE EXPENDITURE OF ENERGY.

- ACTIVE TRANSPORT - MOVE ACROSS THE CEL WITH THE USE OF ATP. CELL WALL - RIGID OUTER STRUCTURE PROTECTING CELLS OF PLANTS,

FUNGI AND BACTERIA. IT IS COMPOSED OF LONG CHAIN CARBOHYDRATECALLED CELLULOSE. - PECTIN AND LIGNIN - ADD HARDNESS AND RIGIDITY. - MIDDLE LAMELLA - FOUND BETWEEN ADJACENT CELL WALLS.

- GLYCOCALYX - ANIMAL CELLS CONTAIN AN OUTER LAYER OF A SHORTCARBOHYDRATE CHAIN.

NUCLEUS - CENTER OF HEREDITARY PROCESSES IN CELL. - GENES - SEGMENTS OF DNA LOCATED AT A PARTICULAR PLACE AT A

SPECIFIC CHROMOSOME. - CHROMOSOME - DNA WITH HISTONE PROTEIN. - NUCLEOLUS - RNA ORIGINATES FROM THE DARKLY STAINED

STRUCTURE.


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RIBOSOMES - MOST NUMEROUS CELL STRUCTURES THAT ARERESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS. - POLYSOMES - GROUPS OF RIBOSOMES JOINED TOGETHER BY A

STRAND OF MRNA. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - SERIES OF MEMBRANE-LINED CHANNELS

WHICH FACILITATE TRANSPORT WITHIN THE CELL. - ROUGH ER - WITH RIBOSOMES, FOUND IN CELLS THAT PRODUCE

PROTEINS. - SMOOTH ER - WITHOUT RIBOSOMES, FOUND IN CELLS THAT PRODUCE

LIPIDS. GOLGI COMPLEX/DICTYOSOME - CLUSTER OF FLATTENED, PARALLEL

SACS AND APPEARTS TO BE INVOLVED IN THE TRANSPORT, PACKAGINGAND SECRETION OF MATERIALS. - ORGANELLE - SITE OF THE PRODUCTION OF NEW MEMBRANES FOR ER.

MITOCHONDIA - ROUNDED, CIGAR SHAPED OR ELONGATED ORGANELLESWHICH ARE SPECIALIZED FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION CALLED CELLULARRESPIRATION.

PLASTIDS - FOOD AND PGIMENTS ARE STORED IN PLANT CELLORGANELLES. - CHLOROPLAST - CONTAINS THE GREEN PIGMENT CHLOROPHYLL. - THYLAKOID - WHERE CHLOROPHYLL IS FOUND IN THE CHLOROPLAST. - CHROMOPLASTS - STORE PIGMENTS CAROTENES (ORANGE),

XANTHOPHYLL(YELLOW) AND LYCOPENE(RED). - LEUCOPLASTS - COLORLESS FOUND IN STARCH, PROTEINS AND

LIPIDS. VACUOLES/CELL SAP - FOUND IN PLANT AND SOME ANIMAL CELLS.

STORES IONS, WASTE PRODUCTS, MOLECULES. STORAGE OF MATERIALS. LYSOSOMES - HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES WHICH ACT IN DIGESTION OFPROTEINS.

MICROTUBULES AND MICROFILAMENTS - CYSTOSKELETON ORFRAMEWORK IS DUE TO THE LONG, SLENDER PROTEIN TUBES AND FINEPROTEIN THREADS CALLED MFILAMENTS.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA - HAIR LIKE EXTENSIONS THAT PROJECT FROM THESURFACES OF CERTAIN CELLS.

CENTRIOLES - ONLY IN ANIMALS. MICROBODIES - HELP CONVERT FATS AND OILS TO THE SUGARS

NECESSARY FOR RAPID, GROWTH OF PLANTS.

- PEROXISOMES - PRESENT IN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS. - GLYOXISOMES - OCCUR IN LIPID-RICH PLANT CELLS.


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- CILIA - SMALL HAIR LIKE PROJECTIONS IN RESPIRATORY TRACTSREMOVE DUST AND OTHER PARTICLES OF FOREIGN MATERIALS INTHE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

CONNECTIVE TISSUES - COMPOSED OF ISOLATED CELLS EMBEDDEDWITHINA NONLIVING MATRIX.

- BONE - HARD, RELATIVELY LARGE MATERIALS. THEY SERVE AS FRAMEWORK FOR MOVEMENT.

- CARTILAGE - MORE ELASTIC THAN BONE AND CAN BE CONSIDERED ASBONE WIHTOUT CALCIUM DEPOSITS IN THE MATRIX. CAN BE FOUNDIN THE NOSE, EARS, LARYNX AND TRACHEA.

