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1INTRODUCTION TO

GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

1. Definition and importance of geological engineering

2. The geological environment and its relation with engineering

3. Geological factors and geotechnical problems

4. Methods and applications in geological engineering

5. Information sources in engineering geology

6. How this book is structured

7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01_CH01.indd 3 11/24/2010 10:34:17 PM

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1INTRODUCTION TO

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GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERINGMaterial

GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

- Definition and importance of geological engineering- Definition and importance of geological engineeringTaylor

Definition and importance of geological engineeringTaylor

Definition and importance of geological engineering

The geological environment and its relation Taylor

The geological environment and its relation

Geological factors and geotechnical problems

Taylor Geological factors and geotechnical problems

Methods and applications in geological engineering

Taylor Methods and applications in geological engineering& Methods and applications in geological engineering& Methods and applications in geological engineering

Information sources in engineering geology

& Information sources in engineering geologyFrancis

Information sources in engineering geologyFrancis

Information sources in engineering geology

1.1 Definition and importance of geological engineering

Geological engineering is the application of geological and engineering sciences to design and construction in civil, mining and petroleum engineering, and to the environment. The aim of this discipline is to ensure that the geological fac-tors which affect engineering activities are considered and adequately interpreted, as well as to mitigate the conse-quences of geological and environmental hazards.

Although there are differences between geological engineering and engineering geology, in this book both terms are considered to be equivalent (Box 1.1).

Engineering geology emerged with the development of large-scale civil engineering projects and urban growth, and by the mid 20th century had become established as a

separate, specialized branch of the geological sciences. While engineering development made rapid progress in the last century, it was the catastrophic failure of several large engi-neering works that pointed out the need of geological inves-tigations applied to engineering. Among these events were the failure of dams for geological reasons and their grave consequences, including the loss of hundreds of human lives, as in the dam failures in San Francisco (California, 1928), at Vajont (Italy, 1963) and at Malpasset (France, 1959), lands-liding during the building of the Panama Canal in the early decades of the 20th century and the collapse of slopes on the Swedish railways in 1912.

The development of other related sciences, such as soil mechanics and rock mechanics, was the basis for modern geotechnical engineering, where engi neering geology provides solutions to construction problems from a geological point of view (Figure 1.1). Geotechnical

Figure 1.1 Engineering geology, geology and engineering.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGYGEOLOGY ENGINEERING

ENG

INEE

RIN

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ATE

RIA

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OC

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GEOTECHNICAL SOLUTIONS

REDUCING RISKS AND

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

A viaduct under construction (Italy)

A dam under construction (Spain)

Raised beach due to tectonic processes (Greece)

Rockfalls in basaltic cliffs (Madeira)

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INEE

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G P

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: AN APPROACH TO ENGINEERING FROM A GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE


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of geological engineeringCopyrighted

of geological engineering

Geological engineering

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Geological engineeringand engineering sciences to design and construction in civil,

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and engineering sciences to design and construction in civil, mining and petroleum engineering, and to the environment.

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mining and petroleum engineering, and to the environment. The aim of this discipline is to ensure that the geological fac

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The aim of this discipline is to ensure that the geological factors which affect engineering activities are considered and

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tors which affect engineering activities are considered and adequately interpreted, as well as to mitigate the conse

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Although there are differences between

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engineering geology

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Box 1.1Material

1.1Engineering geology emerged with the development Material

Engineering geology emerged with the development of large-scale civil engineering projects and urban growth,

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of large-scale civil engineering projects and urban growth, and by the mid 20th century had become established as a

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and by the mid 20th century had become established as a

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Material ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: AN APPROACH TO ENGINEERING FROM A GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Material ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: AN APPROACH TO ENGINEERING FROM A GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGYTaylor & Francis

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FrancisA viaduct under construction (Italy)

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INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING 5

engineering integrates ground engineering techniques applied to foundations, reinforcement, support, ground improvement and excavation, and the disciplines of soil mechanics, rock mechanics and engineering geology men-tioned above. Recently, the term geo-engineering has been coined to describe the field that deals with all aspects of engi-neering geology, rock mechanics, soil mechanics and geo-technical engineering (Bock et al., 2004).

At the beginning of the 21st century, one of the top priority areas for engineering geology is sustainable develop-

ment. The inevitable confrontation between consequences of progress and geological processes, the uncontrollable sprawl of modern cities into geologically adverse areas and the damage caused by natural hazards can easily threaten the environment’s fragile balance.

Nowadays, the need for geological studies of the ground before initiating large-scale works is fully recog-nized, and such studies are an obligatory part of engineering practice. This requirement also applies to works on a smaller scale, but often with a more direct impact people’s daily lives,

Geological engineering: education and professional practice

Box 1.1

Education in geological engineering is based on a sound knowledge of geological and engineering sciences, the mechanical behaviour of soils and rocks, and their response to changes imposed by engineering works. Site and ground investigation methods to analyse and model geo-materials and geological processes form an essential part of this discipline.

