introduction to biomass energy conversions · 2014. 7. 17. · torrefaction 289 8.1 introduction...

INTRODUCTION TO

BIOMASS ENERGY

CONVERSIONS

Sergio C. Capareda

»C) CRC PressJ Taylor & Francis Croup

Boca Raton London NewYork

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business

Contents

List of Figures xxi

List of Tables xxxi

Foreword xxxvii

Preface xxxix

Acknowledgments xli

Author xliii

1. Biomass as Energy Source 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 US Energy Use and Needs 3

1.3 Biomass Energy Usage and Overall Energy Needs in Other

Countries 4

1.4 Future of Agriculture 51.5 Advantages and Disadvantages in Use of Biomass as Energy

Source 7

1.5.1 Advantages 8

1.5.2 Disadvantages 8

1.6 Sources of Biomass Available for Energy Use 9

1.6.1 Crop Residues 9

1.6.2 Fuelwood 11

1.6.3 Aquatic Biomass 13

1.6.4 Sugar Crops 14

1.6.5 Oil Crops 16

1.6.6 Animal Manure 20

1.6.7 Municipal Solid Wastes 22

1.6.8 Energy Farming 25

1.6.8.1 Fast-Growing Trees 26

1.6.8.2 Sugar and Starchy Crops 281.6.8.3 Oil and Hydrocarbon Crops 29

1.6.8.4 Herbaceous Crops 301.6.8.5 Aquatic Plants 32

1.7 Units and Conversions 34

1.8 Conclusion 36

1.9 Problems and Discussion Issues 37

1.9.1 Simple Definitions 37

1.9.2 Energy Units 37

1.9.3 Net Energy Trends in United States 37

1.9.4 Contribution of Energy Sources in the US Economy 37

1.9.5 Moisture Removal in Biomass 37

1.9.6 Energy from Imported Crude Oil 38

vii

viii Contents

1.9.7 Pure Sugar to Ethanol Conversion 381.9.8 Biogas Utilization in Households 381.9.9 Acreage Needed to Build Power Plants 381.9.10 Air-to-Fuel Ratios for the Combustion of Fuel 38

References 39

Further Readings 40

2. Biomass Conversion Processes 43

2.1 Introduction 43

2.2 Overview of Biomass Conversion Processes 452.3 Chemical Conversion Processes 47

2.4 Biological Conversion Processes 492.4.1 Ethanol Fermentation 49

2.4.2 Biogas Production 512.5 Thermal Conversion Processes 53

2.5.1 Torrefaction 54

2.5.2 Pyrolysis 562.5.3 Gasification 59

2.5.4 Combustion 63

2.6 Hybrid Conversion Processes 652.6.1 Biological and Thermal Conversions 652.6.2 Thermal and Biological Conversions 67

2.7 Applications of Biomass Conversion Products 682.7.1 Heat Energy 682.7.2 Electrical Energy 692.7.3 Combined Heat and Power 70

2.7.4 Mechanical Energy 712.7.5 Liquid Biofuels or Bio-Oil Production 732.7.6 Synthesis Gas Production and Use 742.7.7 Biochar Production 75

2.8 Conclusion 762.9 Problems and Discussion Issues 77

2.9.1 Heat Energy Conversion Efficiency 772.9.2 Energy of Feedstock and Biofuel Product 772.9.3 Ethanol Yield per Unit of Area 77

2.9.4 Number of Animals Needed for Power Generation 77

2.9.5 Pyrolysis Conversion Efficiency 782.9.6 Gasification Carbon Efficiency 782.9.7 Area Required for a Power Plant 782.9.8 Energy Required to Raise Water Temperature 792.9.9 Biogas Conversion Efficiency 792.9.10 Steam Cycle Conversion Efficiency 79

References 79

Further Readings 80

Contents ix

3. Biomass Properties for Thermal Conversion 833.1 Introduction 833.2 Physical Properties of Biomass 85

3.2.1 Particle Density 853.2.2 Bulk Density 853.2.3 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution 873.2.4 Angle of Repose 903.2.5 Angle of Friction 903.2.6 Heat Capacity and Thermal Conductivity of Biomass 90