- TENDON - A DENSE TISSUE WITH TOUGH FIBERS AND CAN BE FOUNDTHROUGHOUT THE BODY. IT CONNECTS MUSCLES TO PARTS OF THESKELETON.

- LIGAMENT - BOTH TOUGH AND ELASTIC FIBERS. CAN BE FOUNDTHROUGHOUT THE BODY. IT CONNECTS BONES.

- BLOOD - COMPOSED OF LIVING CELLS SURROUNDED BY A NONLIVINGMATRIX CALLED THE BLOOD PLASMA. A) ERYTHROCYTES - WHICH CARRY OXYGEN, RED BLOOD CELLS. B) LEUCOCYTES - WHICH AID IN FIGHTING INFECTION, WHITE BLOOD

CELLS. C) THROMBOCYTES - WHICH ARE IMPORTANT IN BLOOD CLOTTING,

PLATELETS. - LYMPH - BODY FLUID OUTSIDE THE BLOOD CIRCULATION THAT

FUNCTIONS IN THE CONTROL OF DISEASES AND MAINTENANCE OFOSMOTIC BALANCE. A) LYMPHOCYTES- CELLS FOUND IN LYMPH.

MUSCULAR TISSUES - HIGHLY SPECIALIZED FOR PRODUCING MOVEMENTOF THE BODY OR OF ITS PARTS.

NERVOUS TISSUE - MADE UP OF CELLS CALLED NEURONS THAT HAVETHE PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTION AND IRRITABILITY.

REPRODUCTIVE TISSUES - SPERM CELLS/SPERMATOZOA AND EGGCELLS/OVA.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DIGESTION - PROCESS OF BREAKING DOWN LARGE COMPLEX FOOD

SUBSTANCES INTO SIMPLE MOLECULES THAT CAN BE USED BY EACHCELL.

- CARBOHYDRATES, FATS AND PROTEINS - MOST OF THE FOOD OFORGANISMS CONSIST OF THESE.

DIGESTION IN PLANTS - PLANTS - DO NOT HAVE SPECIALIZED DIGESTIVE ORGANS. - INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS - VENUS FLY TRAP AND PITCHER HAVE THE

ABILITY TO CAPTURE INSECTS AND DIGEST THEM IN SPECIALCAVITIES.


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H) PANCREAS - SECRETION OF PANCREATIC JUICE TO THE SMALLINTESTINE.

I) SMALL INTESTINE - DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION. J) LARGE INTESTINE - RESORPTION OF WATER, COLLECTION OF

UNDIGESTED FOOD.

K) ANUS - WASTE EXIT.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - ALSO KNOWN AS TRANSPORT SYSTEM. CIRCULATION - THE FLOW OF NUTRITIVE FLUIDS, WATER AND WASTE

MATERIALS IN LIVING ORGANISMS. CIRCULATION IN PLANTS

- XYLEM - WATER AND MINERALS ARE ABSORBED BY THE ROOTS ANDARE TRANSPORTED TO THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE PLANTTHROUGH THESE. A) TRANSPIRATION - COHESION.

- PHLOEM - FOOD MANUFACTURED IN THE LEAVES DURINGPHOTOSYNTHESIS IS TRANSPORTED FROM THE LEAF TO OTHERPARTS OF THE PLANT THROUGH THESE. A) TRANSLOCATION - TRANSPORT OF THE SOLUBLE PRODUCTS OF

PHOTOSYNTHESIS. B) ACTIVE TRANSPORT - OSMOSIS.

CIRCULATION IN LOWER ANIMAL FORMS - OPEN TYPE. HUMAN CIRCULATION - CLOSED TYPE COMPOSED OF THE ARTERY, VEINS

AND CAPILLARIES. - ARTERIES - THICK MUSCULAR WALLS WITH ELASTIC COVERINGS.

CARRIES OXYGENATED BLOOD FROM THE HEART TO THE DIFFERENTPARTS OF THE BODY.

- VEINS - CARRY DEOXYGENATED BLOOD FROM TISSUES TO THE HEART. - CAPILLARIES - TINY BLOOD VESSELS THAT INTERCONNECT THE

ARTERIES WITH THE VEINS. MATERIALS ARE EXCHANGED BETWEENTHE FLUID INSIDE THE CAPILLARIES AND THE FLUID SURROUNDINGTHE TISSUE CELLS THROUGH THE TINY CAPILLARY WALLS.

THE HEART - HEART - LOCATED IN THE FRONT PART OF THE CHEST AND

CONSTANTLY BEATS DAY AND NIGHT. - BLOOD VESSELS - WHERE THE BLOOD TRAVELS TO ALL PARTS OF THE

BODY WITH EACH BEAT OF THE HEART.