Engineering geologists and geological engineers have a scientific and technical education, and a training applicable to the solution of the geological and environ-mental problems which affect engineering, and therefore they should be able to answer the following questions:

1. Where to site a civil engineering facility or industrial plant so that it will be geologically secure and eco-nomically feasible.

2. How to select the alignment for communication or transportation infrastructure to ensure favourable geological conditions.

3. How to assess that building foundations are geo-logically and geotechnically safe and economically feasible.

4. How to excavate a slope that is both stable and economically feasible.

5. How to excavate a tunnel or underground facility so that it is stable.

6. How to locate geological materials for dams, embankments and road construction.

7. The remedial measures and ground treatments needed to improve ground conditions and control instability, seepages, settlements, and collapse.

8. The geological and geotechnical conditions required to store urban, toxic and radioactive wastes.

9. How to prevent or mitigate geological hazards.

10. What geologic and geotechnical criteria must be taken into account in land use and urban planning, and to mitigate environmental impact.

Applied geology, engineering geology and geological engineering

— Applied geology or geology for engineers is the geology used in engineering practice. This is the branch of geology which deals with its applica-tion to the needs of civil engineering. It does not necessarily imply the use of engineering geological methods for the study and solution of geological problems in engineering.

— Engineering geology and geological engineering are different from applied geology in that in addi-tion to geological knowledge, education and train-ing is required in the problems of the ground for engineering works, site investigation methods and the classification and behaviour of soils and rocks in relation to civil engineering; this field also includes practical knowledge of soil mechanics, rock mechanics and hydrogeology (Fookes, 1997).

— Engineering geology and geological engineering are equivalent disciplines, although in some coun-tries there is a difference depending on whether the university where these courses are offered is oriented more towards a geological training (engi-neering geology) or towards engineering (geologi-cal engineering). An engineering geologist can be defined as a specialist geologist (scientist) in con-trast with geological (or geotechnical) engineers who are trained as engineers with additional geo-logical knowledge (Turner, 2008).


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knowledge of geological and engineering sciences, the Copyrighted

knowledge of geological and engineering sciences, the mechanical behaviour of soils and rocks, and their response Copyrighted

mechanical behaviour of soils and rocks, and their response to changes imposed by engineering works. Site and ground

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to changes imposed by engineering works. Site and ground investigation methods to analyse and model geo-materials

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investigation methods to analyse and model geo-materials and geological processes form an essential part of this

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and geological processes form an essential part of this

Engineering geologists and geological engineers

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Engineering geologists and geological engineers have a scientific and technical education, and a training

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Copyrighted mental problems which affect engineering, and therefore they should be able to answer the following questions:

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Where to site a civil engineering facility or industrial

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Where to site a civil engineering facility or industrial Material

Where to site a civil engineering facility or industrial plant so that it will be geologically secure and eco

Material

plant so that it will be geologically secure and eco

How to select the alignment for communication or

Material How to select the alignment for communication or transportation infrastructure to ensure favourable

Material transportation infrastructure to ensure favourable

- includes practical knowledge of soil mechanics, - includes practical knowledge of soil mechanics, Taylor

includes practical knowledge of soil mechanics, Taylor

includes practical knowledge of soil mechanics, rock mechanics and hydrogeology (Fookes, 1997).Taylor

rock mechanics and hydrogeology (Fookes, 1997).Engineering geologyTaylor

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Taylor neering geology) or towards engineering (geologi& oriented more towards a geological training (engi& oriented more towards a geological training (engineering geology) or towards engineering (geologi& neering geology) or towards engineering (geological engineering). An engineering geologist can be

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Franciswho are trained as engineers with additional geo

6 GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

such as home and building construction, where geotechnical surveys are also needed.

The importance of engineering geology is particularly important in two main fields of activity. The first is engi neering projects and related works where the ground constitutes the foundation, excavation, storage or construction mate-rial. Included in this field are the main types of infrastructure projects: buildings, hydraulic or maritime works, industrial plants, mining installations, power stations, etc. The role of engineering geology in these projects is fundamental to ensuring safety and economic viability. The second field is the prevention, mitigation and control of geological hazards and risks, and the management of environmental impact of public works and industrial, mining or urban activities.

Both of these fields are of great importance to a country’s gross national product as they are directly related to the infrastructure, construction, mining and building sectors. However, the impacts of geo-environmental hazards on society and the environment can be incalculable if no preven-tive or control measures are taken (Figure 1.2).

1.2 The geological environment and its relation with engineering

The geological environment is in continuous evolution through processes affecting rock and soil materials and the natural environment as a whole. Anthropogenic environments, such as cities, infrastructures or public works frequently intrude

on regions which are geologically unstable, modifying the geological processes or sometimes even triggering them. The search for harmonious solutions between the geologi-cal and the anthropogenic environments requires an under-standing of the factors which set them apart, in order to avoid erroneous interpretations. The most important dif ferentiating factors are:

— Geological and engineering scale.— Geological and anthropological time.— Geological and engineering language.