3.3 Important Thermal Related Properties 913.3.1 Proximate Analysis 91

3.3.1.1 Moisture Content 93

3.3.1.2 Volatile Combustible Matter 94

3.3.1.3 Fixed Carbon and Ash 95

3.3.2 Ultimate Analysis 973.3.3 Heating Value Analysis 101

3.3.3.1 Heating Value by Carbon Basis 1043.3.3.2 Heating Value by Ash Basis 1043.3.3.3 Heating Value by Ash and VCM Basis 1053.3.3.4 Boie Equation 1063.3.3.5 Dulong Equation 1073.3.3.6 Heat of Combustion 1083.3.3.7 Stoichiometry of Reactions 1083.3.3.8 Eutectic Point Analysis 109

3.4 Other Standard Methods for Biomass Analysis 1123.5 Conclusion 114


3.6.1 Sustainability of Biomass Use 1153.6.2 Proximate Analysis Calculations 1153.6.3 Air-to-Fuel Ratio Calculations 115

3.6.4 Heating Value Equivalents 1153.6.5 Biomass Requirements for Power Generation 1163.6.6 Heating Value Calculations 1163.6.7 Heating Value Calculations: Carbon Basis 1163.6.8 Dulong and Boie Equations 1163.6.9 Empirical Relations for Estimating Heating Values

of Biomass 116

3.6.10 Slagging and Fouling Factors 116References 117

Further Readings 117

4. Biomass Properties for Biological Conversion 1194.1 Introduction 119

4.2 Properties of Biomass Important for Biological Conversion 1214.3 Standard Methods for Analysis and Examples 125

X Contents

4.3.1 Preparation of Samples for Compositional Analysis(LAP No. 42620) 125

4.3.2 Determination of Percent Solids in Biomass 128

4.3.3 Determination of Extractives in Biomass 129

4.3.4 Percent Total Solids of Extractives-Free Biomass 131

4.3.5 Percent Protein of Extractives-Free, ODW Biomass 132

4.3.6 ODW of Extractives-Free Sample 133

4.3.7 Percent Acid-Insoluble Residue 134

4.3.8 Percent AIL (Extractives Free) 136

4.3.9 Percent ASL (Extractives Free) 138

4.3.10 Carbohydrates in Biomass 142

4.3.11 Total Composition of Nannochloropsis oculata 146

4.4 Summary of ASTM Procedures for Compositional Analysis .... 147

4.5 Biomass Pretreatment 147

4.6 Conclusion 149


4.7.1 Compositional Analysis of Corn Stover 1504.7.1.1 Calculation of Percent Total Solids 150

4.7.1.2 Calculation of Percent Ash Content

(Dry Basis) 1514.7.1.3 Calculation of Percent Extractives 151

4.7.1.4 Calculation of Percent Total Solids

(Extractives-Free Biomass) 151

4.7.1.5 Calculation of Percent AIL from

Extractives-Free Sample 1514.7.1.6 Calculation of Percent ASL (Extractives

Free) and Percent Lignin (Extractives Free) 1524.7.1.7 Calculation of Percent Lignin

(on as-Received Basis) 152

4.7.1.8 Calculation of Percent Sugars 152

4.7.1.9 Biomass Compositional Analysis Summary.... 153

References 153


5. Biodiesel Production 157

5.1 Introduction 157

5.2 Available Oil Production in United States 160

5.3 Vegetable Oil and Animal Fat Characteristics 1615.4 Fatty Acid Composition 1625.5 Other Basic Oil Properties 164

5.6 Oil Extraction Processes 165

5.7 Oil Refining Processes 1685.7.1 Degumming 1685.7.2 Neutralization 170

5.7.3 Dewaxing 172

Contents xi

5.7.4 Bleaching 1735.7.5 Deodorization 174

5.7.6 Vegetable Oil Refining Calculations 1765.8 Transesterification 178

5.9 ASTM Characterization 181

5.9.1 Flash Point 181

5.9.2 Kinematic Viscosity 1835.9.3 Cloud Point 185

5.9.4 Water and Sediment 187

5.9.5 Total and Free Glycerin 1885.9.6 ASTM Analysis of Various Oil Seed Methyl Esters 189

5.10 Engine Performance and Exhaust Emissions 1905.10.1 Engine Emissions 195

5.11 Design of Biodiesel Plants in United States 1965.11.1 General Transesterification Processes 196

5.11.2 Crown Iron Works Design 1975.11.3 Westfalia Biodiesel Plant Design 198

5.12 Conclusion 198


5.13.1 Various Types of Fatty Acids 1995.13.2 Oil Refining Processes 1995.13.3 Acreage to Establish 100 MGY Biodiesel Plant 2005.13.4 Refining Processes 2005.13.5 Refining Efficiency Calculations 2005.13.6 ASTM Fuel Properties 2005.13.7 Energy Density of Biodiesel 2005.13.8 Biodiesel Production Processes 200