- 90 TIMES/MIN - HEARTBEAT OF A BOY OR A GIRL. - 140 TIMES/MIN - A BABYS HEARTBEAT. - 70-80 TIMES/MIN - A GROWN PERSONS HEARBEAT. - PACEMAKER - SPECIALIZED MUSCLE TISSUES LOCATED AT THE RIGHT

ATRIUM. - AURICLE/ATRIUM - UPPER PART OR CHAMBER. - VENTRICLE - LOWER PART OR CHAMBER.


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- SUPERIOR VENA CAVA AND INFERIOR VENA CAVA - BRING BLOODBACK FROM THE BODY TO THE ATRIUM.

- TRICUSPID VALVE - THE BLOOD IS SENT HERE AND THEN TO THERIGHT VENTRICLE.

- RIGHT VENTRICLE - PUMPS THE WASTE-FILLED BLOOD THROUGH THEPULMONARY ARTERY. A) DEOXYGENATED - WASTE FILLED BLOOD.

- PULMONARY ARTERIES - ARE THE ONLY ARTERIE IN THE BODY THATARE DEOXYGENATED OR BLOOD FILLED WITH WASTE SUCH ASCARBON DIOXIDE.

- LUNGS - WHERE BLOOD GOES IN AND THEIR WASTES ARE RELASEDAND OXYGEN IS TAKEN IN THE BLOOD.

- PULMONARY VEINS - BRING FRESH BLOOD(OXYGENATED) BACK FROMBOTH LUNGS TO THE LEFT ATRIUM. THEY ARE THE ONLY VEINS THATCARRY OXYGENATED BLOOD.

- BICUSPID/MITRAL VALVE - FROM THE LEFT ATRIUM THE OXYGEN-RICHBLOOD IS PUMPED THROUGH THIS INTO THE LEFT VENTRICLE.

- LEFT VENTRICLE - PUMPS THE OXYGEN-RICH BLOOD TO THE REST OFTHE BODY THROUGH MAIN ARTERY CALLED THE AORTA.

- AORTA - BRANCHES OFF INTO MANY SMALLER ARTERIES THATEXTEND THROUGHOUT ALL THE BODY.

- PULMONARY CIRCULATION - CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD FROM THERIGHT ATRIUM TO THE LEFT VENTRICLE OF THE HEART.

- SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION - OCCURS FROM THE TIME BLOOD LEAVESTHE HEART VIA THE AORTA TO THE TIME THE BLOOD ENTERS THEHEART VIA THE VENA CAVAE VEINS.

COMPONENTS OF THE BLOOD - BLOOD - A TISSUE CONSISTING OF A CELLULAR PORTION COMPOSED

OF RBC, WBC, PLATELETS AND PLASMA. A) RED BLOOD CELLS(ERYTHROCYTES) - MADE IN THE BONE MARROW

OF THE LONG BONES, ARE HIGHLY SPECIALIZED TO CARRY THEOXYGEN TO THE BODY CELLS AND TO REMOVE CARBON DIOXIDEFROM THE BODY CELLS TO THE LUNGS. 1) HEMOGLOBIN - A RED, IRON-CONTAINING PROTEIN PIGMENT IN

THE ERYTHROCYTES WHICH MAKES THIS PROCESS POSSIBLE. 2) NOTE: RBC DOESNT CONTAIN ANY NUCLEUS . 3) 4 MILLION TO 6 MILLION CELLS/M 3 - NORMAL RED BLOOD CELL

COUNT. B) WHITE BLOOD CELLS(LEUKOCYTES )- LARGER THAN RBC, THEY

HELP THE BODY FIGHT INFECTION.1) BONE MARROW - WHERE SOME WBC ARE MADE. 2) PUS OF A SORE OR BOIL - WHERE SOME WBC CAN BE FOUND. 3) NOTE: WBC CONTAINS NUCLEUS . 4) 4,500 TO 11,000 CELLS/M 3 - NORMAL WHITE BLOOD CELL COUNT.


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C) PLATELETS/THROMBOCYTES - PRODUCED IN THE BONE MARROW,LACK A NUCLEUS AND CANNOT REPRODUCE THEMSELVES. 1) 10 DAYS - LIFE SPAN OF PLATELETS IN VASCULAR SYSTEM, 2) BLOOD CLOTTING PROCESS - PLATELETS ASSIST IN THIS.

A) PLATELETS - DISINTEGRATE WHEN BLOOD LEAVES A

VESSEL. B) THROMBOPLASTIN - RELEASED BY PLATELETS. C) PROTHROMBIN + Ca ++ - RESULTS TO THROMBIN. D) FIBRINOGEN- BLOOD PROTEIN. E) FIBRIN- FORMS A NETWORK AND TRAPS BLOOD CELLS

FORMING A CLOT. 3) 250,000 PLATELETS - NUMBER OF PLATELETS.

