INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY PEACE SUPPORT

OPERATIONS (PSO)Lt Col (Rtd) F Kiriago

AIM

To appraise participants on the complexities of contemporary peacekeeping operations

Obective

At the end of the module participants should be able to demonstrate an enhanced understanding of the contemporary peace support operations.

Outline

• Evolution of Peace Support Operations.• Concept and types of peace operations • Fundamental Principles of PKO• Linkages and Overlaps of activities in PSO• Contemporary challenges• African Peace and Security Architecture

EVOLUTION OF PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS

The spectrum of contemporary PSO has become broad and complex.

Special focus is to recognize the need for articulation of doctrinal foundations of the United Nations peace operations

New challenges posed by the shifting nature of conflict from interstate to intrastate conflict

League of Nations

• League of Nations established 1919 during the First World War under Treaty of Versailles

• Purpose: “to promote international cooperation and to achieve peace and security.”

• The League of Nation ceased its activities after failing to prevent the Second World War.

United Nations

The United Nation was conceived on 26th June 1945 in similar circumstances as League of Nations

Purpose: To “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war” maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, and promote social progress, better living standards and human rights.

• The United Nations is made up of 193 Member States.

• Member States come together to discuss common problems and make decisions by voting on major issues.

• The UN is an impartial organization• Member States are equal.• The impartiality and universality of the United

Nations are key elements of its legitimacy.

Office of the Under-Secretary-General

Office of Operations Office of Military Affairs

Office of ROL and Security Institutions

Policy, Evaluation and Training Division

Department of Peacekeeping OperationsDepartment of Peacekeeping Operations

Africa I Division

Africa II Division

Europe and Latin America Division

Asia and Middle East Division

Current Military

Operations

Military Planning Service

Force Generation

Service

Police Division

Criminal Law and Judicial

Advisory

DDR Section

Peacekeeping Best Practices

Integrated Training Service

Executive Office

Mine Action Service

Public AffairsSituation

Centre

UN Charter• Ratified on 26 June 1945.• Currently has 111 articles and 19 chapters.• Describes the purposes, principles, membership, and

organs and scope of UN activities.• Member States are bound together by the principles of

the Charter.• Is an international treaty that spells out the Member

States’ rights and duties.• Is the foundational document that guides all the United

Nations work• Gives the UN SC primary responsibility for the

maintenance of international peace and security

Key principles of the UN charter

• Sovereign equality of all member states• Peaceful settlement of disputes• Restraint from use of force • Non – intervention in the domestic affairs of

nations (except for enforcement measures under chapter VII)

Legal Basis of the SC for PSO

• Chapters VI- Pacific settlement of disputes

• Chapter VII – Action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression.

• Chapter VIII – Regional arrangements.

Main UN bodies

• General Assembly• Security Council• Economic and Social Council• International Court of Justice• Secretariat & Secretary General• Trusteeship Council

History of peacekeeping• UN Peacekeeping began in 1948 - UN military

observers to the Middle East.• Role was to monitor the Armistice between

Israel and its Arab neighbours – UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)

The early years• Cold War rivalries frequently paralyzed the SC. • Peacekeeping limited to maintaining ceasefires and stabilizing situations

on the ground, providing support for political efforts to resolve conflict by peaceful means. • Unarmed MILOBs, lightly armed tps with monitoring, reporting and confidence-building roles.• Earliest armed PKO was UNEFI in 1956 to address the Suez Crisis.• 1988, UN peacekeepers were awarded Nobel Peace Prize.

Post Cold-War surge

• The nature of conflicts changed from inter-State to intra-State.

• The UN shifted and expanded from “traditional” missions to complex “multidimensional” missions.

• Roles changed to building sustainable institutions of governance, human rights monitoring, security sector reform and DDR.

1989 - 1994• Rapid increase in number of PKO.• SC authorized 20 new operations between 1989 and 1994,

number of peacekeepers rose from 11,000 to 75,000.• Deployed to: - Help implement complex peace agreements. - Stabilize the security situation. - Re-organize military and police. - Elect new governments and build democratic

institutions.

The mid-1990s• A period of reassessment.• Missions were established in hostile situations -

former Yugoslavia, Rwanda and Somalia - there was no peace to keep.

• Warring parties failed to adhere to peace agreements.

• Peacekeepers lacked adequate resources.• Lack of political support.• Civilian casualties rose.• UN Peacekeeping reputation suffered.

1999 - SG commissioned independent inquiry into UN actions in 1994 Rwanda genocide, 1993-1995 events in Srebrenica, and circumstances that led to the UN withdrawal from Somalia.