5.13.9 Transesterification Process 201

5.13.10 Engine Performance Testing (BSFC) 2015.13.11 Engine Performance Testing (Net Brake

Horsepower Calculations) 201References 202


6. Bioethanol Production 205


6.2 Sugar Crops 2086.2.1 Production of Ethanol from Sweet Sorghum 2096.2.2 Ethanol Dehydration Methods 213

6.3 Starchy Crops 2156.4 Cellulosic Biomass 219

6.5 Biomass Pretreatment Processes 221

6.5.1 Physical Pretreatment of Biomass 2216.5.2 Chemical Pretreatment of Biomass 221

6.5.3 Enzymatic Pretreatment of Biomass 224

xii Contents

6.5.4 Combination of Various Pretreatment Methods 225

6.6 Household- and Village-Level Ethanol Production Systems 226

6.7 Pilot-Scale Ethanol Production Systems 2306.8 Cellulosic Ethanol Studies 234

6.9 Commercial Cellulosic Ethanol Plants in United States 241

6.10 Conclusion 242


6.11.1 Rules of Thumb in Ethanol Production 243

6.11.2 First- and Second-Generation Biofuels 244

6.11.3 Sugars and Ethanol Yield from Sweet Sorghum 2446.11.4 Fermentation Efficiency and Ethanol Yields per

Unit of Area 244

6.11.5 Pretreatment and Ethanol Production Process 244

6.11.6 Differences in First- and Second-Generation Ethanol.... 244

6.11.7 Enzyme and Its Role in Ethanol Production 2446.11.8 Enzymatic Conversion of Lignocellulosics into Ethanol.... 2456.11.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of First- and Second-

Generation Ethanol Production 245

6.11.10 Lignin Conversion and Uses 2456.11.11 Improving Biofuel Production 245

References 246


7. Biogas Production 2497.1 Introduction 249

7.1.1 Hydrolysis 2507.1.2 Acidogenesis 2507.1.3 Acetogenesis 2517.1.4 Methanogenesis 252

7.2 Biomass/Waste Parameters Important in Anaerobic Digestion 2587.2.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 2587.2.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 2597.2.3 Total Organic Carbon 2607.2.4 Total Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids 2617.2.5 Typical Septic Tanks or Municipal Solid

Wastes Effluent Data 262

7.3 Acid- and Methane-Forming Microbes 2637.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Anaerobic Digestion

Processes 264

7.4.1 Advantages of Anaerobic Digestion Processes 2647.4.2 Disadvantages of Anaerobic Digestion Processes 265

7.5 Biogas Conversion Process and Digester Designs 2657.6 First- and Second-Generation Biogas Digesters 267

7.6.1 Chinese Dome Type 267

7.6.2 Indian Gobar Gas Plant 269

Contents xiii

7.6.3 Taiwanese Rectangular Digester Design 2707.6.4 Cylindrical Above-Ground Digesters 2727.6.5 High-Rate Biogas Digesters (Second-Generation

Biogas Digesters) 2737.6.6 Anaerobic Filters 275

7.7 Design of Biogas Digester 2777.8 Biogas Utilization 281

7.8.1 Cleaning Biogas for Use in Engines and Other

Special Devices 2827.9 Conclusion 283


7.10.1 Acid- and Methane-Producing Microbes 2847.10.2 Theoretical Acetic Acid Production 284

7.10.3 Calculation of BOD 284

7.10.4 Calculation of COD 284

7.10.5 Use of Laboratory Data to Estimate Digester Size 2857.10.6 Energy Produced from Biogas Daily 2857.10.7 Volume of Biogas Required for Electrical Power