D) PLASMA - LIQUID PART OF THE BLOOD, 91.5 PERCENT WATER, 7PERCENT PROTEINS AND 1.5 PERCENT (SALTS, GLUCOSE, AMINOACIDS, VITAMINS, HORMONES, AND ALL THE WASTE PRODUCTS OFCELLULAR METABOLISM.)

1) ALBUMIN - MAJOR PLASMA PROTEIN WHOSE OSMOTIC EFFECTHELPS RETAIN WATER WITHIN THE VESSELS AND WHICH ALSOSERVES AS A NONSPECIFIC CARRIER PROTEIN BY BINDINGWITH CERTAIN OTHER SMALL MOLECULES IN THE PLASMA.

2) EDEMA - A SWELLING, UNDER CRITICALLY LOW ALBUMIN,WATER MOVES FROM THE CAPILLARIES TO THE BODY TISSUES.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM LYMPH - THE FLUID PART, IS COLLECTED BY THE CAPILLARIES OF THE

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND DRAINS PROGRESSIVELY INTO LARGERVESSELS CALLED THE LYMPHATIC DUCTS.

LYMPHATIC DUCTS - EMPTY INTO LARGE VEINS AND RE-ENTER THECARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM.

LYMPH NODES - CONCENTRATED IN THE NECK, ARMPIT, INNER ELBOWAND GROIN. SECONDARY SITES FOR PRODUCTION OF LYMPHOCYTESTHAT PRODUCE ANTIBODIES.

HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM - PATHOGEN - DISEASE-CAUSING ORGANISMS THAT ARE HIGHLY

SPECIFIC IN THEIR ACTION MAKE UP THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. - LYMPH VESSELS, LYMPH NODES, WBC AND THYMUS GLAND - AREAS

WHERE DEFENSE SYSTEM IS ACTIVE. - LYMPHOCYTES - IMMUNE IS MEDIATED BY THESE.

1) T AND B CELLS - BOTH DERIVED FROM THE LYMPHOCYTIC CELLS INTHE BONE MARROW.

2) T CELLS - PROCESSED OR DIFFERENTIATED IN THE THYMUS. 3) B CELLS - DIFFERENTIATED IN THE BONE MARROW.

- ANTIGEN - ANY SUBSTANCE(LARGE POLYSACCHARIDES/LARGELIPOPROTEINS) THAT CAUSES A SPECIFIC IMMUNE RESPONSE.


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- ANTIBODIES - IMMUNE SUBSTANCES FOUND IN THE INVADINGORGANISM. B CELLS ARE INVOLVED IN THE FORMATION OF THESE.

- IMMUNOGLOBULIN - A SPECIFIC ANTIBODY EXISTS IN THE BODY FORALMOST EVERY ANTIGEN.

- HUMORAL RESPONSE(ANTIBODY-MEDIATED SYSTEM )- IS THE ASPECT

OF IMMUNITY THAT IS MEDIATED BY MACROMOLECULES FOUND INEXTRACELLULAR FLUIDS SUCH AS SECRETED ANTIBODIES,COMPLEMENT PROTEINS AND CERTAIN ANTIMICROBIAL PEPTIDES.

- CELL MEDIATED RESPONSE - THE T CELLS INTIATE THE ATTACK ONFORGEIN BODIES BY VARIOUS CELL TYPES. T CELLS ATTACK THEEUKARYOTIC CELLS RATHER THAN THE ANTIBODIES WHETHER THEYBE THE CELLS OF ATTACKERS OR CELLS OF THE HOST BODY.

- SUPPRESSOR CELLS (MODIFIED T CELLS) - AFTER THE PATHOGEN HASDISAPPEARED FROM THE BLOOD, STOP B CELLS FORM PRODUCINGANTIBODIES.

- MEMORY B CELLS AND MEMORY T CELLS - REMAIN IN CIRCULATIONAS WHEN THEY ENCOUNTER THE SAME PATHOGEN IN THE FUTURETHEY PROLIFERATE QUICKLY AND FIGHT THE INFECTION BEFORE ITAFFECTS THE ENTIRE SYSTEM.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM RESPIRATION - WHOLE PROCESS OF OXYGEN USE, ENERGY RELEASE AND

CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCTION BY CELLS. RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

- LEAF - CHIEF ORGAN FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS. - PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION - EXCHANGE OF GASES WITH

THE ATMOSPHERE IS MADE BY POSSIBLE BY THESE. - GLUCOSE - PRINCIPAL FUEL FROM WHICH ENERGY IS RELEASED BY

OXIDATION. THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

- EXTERNAL RESPIRATION - BREATHING DRAWS OXYGEN-CONTAININGAIR ITO CLOSE CONTACT WITH THE DAMP EPITHELIUM OF THE LUNGWHERE RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE OCCURS.

- INTERNAL RESPIRATION - OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE ARETRANSPORTED TO AND FROM THE RESPIRING CELLS.