Towards the 21st century • New operations, new challenges.• UN introduced reform to strengthen capacity to

effectively manage and sustain field operations.• UN performed more complex tasks.• 1999 UN served as the administrator of both

Kosovo and in East Timor.• Assessment of UN’s ability to conduct PSO

effectively - Lakhdar Brahimi (2000)• SC established large and complex PKO in a number

of African countries.

The present• By 2010, UN PKO had more than 124,000

military, police and civilian staff.• Numbers started declining - the reduction of

troops in MONUSCO and the withdrawal of MINURCAT end of 2010.

• Today's PKO will continue to facilitate the political process, protect civilians, assist in DDR, support elections, protect and promote human rights, and assist in restoring

rule of law.

CONCEPT AND TYPES OF PEACE PEACEKEEPING

Since 1948 the UN has conducted a large number of peacekeeping operations under its charter

The process of responding to threats to international order has evolved after the Cold War.

Different types of UN PKO evolved in response to a changing international political environment and conflicts in which the SC engaged.

• 68 Peacekeeping operations deployed by UN.

• 55 of the 68 since 1988.

• Hundreds of thousands of military personnel, tens of thousands of UN police and other civilians from more than 120 countries participated.

• More than 3,100 fatalities from 120 countries.

Different Types of UN Peacekeeping Operations

• Traditional Peacekeeping

• Multi-dimensional Peacekeeping

• Transitional Authority

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF UN PEACEKEEPING

These principles have developed over time through experience and lessons learned:

Consent Impartiality Non-use of force except in self-defence and

defence of the mandate

Consent

• All UN peacekeeping operations require the consent of the main parties to the conflict

• Without consent for the mandate, the operation is peace enforcement.

• The UNPKO’s role is to move the peace process forward while maintaining consent of all the parties to the conflict

Impartiality

• UN peacekeeping operations must implement their mandate without favour or prejudice to any of the parties to the conflict (like a good referee).

• A peacekeeping operation cannot condone actions by parties if they violate the norms and principles the UNPKO upholds.

• Reasons for the action must be clearly communicated to all.

Non use of force except in self defense and defense of the mandate

Use of force permitted in self-defense & defense of mandate.

SC may authorize a mission “to use all necessary means” to defend the mandate.

Use of force permitted as a measure of last resort.

The RoE or DuF clarify level of force.

Other Success Factors

Credibility• A precise and achievable mandate with the

resources to march.• Effective, rapid deployment.• A confident, capable and unified posture of

the mission• Management of expectations

Legitimacy• Perceived legitimacy of a UN peacekeeping

operation is directly related to the quality and conduct of its military, police and civilian personnel.

• The behavior of peacekeeping personnel should meet the highest standards of professionalism, competence and integrity.

Promotion of Local and National Ownership

• Fosters trust and cooperation.• Reinforces perceived legitimacy of the

mission.• Ensures sustainability of the peace-building

process.• Should include all parts of society.• All opinions need to be heard and understood.

Linkages and overlap activities in PSO

The spectrum of Peace and Security Activities

While United Nations peacekeeping operations are generally deployed to support a ceasefire or peace agreement, they often also play a role in peacemaking efforts. They may also be involved in early peace building activities. These activities are related.

(A Traditional View) (A Traditional View)

The UN The UN CCharterharter

PeacekeepingPeacekeeping

Chap VIArticle 33

Chap VIArticle 33

ConsentConsent

Peace enforcement

Peace enforcement

Chap VIIArticle 42

Chap VIIArticle 42

No consent required

No consent required

Chap VIIIRegional Orgs

Chap VIIIRegional Orgs

No mention of peacekeeping or peace enforcement

“To maintain International peace and security”

UN Peacekeeping statistics

As of 31 August 2013• Peacekeeping operations since 1948: 68

• Current peacekeeping operations: 15

• Current peace operations directed by DPKO: 16 (1 Special Political Mission: the UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA)).