Production 285

7.10.8 Amount of Sludge Produced in an Anaerobic Digester 2857.10.9 Theoretical COD from Biomass 286

7.10.10 Estimating Minimum Size of Digester 286References 286


8. Torrefaction 289


8.2 Bio-Physico-Chemical Changes in Biomass duringTorrefaction 291

8.3 Torrefaction Products 293

8.3.1 Solid Products 293

8.3.2 Liquid Condensibles 2948.3.3 Gaseous Products 295

8.4 Physical Properties of Torrefied Biomass 2968.4.1 Bulk Density 2968.4.2 Grindability 2988.4.3 Particle Size Distribution, Sphericity, and Surface Area 2998.4.4 Moisture Content 299

8.4.5 Storage Properties 3018.4.6 Hydrophobicity 3018.4.7 Pelletability 302

8.5 Comparison between Torrefied Biomass versusPelleted Biomass 304

8.6 Thermal Gravimetric Analysis Studies of Biomass 305

xiv Contents

8.7 Chemical Composition Changes during Torrefactionof Biomass 307

8.7.1 Carbon Content 308

8.7.2 Hydrogen Content 3098.7.3 Calorific Value 310

8.7.4 Degree of Carbonization or Conservation of Carbon .... 3118.7.5 H/C Ratio 3118.7.6 Nitrogen and Sulfur Content 311

8.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Torrefaction Process 3128.8.1 Advantages of Torrefaction as Pretreatment Process 3128.8.2 Disadvantages of Torrefaction as Pretreatment Process 313

8.9 Conclusion 313


8.10.1 Energy Densification for Torrefied Product 3148.10.2 Determining Energy and Mass Balances in

Torrefaction 314

8.10.3 Bulk Density of Torrefied Biomass 3158.10.4 Bulk Density of Biomass 3158.10.5 Grinding Energy Usage 3158.10.6 Moisture Content of Torrefied Biomass 315

8.10.7 Durability of Biomass Pellets 3168.10.8 Bulk Density of Torrefied Biomass 3168.10.8 Energy Density Changes in Torrefied Biomass 3168.10.10 Van Krevelen Plot of Raw Biomass 316

References 317


9. Pyrolysis 3199.1 Introduction 319

9.2 Various Pyrolysis Processes Based on Heating Rates 3259.2.1 Slow/Conventional Pyrolysis 3259.2.2 Fast/Flash Pyrolysis Systems 3279.2.3 Flash Vacuum Pyrolysis 3299.2.4 Ablative Pyrolysis 3309.2.5 Microwave Pyrolyzer 332

9.3 Effects of Temperature on Product Yields from Pyrolysisof Microalgae 3339.3.1 Microalgae Mass Balances 3349.3.2 Microalgae Energy Balances 3369.3.3 Overall Product Yields 341

9.4 Applications of Products from Fast Pyrolysis 3429.5 Bio-Oil Characterization Processes 343

9.6 Bio-Oil Upgrade Processes 3469.7 Studies on Pyrolysis of Various Biomass Resources 347

9.7.1 Cotton Gin Trash Pyrolysis 347

Contents xv

9.7.2 Switchgrass Pyrolysis Studies 3479.7.3 Corn Stover Pyrolysis Studies 3529.7.4 Sorghum Biomass Pyrolysis Studies 355

9.8 Conclusion 357


9.9.1 Effect of Temperature on Syngas Production in

Pyrolysis 3589.9.2 Pyrolysis Conditions that Favor Biochar and Bio-Oil

Production 358

9.9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Pyrolysis Process.... 3599.9.4 Problems and Issues of Pyrolysis Process at Extreme

Temperatures 3599.9.5 Energy Balance in Pyrolysis Process 3599.9.6 Estimation of Residence Time in Fluidized Bed

Reactor 359

9.9.7 Estimation of Residence Time in Auger Reactor 3599.9.8 Calibration Curve for Augers 3599.9.9 Calculation for HV of Synthesis Gas from Experiments.... 3609.9.10 Calculating Yields per Unit Weight of Biomass 360

References 360


10. Gasification 363


10.2 Chemistry of Biomass Gasification 36610.3 Various Types of Gasifiers 368

10.3.1 Updraft Gasifier 36810.3.2 Downdraft Gasifier 370

10.3.3 Crossdraft Gasifier 370

10.3.4 Fluidized Bed Gasifier 372

10.4 Applications of Biomass Gasifiers 37710.4.1 Production of Thermal Sensible Heat 378

10.4.2 Electrical Power Generation 379

10.4.3 Mechanical Power Generation 381

10.4.4 Liquid Fuel Production from Synthesis Gas 38510.5 Gasifier TDR and Throughput 38510.6 Gasification Studies at TAMU 387