- EXTERNAL NARES/NOSTRILS - AIR PASSES THROUGH THIS ANDENTERS THE NASAL CAVITIES.

- MOISTENING - MUCUS SECRETION. - FILTERING - TINY HAIRS. - WARMING - FOLDS OF THE NOSE. - PHARYNX - THROAT. - GLOTTIS - AIR LEAVES THE PHARYNX AND GOES TO THE LARYNX VIA

THIS OPENING.1) EPIGLOTTIS - PROTECTS THE GLOTTIS.


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- LARYNX - ADAMS APPLE, WHERE THE VOCAL CHORDS ARE FOUND. - TRACHEA/WINDPIPE - SUPPORTED BY HORSESHOE-SHAPED RINGS OF

CARTILAGE FOR FREE PASSAGE OF AIR. 1) CILIA - LINE THE TRACHEA WHICH CARRY DUST OR DIRT UPWARD

TOWARD THE MOUTH.

- AIR SAC - SERIES OF CHAMBER LIKE STRUCTURES IN ITS WALLSCALLED THE ALVEOLI.

- ALVEOLI - ITS WALLS ARE VERY THIN AND ELASTIC. - BREATHING - DRAWING OF AIR INTO AND OUT OF THE LUNGS,

INVOLVES MUSCULAR CONTRACTIONS OF THE RIB CAGE ANDDIAPHRAGM.

SKELETAL SYSTEM SKELETON - GIVES SHAPE AND SUPPORT TO THE BODY AND GIVES

PROTECTION THE UNDERLYING ORGANS. VERTEBRATE SKELETON

- AXIAL SKELETON - INCLUDES THE SKULL, BACKBONE, RIBS ANDBREASTBONE (STERNUM).

- APPENDICULAR SKELETON - INCLUDES THE BONES OF THE PAIREDAPPENDAGES AND PELVIC GIRDLES.

- SKULL - MADE UP OF FUSED BONES, THE CRANIUM OR THE BODYCASE.

- BACKBONE - MADE UP OF 33 SEPARATE VERTEBRAE. - RIBS - SERIES OF FLAT BONES WHICH SUPPORT THE CHEST ALL AND

KEEP IT FROM COLLAPSING AS THE DIAPHRAGM CONTRACTS. THEREARE 12 PAIRS.

- 206 BONES - NUMBER OF BONES IN THE HUMAN BODY. - JOINT - POINT OF JUNCTION BETWEEN 2 BONES.

A) IMMOVABLE JOINTS - SKULLB) HINGE JOINTS - KNEEC) PIVOT JOINTS - WRISTS AND ANKLES

- CARTILAGE - REDUCES FRICTION BETWEEN 2 BONES.- TENDONS - ATTACH THE MUSCLES TO THE BONE.- LIGAMENT - CONNCT BONES.

BONE - BUILDING MATERIAL OF THE SKELETON. 25 PERCENT WATER AND45 PERCENT MINERAL DEPOSITS (CALCIUM COMBINE WITH EITHERPHOSPHATE OR CARBONATE.

PARATHYROID HORMONE - HORMONES WHICH CONTROLS BONEFORMATION.

PERIOSTEUM - OUTER TOUGH COVERING. COMPACT BONE - UNDER THE PERIOSTEUM CONTAINS THE DEPOSITS OF

MINERAL MATTER AND PROTEIN FIBERS. HAVERSIAN CANALS/CHANNELS - PENETRATE THE BONY LAYER. OSTEOCYTES - BONE CELLS WHICH ARE NOURISHED BY CANAS.


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SPONGY BONE - INTERIOR TO THE COMPACT BONE WHICH IS COMPOSEDOF A NETWORK OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE MAKING IT POROUS.

MARROW - SOME BONES HAVE HOLLOW INTERIORS AND CONTAIN A SOFTTISSUE. RICHLY SUPPLIED WITH BLOOD VESSELS AND NERVES.

ARTHRITIES - INFLAMED TISSUES AROUND A JOINT.

HYPERTROPHIED BONES - TOES THAT ARE LARGER THAN NORMALBONES.

RICKETS - LACK OF VITAMIN D MAKES THE BONE WEAK AND DEFORMAEDA BONE DEFECT.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM MUSCLE FIBERS - ABILITY TO MOVE DEPENDS UPON A GROUP OF

SPECIALIZED CONTRACTILE CELLS. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MUSCLE ACTIVITY

- SIMPLE TWITCH - A MUSCULAR RESPONSE.1) LATENT PERIOD - IN A SINGLE ADEQUATE STIMULUS IN A MUSCLE,

THERE IS A BRIEF INTERVAL DURING WHICH NO CONTRACTIONOCCURS.