Current UN Missions

Current UN Peacekeeping missions

UNTSO (Middle East) …………………..May 1948UNMOGIP (India and Pakistan) …..January 1949UNFICYP (Cyprus) …………………...March 1964UNDOF (Syria) …………………………June 1974UNIFIL (Lebanon) …………………….March 1978MINURSO (Western Sahara) ………….April 1991UNMIK (Kosovo) ..................................June 1999UNMIL (Liberia) ..........................September 2003UNOCI (Cote de I’voire) .......................April 2004MINUSTAH (Haiti) ................................June 2004UNAMID (Darfur) ………………………..July 2007MONUSCO (DRC) ……………………...July 2010UNISFA (Abyei) …………………………June 2011UNMISS (South Sudan) ………………...July 2011MINUSMA (Mali) ………………………March 2013

UN Peacekeeping OperationsPeacekeeping operations since 1948……………………….…….… 68Current peacekeeping operations………………………………….… 15Current peace operations directed by DPKO..……………………… 16

PERSONNELUniformed personnel……....………….………………..………… 97,369(82,351 troops, 13,209 police and 1,809 military observers)Countries contributing uniformed personnel………….….………… 115International civilian personnel (as of 30 June 2013)…………… 5,032Local civilian personnel (as of 30 June 2013 ……………………11,693UN Volunteers (as of 30 June 2013)……………………………… 2,057Total number of personnel in 15 peacekeeping operations..… 116,151Total number of personnel in 16 DPKO-led operations ……… 117,905Total number of fatalities since 1948……………………………… 3,136

FINANCIAL ASPECTS (US$)Approved budgets for the period About 7.54 billionfrom 1 July 2013 to 30 June 2014

Legal Framework of AU PSO Missions

• The Constitutive Act of the African Union.• The United Nations Charter.• Status of Mission Agreement (SOMA)• Rules of Engagement (ROE)

African Peace and Security Architecture• The African Union (AU) was formed in Durban in July 2002,

replacing the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)• Africa Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) was established by

the AU to deal with the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts in Africa.

• Its core organ is the AU PSC.• Offers a real prospect of African solutions for African problems.• Comprises various elements and structures that provide a

comprehensive set of tools for addressing the security concerns of the continent.

• Is a holistic approach to peace and security - preventive diplomacy, mediation, peacekeeping - establishment of the Panel of the Wise.

• AU adopted the Protocol for establishment of PSC in July 2002.

• Protocol provides for African Standby Force (ASF) for

PSC to deploy peacekeeping missions and intervene pursuant to AU Constitutive Act.

• The ASF is the implementing mechanism for the PSC.

• Is a multinational force empowered to intervene in serious conflicts - five regionally based brigades and a sixth formation at the AU’s hq at Addis Ababa for a combined capacity of 15,000-20,000.

Peace & Security Framework

RECs/Regions

Peace and Security

Council (PSC)

Continental Early Warning

System (CEWS)

African Standby

Force (ASF)

Common African

Defence and

Peace and Security

Council (PSC)

Continental Early Warning

System (CEWS)

African Standby

Force (ASF)

Common African

Defence and Security Policy

Panel of the Wise (PW)

New Partnership for Africa’s

Development (NEPAD)

Military Staff Committee

(MSC)

(APSA)

Peace and Security

Council (PSC)

Continental Early Warning

System (CEWS)

Continental Early Warning

System (CEWS)

African Standby

Force (ASF)

African Standby

Force (ASF)

Common African

Defence and Security Policy

Common African

Defence and Security Policy

Panel of the Wise (PW)

New Partnership for Africa’s

Development (NEPAD)

New Partnership for Africa’s

Development (NEPAD)

Military Staff Committee

(MSC)

Military Staff Committee

(MSC)

(APSA)

UN Agencies, partners,

NGOs

African Peace and Security Architecture

PSOD

Organisational Structures

Mission

REC/RegionPLANELMs

Plan

nin

g

Direct H

oM

AU Commission

AU Commission

Police

•Police

•Gendarmerie

•Observers

•Advisors (PSC & PC)

Police

•Police

•Gendarmerie

•Observers

•Advisors (PSC & PC)

•Rule of Law

•Civil administration

•Humanitarian affairs

•Good Governance

•Advisors

Military•Standby Brigades

•Rapid Deployment

•Military Liaison Officers

•Military Observers

•Advisors (PSC & FC)

Civilian

ASF Capabilities

APSA IN PRACTICE

SASF

CASFEASF

NASF

WASF

SASF

CASFEASF

NASF

WASF

Provide capacity to PSOD

Mandate to Chairperson

APSA

RECs/RMs

UN AGENCIES, PARTNERS/NGOs

ASF

ScenariScenarioo

DescriptionDescription

Deployment Deployment requirement. requirement.

(from mandate (from mandate resolution)resolution)

1AU/Regional military advice to a political

mission.30 days

2AU/Regional observer mission co-deployed

with a UN mission. 30 days

3 Stand-alone AU/Regional observer mission. 30 days

4AU/Regional peacekeeping force for Chapter

VI and preventive deployment missions (and peace building).

30 days

5

AU Peacekeeping force for complex multidimensional peacekeeping missions, including those involving low-level spoilers.