10.7 Conclusion 398


10.8.1 Empirical Chemical Formula of Biomass 399

10.8.2 Air-to-Fuel Ratio of Biomass for Thermal Conversion... 399

10.8.3 Air Requirement for Gasification 399

10.8.4 Volumetric Air Requirement in Fixed Bed Gasifies 40010.8.5 Acreage Needed to Build Power Plants 40010.8.6 Equivalence Ratios Calculations in a Gasifier 400

xvi Contents

10.8.7 Power from Manure Gasification 400

10.8.8 Superficial Velocity in Updraft Gasifiers 40010.8.9 Syngas Requirement in Internal Combustion Engines...40110.8.10 Design of Downdraft Gasifier 401

References 401


11. Advanced Gasification 403


11.2 Determining Average Particle Size of Bed Material 408

11.3 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity, Terminal Velocity, andPressure Drop in Fluidized Bed Reactors 410

11.4 Operation of 0.3048 Fluidized Bed Gasifier 41411.4.1 Fluidized Bed Gasifier Operational Protocol 417

11.4.1.1 Gasifier Preparation 418

11.4.1.2 Start-Up 41811.4.1.3 Sustained Operation 41911.4.1.4 Shutdown Procedure 420

11.4.2 Proper Use of Bed Material 42111.4.3 Cold Fluidization Tests 423

11.5 Designing Dimensions of Fluidized Bed Gasifier 42311.6 Designing Dimensions of Series Cyclone Char

Removal System 42411.6.1 Primary (Low-Efficiency) Cyclone 42511.6.2 Secondary (High-Efficiency) Cyclone 42711.6.3 Pressure Drop in Cyclones 428

11.7 Direct Use of Synthesis Gas for Heat and Steam Production 429

11.8 Electrical Power Production from Fluidized Bed Gasification 430

11.9 Conclusion 432


11.10.1 Calculation of Bed Material Average Particle Size 433

11.10.2 Determining Minimum Fluidizing Velocity 43411.10.3 Terminal Velocity Calculations 43411.10.4 Volumetric Flow Rate Calculations 434

11.10.5 Pressure Drop through Fluidized Bed Gasifier 43411.10.6 Capacity of Screw Conveyor 43411.10.7 Determining Dimensions of Fluidized Bed Gasifier 43511.10.8 Determining Dimensions of 1D2D Cyclone 43511.10.9 Determining Dimensions of 1D3D Cyclone 43511.10.10 Predicting Pressure Drop in Cyclones 43511.10.11 Conversion of Biomass into Electrical

Power Using Fluidized Bed 435References 436


Contents xvii

12. Biomass Liquefaction 43912.1 Introduction 439

12.2 Indirect Liquefaction Processes 441

12.2.1 Methanol Production from Synthesis Gas 44112.2.2 Mobil Process 444

12.2.3 Fischer-Tropsch Process 44612.2.4 China Lake Process 450

12.3 Direct Liquefaction Processes 45312.3.1 BOM or PERC Process 453

12.3.2 LBL Process 456

12.4 Other Biomass Liquefaction Processes 45912.4.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) Process 46012.4.2 Hydrolytic and Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU)

Processes 462

12.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biomass LiquefactionProcesses 463

12.5.1 Advantages of Direct Liquefaction Process 46312.5.2 Disadvantages of Direct Liquefaction Process 464

12.5.3 Advantages of Indirect Liquefaction Process 46412.5.4 Disadvantages of Indirect Liquefaction Process 464

12.6 Conclusion 465


12.7.1 Heating Value of Synthesis Gas Produced from

Pyrolysis 46612.7.2 Methanol from Biomass Conversion Efficiency 466

12.7.3 Mobil Process Conversion Efficiency 46612.7.4 Fischer-Tropsch Syngas Calculations 466

12.7.5 Heating Value of Syngas Produced for China LakeProcess 467

12.7.6 BOM Process Efficiency Calculations 467

12.7.7 Determining Bio-Oil Yields by HydrothermalProcesses 467

12.7.8 Differences among BOM, PERC, and LBL

Liquefaction Processes 468

12.7.9 Hydrogen-to-Carbon Ratios for Biomass

Liquefaction Processes 468

12.7.10 Conversion Efficiency for HTU Process 468

References 468


13. Biomass Combustion 471


13.2 Types of Biomass Combustion Systems 47413.2.1 Spreader Stoker System 474

xviii Contents

13.2.2 Fluidized Bed Combustion System 47713.2.3 Biomass Cookstoves 480

13.3 Co-Combustion of Biomass and Co-Firing with Coal 48413.4 Power Generation Case Studies in United States 485

13.5 Slagging and Fouling Issues with Agricultural Biomass 48813.5.1 Coal Slagging and Fouling Indices 48913.5.2 Other Slagging and Fouling Indices 490