2) CONTRACTION3) RELAXATION

- 80 PERCENT OF MUSCLE - WATER.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM SKIN - LARGEST ORGAN IN THE HUMAN BODY.

- EPIDERMIS - OUTER LAYER, COMPOSED OF 20 LAYERS OF DEAD CELLSWHICH ARE CONSTANTLY BEING SHED AND REPLACED BY NEWCELLS.

- KERATIN - ROUGH, LEATHERY AND WATER-PROOF FEATURES OF SKINIS DUE TO A PROTEIN CALLED THIS.

- HORNY LAYER - FLATTENED, DEAD AND SCALELIKE CELLS.- GERMINATIVE LAYER - MORE ACTIVE AND LARGER INNER PART.- HAIR AND NAILS - MADE UP PRIMARILY OF KERATIN.- DERMIS - INNER LAYER OF THE SKIN. COMPOSED OF LIVING CELS AND

IT CONTAINS BLOOD AND LYMPH VESSELS, NERVES, SWEAT GLANDSAND OIL GLANDS.

- EXOCRINE GLANDS - RELEASE SECRETIONS THROUGH DUCTS, NACLAND UREA.1) SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS/SWEAT GLANDS2) OIL GLANDS

- SEBUM - OIL SECRETES THIS WHICH MAKES THE SKIN SOFTER ANDWATERPROOF. THIS PREVENTS THE HAIR SHAFT OF THE SKIN FROMDRYING AND BREAKING OFF.

- MELANIN - SKIN PIGMENT PRODUCED IN THE LOWER LAYERS OF THEEPIDERMIS, HELPS DETERMINE THE SKIN COLOR AND ABSORBSHARMFUL UV LIGHT.


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CHAPTER VII- HOMEOSTASIS

DIFFUSION CELLULAR HOMEOSTASIS - DEPENDENT ON THE CELL MEMBRANE

WHEREIN NEEDED SUBSTANCES CAN BE MOVED IN AND OTHER

SUBSTANCES CAN BE MOVED OUT. DIFFUSION - PROCES BY WHICH MOLECULES MOVE FROM AN AREA OFHIGHER CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF LOWER CONCENTRATION.

CONCENTRATION GRADIENT - DIFFERENCE IN CONCENTRATION OF ASUBSTANCE ACROSS SPACE.

SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE - CELL MEMBRANES ARE THESE, THEYREGULATE WHAT GETS INTO AND OUT OF A CELL SINCE ONLY SOMESUBSTANCES ARE ALLOWED TO PASS THROUGH.

OSMOSIS - WATER MOLECULES DIFFUSE THROUGH A MEMBRANE FROMAN AREA OF GREATER CONCENTRATION TO AN AREA OF LESSERCONCENTRATION.

WATER - MAIN SOLVENT IN THE CELL. TONICITY - MEASURE OSMOTIC PRESSURE GRADIENT.

- HYPOTONIC - LOWER CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTES OUTSIDE THECELL THAN INSIDE THE CELL. MORE WATER GOES IN THE CELLENLARGES.

- HYPERTONIC- HIGHER CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTES OUTSIDE THECELL THAN INSIDE THE CELL. MORE WATER GOES OUT THE CELLCOLLAPSES.

- ISOTONIC - WHEN THE SOLUTE MOLECULES OUTSIDE AND INSIDE AREEQUAL.

TURGOR PRESSURE - IN PLANT CELLS, AS WATER DIFFUSES INTO A CELLBY OSMOSIS IT BUILDS UP A PRESSURE.

WALL PRESSURE - CELL WALL EXERTS AN EQUAL PRESSURE WHENTHERE IS TURGOR PRESSURE.

PLASMOLYSIS - ABSENCE OF TURGOR PRESSURE MAY CAUSE SHRINKING. PASSIVE TRANSPORT - DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS, REFERS TO MOVEMENT

OF ANY SUBSTANCE ACROSS A MEMBRANE WITHOUT THE USE OFCHEMICAL ENERGY.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT - SUBSTANCE MOVES ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANEFROM AN LOWER CONCENTRATION TO HIGHER CONCENTRATION WITHTHE USE OF CHEMICAL ENERGY.

ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS - PART OF THE CELLS MAINTENANCE OFHOMEOSTASIS.

ENDOCYTOSIS - PROCESS BY WHICH CELLS ENGULF OR TAKE INSUBSTANCES THAT ARE MUCH TOO LARGE TO ENTER THE CELLMEMBRANE.

EXOCYTOSIS - LARGE MOLECULES PASS OUT OF THE CELL. REGULATION OF BODY FLUIDS


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- EXTRACELLULAR FLUID - MUST REMAIN CONSTANT AROUND CELLS OFTHE BODY AND IT OCCURS AS TISSUE FLUIDS BETWEEN CELLS ANDAS PLASMA IN THE BLOOD.