90 days with the military component being able to deploy in 30 days.

6

AU intervention, e.g. in genocide or humanitarian crisis situations where the international community does not act promptly.

14 days with robust military force

Objectives of AU by 2030

– “A united and integrated Africa. – an Africa with the ideals of justice and peace. – an inter-dependent and robust Africa determined to map

for itself an ambitious strategy. – an Africa underpinned by political, economic, social and

cultural integration which would restore to Pan-Africanism its full meaning.

– an Africa able to make the best of its human and material resources, and keen to ensure the progress and prosperity of its citizens by taking advantage of the opportunities offered by a globalized world.

– An Africa capable of promoting its values in a world rich in its disparities..

To support the PSC, the following were created:

• The Panel of the Wise.• The Continental Early Warning System.• The African Standby Force.• The Military Staff Committee.• The Peace Fund.

ASF Missions • Observer and monitoring missions • Classical PSO missions• Intervention in a Member State in response to

grave circumstances• Preventative deployments• Peace building, post-conflict reconstruction, DDR• Humanitarian assistance• Any other functions as mandated by the PSC or

the Assembly

Contemporary Challenges

• Volatile and complex political emergencies• Complex intra state conflicts• Political will to contribute to peacekeeping in Africa by Western States• Complexities of African security complexes

Structured Security Complexes

Uganda* Kenya* EAC

Malawi*Zambia*Zimbabwe*

SADC

DRC

Angola Tanzania*

CEMAC

AcronymsAMU Arab Maghreb UnionCBI Cross Border InitiativesCEMAC Economic & Monetary Community of Central AfricaCILSS Permanent Interstate Committee on Drought Control in the SahelCOMESA Common Market for East and Southern AfricaEAC East Africa CommunityECCAS Economic Community of Central African StatesECOWAS Economic Community of West African StatesIGAD Inter Governmental Authority for DevelopmentSACU Southern Africa Customs UnionSADC Southern Africa Development CommunityWAEMU West African Economic and Monetary Union

Madagascar*

Mauritius*Seychelles*

Comoros*

Reunion

IOC

DjiboutiEthiopiaEritreaSudan

Somalia

IGAD

Egypt

Nile River Basin

Cape VerdeGambia

Niger Burkina Faso

MaliSenegal

GhanaNigeria

ECOWAS

AlgeriaLibyaMoroccoTunisia

AMU

COMESABurundi*Rwanda*

* CBI

South AfricaBotswanaLesothoNamibia*Swaziland*

SACU

LiberiaSierra Leone

Guinea

Mano River Union

Guinea- BissauMaliSenegal

WAEMU

Complexity of Security Complexes

BeninTogoCote d’Ivoire

NigerBurkina Faso

Conseil de l’Entente

Mauritania

CILSS

Chad

ECCAS

Sao Tome & Principe

CameroonCentral African RepublicGabonEquatorial GuineaRep Congo

OPPORTUNITIES

• The establishment of the AU Commission• The creation of an African Peace and Security

Architecture• Establishment of multi-level partnerships

– Bilateral ( State actors)– Regional (RECs and RMs)– Multilateral (UN, EU etc)

• The need for wider political strategy to end conflict in a changed strategic environment. These changes include:– Increased sources of insecurity– Increased levels of peacekeeping demand– New peace and security actors– Significant reduction in resource contributions by the international

community

• The collective will of the continent to implement holistic conflict management strategy

• The creation of mechanisms and structures to support the implementation

• The establishment of strategic partnerships in– Capacity enhancement– Implementation of peace operations

KEY SUMMARY POINTS

• UN has an internationally recognized mandate to maintain international peace and security.

• Wherever possible the Security Council seeks peaceful means to resolve conflict.

• Peacekeeping is just one of several tools available to the SC and the international community for maintaining international peace and security.

• Peacekeeping often overlaps with conflict prevention, peacemaking, peace enforcement and peace building.

• Peacekeeping is used to preserve and build sustainable peace where a ceasefire or peace agreement already exists, and where parties to the conflict have consented to the deployment of a peacekeeping operation.

• Peace enforcement involves the use of force at a strategic level, without the consent of the parties to the conflict.

• Robust peacekeeping involves the use force at the tactical level and requires the host country’s consent for the use of force.

• Both peace enforcement and robust peacekeeping require the authorization of the use of force by the Security Council.

• For all three types of missions, it is the SC which provides the high level strategic direction and political guidance for the mission.

• Under Secretary General of DPKO administers and provides the executive direction for all types of peacekeeping operations.

THANK YOU