13.5.2.1 Alkali Index 490

13.5.2.2 Base-to-Acid Ratio 492

13.5.2.3 Bed Agglomeration Index 49313.6 Determining Eutectic (or Melting) Point of Biomass Ash

Pellets 494

13.7 Applications of Biomass Combustion Systems 49913.7.1 Cooking, Heating, Drying, and Steam Production 49913.7.2 Mechanical Power Generation 500

13.7.3 Electrical Power Generation 500

13.7.4 Combined Heat and Power Applications 50113.8 Conclusion 501


13.9.1 Amount of C02 Produced for Every Metric Ton ofBiomass Combusted 503

13.9.2 Amount of Air Needed for Combustion of SorghumBiomass 503

13.9.3 Biomass Combustion Efficiency and Acreage Needed 50313.9.4 Boiling Water at Mile High Stadium 50413.9.5 Biomass Co-Firing Efficiency 50413.9.6 Conversion of Biomass into Small-Scale Electrical

Power 504

13.9.7 Alkali Index for Animal Manure 504

13.9.8 Base-to-Acid Ratio in Animal Manure Ash Sample 50413.9.9 Bed Agglomeration Index of Animal Manure Ash

Sample 50413.9.10 Compressive Strength of Animal Manure Ash

Pellet Sample 504References 505


14. Biomass Sustainability Issues 50714.1 Introduction 507

14.2 Well-to-Wheel Approach 51014.2.1 Feedstock Production 510

14.2.2 Feedstock Transport 51014.2.3 Biofuel Production 511

14.2.4 Biofuel Distribution and Storage 51114.2.5 Dispensing Biofuels 512

Contents xix

14.2.6 End Use of Biofuels 512

14.2.7 GHG Emissions of Biomass Combustion 516

14.3 Discussions of Software and Programs for LCA and RelatedBiomass Analysis 517

14.3.1 GREET 1 (2012) Fuel Cycle Model 51714.3.2 GREET Model Results for Biodiesel Blend (B20)

and Bioethanol Blend (E10) 51814.3.3 Integrated Biomass Supply Analysis and

Logistics Model (IBSAL) 520

14.3.4 HOMER Microgrid Optimization Model 52514.3.5 Impact Analysis for Planning (IMPLAN) 52914.3.6 Aspen and Aspen Plus 530

14.4 Biofuel Economics 532

14.4.1 Major Components of Biofuel Economic Analysis 532

14.4.2 Economics of Production Processes for Major Biofuels 53314.4.2.1 Biodiesel Economics 533

14.4.2.2 Ethanol Economics 536

14.4.2.3 Pyrolysis Economics 53714.4.2.4 Gasification Economics 538

14.5 Sustainability of Biofuels Production 541

14.5.1 Measuring Sustainability of Biofuels 54114.5.1.1 Net Energy Ratio (NER) Method 54214.5.1.2 Net Energy Balance (NEB) Method 544

14.6 Conclusion 545


14.7.1 Greenhouse Gas Equivalency Calculations 546

14.7.2 Gas Turbine Greenhouse Gas EquivalencyCalculations 546

14.7.3 GREET Modeling Part 1 54714.7.4 GREET Modeling Part 2 54714.7.5 IBSAL-Related Calculations 548

14.7.6 Simple IMPLAN Calculations 54814.7.7 Pyrolysis Economics 548

14.7.8 Gasification Economics 549

14.7.9 Net Energy Ratio (NER) Calculations 549

14.7.10 Net Energy Balance (NEB) Calculations 549References 549


Appendix A: Appropriate Units and Conversion Used 553

Appendix B: Glossary of Terms in Biomass Conversion Processes 559

Index 569

introduction to biomass energy conversions · 2014. 7. 17. · torrefaction 289 8.1 introduction...

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