- CEREBROSPINAL FLUID - FLUID IN THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CHORD.- 2 IMPORTANT WAYS IN WHICH COMPOSITION OF BODY FLUIDS IS

REGULATED1) OSMOREGULATION (WATER BALANCE)2) REMOVAL OF NITROGENOUS WASTES.

OSMOREGULATION - REFERS TO CONTROL OF WATER AND SALT BALANCEIN THE BODY.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM EXCRETION - THE PROCESS BY WHICH SUCH WASTE PRODUCTS ARE

REMOVED FROM AN ORGANISMS BODY. EXRETION IN PLANTS

- CARBON DIOXIDE - IS A WASTE PRODUCT WHICH LEAVES THE PLANT

VIA THE STOMATES AND LENTICELS.- TRANSPIRATION - WATER IS LOST THROUGH THIS AND THROUGH THE

STOMATES OF THE LEAVES.- GUTTATION- WATER IS FORCED OUT OF THE PLANT THROUGH

SPECIAL PORES IN THE LEAVES CALLED HYDATHODES. OCCURSWHEN THERE IS LITTLE OR NO TRANSPIRATION TAKING PLACEWHICH IS USUALLY DURING THE NIGHT.

HUMAN EXCRETION- KIDNEY - BEAN SHAPED ORGANS LOCATED ON BOTH SIDES OF THE

SPINAL COLUMN AND EXTENDING SLIGHTLY ABOVE THE WAIST.- ONE MILLION NEPHRONS - NUMBER OF NEPHRONS THAT A KIDNEY

CONTAINS.- NEPHRON - IS FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE KIDNEY IN WHICH BLOOD IS

FILTERED AND URINE IS FORMED.1) GLOMERULUS - SERVES AS THE PRESSURE FILTER FOR THE BLOOD.2) RENAL TUBULE - THROUGH WHICH THE FLUID THAT HAS BEEN

FILTERED OUT PASSES.3) BOWMANS C APSULE - SURROUNDS THE GLOMERULUS.

A) PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULEB) LOOP OF HENLEC) DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE - CONNECTED TO A COLLECTING

TUBULE WHICH CONDUCTS A NEWLY-FORMED URINE TO THEPELVIS.

- URINE - CONDUCTED THROUGH IT BY PERISTALTIC CONTRACTION OFTHE MUSCULAR WALL.

- URINARY BLADDER - COLLECTS AND STORES THE URINE.- FUNCTIONS OF A KIDNEY

1) FILTRATION2) REABSORPTION


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3) SECRETION- TUBULAR SECRETION - PROCESS BY WHICH SUBSTANCES SUCH AS

HYDROGEN AND POTASSIUM IONS AND VARIOUS FOREIGNSUBSTANCES SUCH AS PENICILLIN ARE ACTIVELY SECRETED INTOTHE TUBULE.

- ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE - REGULATES THE PERMEABILITY OF THECOLLECTING DUCT WHICH INCREASES PERMEABILITY, RETAININGWATER IN THE BODY.

- URINE - 96% WATER, 1.5% SALTS AND 2.5% ORGANIC WASTES, MAINLYUREA.

- UROCHROME - RESPONSIBLE FOR THE YELLOW COLOR OF URINE, ABREAKDOWN PRODUCT OF HEMOGLOBIN.

- NEPHRITIS - A BACTERIAL INFECTION OF THE KIDNEY CELLS.- UREMIA - WHICH MAY POISON THE BLOOD.- DIABETES MELLITUS - EXCESS OF GLUCOSE IN THE BLOOD WHICH

MAY RESULT IN TURN IN THE PASSAGE OF SOME GLUCOSE TO THE

OUTSIDE OF THE BODY VIA THE EURINE.

THE REGULATORY SYSTEM PITUITARY

- SECRETES:1) GROWTH HORMONES2) GONADOTROPIC3) ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC4) THYROTROPIC5) VASOPRESIN/ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE6) OXYTOCIN

7) FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE8) LUTEINIZING HORMONE

- FUNCTIONS1) PROMOTE GROWTH2) REGULATES GONAD SECRETION3) REGULATES ADRENAL SECRETION4) REGULATES THYROID SECRETION5) INCREASES THE ABSORPTION OF WATER FROM KIDNEY TUBULES6) PROMOTES CONTRACTION OF UTERUS DURING CHILDBIRTH7) STIMULATES FOLLICLE GROWTH AND SECRETION OF GAMETES

PARATHYROIDS- SECRETES: PARATHORMONE- FUNCTION: REGULATES Ca AND Ph CONCENTRATION IN THE BLOOD

THYROID- SECRETES:

1) THYROXINE2) CALCITONIN

- FUNCTIONS:


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1) REGULATE BODY METABOLISM2) INHIBITS RELEASE OF CALCIUM FROM BONES

ISLETS OF LANGERHANS IN THE PANCREAS (ALPHA AND BETA CELLS)- SECRETES:

1) GLUCAGON

2) INSULIN- FUNCTIONS:

1) INCREASES BLOOD SUGAR CONCENTRATION2) DECREASES BLOOD SUGAR CONCENTRATION3) UNDERSECRETION CAUSES DIABETES

ADRENAL- SECRETES:

1) CORTEX-MINERALCORTICOIDS - REGULATE Na AND K METABOLISMGLUCOCORTICOIDS- REGULATE CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISMANDROGENS- AFFECT THE SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

2) MEDULLAADRENALINE/EPINEPHRINE - THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT HORMONE OREMERGENCY HORMONE INCREASES BLOOD SUGAR

GONADS- SECRETES:

1) TESTES-A) TESTOSTERONE - DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY MALE SEX

CHARACTERISTICS2) OVARIES

A) ESTROGEN/PROGESTERONE THYMUS

- SECRETES:1) THYMOSIN - INVOLVED IN MATURATION OF CELLS OF IMMUNE

SYSTEM. PINEAL

- SECRETES:1) MELATONIN - REGULATES BIOLOGICAL CLOCK; MAY REGULATE

ONSET OF PUBERTY.

HOMEOTHERMY (ENDOTHERMY )- CAPACITY OF CERTAIN GROUPS OFANIMALS LIKE MAN TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT BODY TEMPERATURE.

NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURON/NERVE CELL - BASIC STRUCTURAL UNIT OF NERVOUS SYSTEM.

- DENDRITES- CARRY NERVE IMPULSES OR SIGNALS TOWARD THE CELLBODY.

- AXONS - CARRY SIGNALS AWAY FROM THE CELL BODY.


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A) MYELIN - FATTY NON-CELLULAR SUBSTANCE WHICH GIVES WHITEAPPEARANCE TO NEURONS THAT HAVE IT.

B) NEURILEMMA - THIN OUTER LATER WHICH PLAY SOME ROLE IN THEREGENERATION OF A CUT NEAURON SINCE CELLS CAN BE FOUNDIN IT.

- PERIKARYON - CELL BODY WHICH CONTAINS THE NUCLEUS.- SYNAPSE - NEURONS ARE ARRANGED SO THAT THE DENDRITES OF

ONE LIE CLOSE TO THE AXON OF ANOTHER, THE POINT WHERENEURONS COME CLOSE TOGETHER.

- SENSORY NEURONS - COMMUNICATE INFORMATION ABOUT THEEXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTS FROM SENSORYRECEPTORS TO THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

- MOTOR NEURONS - CONVEY IMPULSES FROM THE CENTRALNERVOUUS SYSTEM TO THE EFFECTOR CELLS.

- INTERNEURONS - INTEGRATE THE SENSORY INPUT AND MOTOROUTPUT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

- CEREBRUM- MOST IMPORTANT REGION OF THE BRAIN COMPOSEDBILLION NEURONS WHICH CONTROLS MOST VOLUNTARY ACTIVITIES.

- CEREBELLUM - COORDINATES IMPULSES SENT FROM THE CEREBRUMTO VARIOUS MUSCLES TO HELP MOTION.

- THALAMUS - RELAY CENTER FOR INCOMING SENSORY IMPULSES.- HYPOTHALAMUS - CONTAINS CELLS ESPECIALLY SENSITIVE TO

CHANGES IN BODY TEMPERATURE.- MEDULLA OBLONGATA - CONTAINS NERVE CENTERS THAT CONTROL

INVOLUNTARY PROCESSES SUCH BREATHING, HEART RATE,DILATION OF BLOOD VESSELS AND VOMITING.

- PONS - CONNECTING LINK BETWEEN THE RIGHT AND LEFT

HEMISPHERES.- CRANIUM - BONE OF THE HEAD- MENINGES - COMPOSED OF THE DURA MATER(OUTER), ARACHNOID

MATER(MIDDLE) AND PIA MATER(INNER) MEMBRANES.- CEREBROSPINAL FLUID - FOUND BETWEEN THE MENINGES SERVES AS

CUSHION AND SHOCK ABSORBER OF THE BRAIN IN CASE OFACCIDENTS.

- SPINAL CORD - TRANSMITS IMPULSES TO AND FROM THE BRAIN ANDTO ACT AS A REFLEX CENTER.

- REFLEX ARC - SIMPLE NEURAL PATHWAY LINKING A SENSORY ANDMOTOR NEURON.

- AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - INNERVATES THE HEART, LUNGSAND DIGESTIVE TRACT AND OTHER INTERNAL ORGANS.A) SYMPATHETIC NERVES - INCREASESB) PARASYMPATHETIC NERVES - DECREASES.

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