The study of geology begins with a spatial view of Earth’s physical phenomena, on a range of scales from the cosmic to the microscopic. Time is measured in millions of years. In engineering, spatial and time scales are adjusted to the reach of human activities. Most geological processes, such as orogenesis or lithogenesis, take place over millions of years and shape such diverse phenomena as the properties and characteristics of materials and the occurrence of seismic or volcanic processes. Man as a species appeared in the Qua-ternary period, some 2 million years ago, quite recent com-pared with the 4,600 million years of the life of the planet Earth. However, human activity can dramatically affect spe-cific natural processes such as erosion, sedimentation, and even climate. Whether natural processes can be speeded up or modified is one of the fundamental questions to consider in engineering geology. Many of the geotechnical proper-ties of geological materials, such as permeability, alterability, strength or deformability, and processes such as dissolution, subsidence or expansivity, may be substantially modified by human action.

Figure 1.2 Economic losses from geological hazards in Spain (IGME, 1987).

FLOODS EARTHQUAKES LANDSLIDES EROSION

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Losses if preventative measures are not applied

Losses if preventative measures are applied

Cost of preventative measures

COST/BENEFIT RATIO

LANDSLIDES 8.0

EARTHQUAKES 5.1

EROSION 1.4

FLOODS 1.8

30 year projection, considering the maximum risk hypothesis.Cost/benefit ratio: losses from geological hazards less losses if preventative measures are applied, divided by the cost of thepreventative measures.


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Copyrighted Economic losses from geological hazards in Spain (IGME, 1987).

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Material such as home and building construction, where geotechnical

Material such as home and building construction, where geotechnical

The importance of engineering geology is particularly

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Material the foundation, excavation, storage or construction mate

Economic losses from geological hazards in Spain (IGME, 1987).Material

Economic losses from geological hazards in Spain (IGME, 1987).

- erroneous interpretations. The most important dif- erroneous interpretations. The most important difTaylor

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factors are:

—Taylor — Geological and engineering scale.Taylor

Geological and engineering scale.Geological and anthropological time.

Taylor Geological and anthropological time.Geological and engineering language.

Taylor Geological and engineering language.

The study of geology begins with a spatial view of

Taylor The study of geology begins with a spatial view of Earth’s physical phenomena, on a range of

Taylor Earth’s physical phenomena, on a range of cosmic to the microscopic.

Taylor cosmic to the microscopic. & Earth’s physical phenomena, on a range of & Earth’s physical phenomena, on a range of cosmic to the microscopic. & cosmic to the microscopic. years. In engineering, spatial and time scales are adjusted

& years. In engineering, spatial and time scales are adjusted Francis

years. In engineering, spatial and time scales are adjusted Francis

years. In engineering, spatial and time scales are adjusted to the reach of human activities. Most geological processes,

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to the reach of human activities. Most geological processes, such as orogenesis or lithogenesis, take place over millions of

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Francisyears and shape such diverse phenomena as the properties and characteristics of materials and the occurrence of seismic

Francisand characteristics of materials and the occurrence of seismic or volcanic processes. Man as a species appeared in the Qua

Francisor volcanic processes. Man as a species appeared in the Quamillion years ago, quite recent com

Francismillion years ago, quite recent commillion years of the life of the planet

Francismillion years of the life of the planet


El Berrinche landslide, Tegucigalpa (Honduras)

Box 1.2

This landslide occurred on October 30, 1998, in the after-math of Hurricane Mitch. The hurricane devastated Central America, causing more than 25,000 deaths and incal-culable economic losses. Its effects were aggravated by intense deforestation and urban encroachment on unsta-ble hillsides. Landslides on some of the shanty-covered, over populated slopes surrounding the city of Tegucigalpa wreaked tremendous damage. Hundreds of households lost members of their family and experienced perma-nent economic setback in what was perhaps the costliest natural catastrophe in the history of a country, with major social losses and economical damages, in terms of homes destroyed and people affected by the landslides.

The El Berrinche landslide destroyed the neighbour-hood of same name and partially affected others. It caused the blockage of the Choluteca River, which diverted its course into inhabited areas, flooding the lower parts of the city and causing many deaths. A river of mud swept along huge amounts of vegetation, carrying with it vehicles and

parts of houses, and reaching a height of several meters above the street level, damaging the city infrastructure.

In Tegucigalpa, these areas were known to be within a risk zone, and some maps had even been pre-pared to that effect. In 1958, during a previous event, a large number of houses were destroyed on the slopes located in front of the El Berrinche hillside.

The intense rainfall that Hurricane Mitch released onto Tegucigalpa became a true test of the evaluation of the ground behaviour and its susceptibility to landslides. Clearly different behaviour was noticed between areas as a func-tion of the type of geological material present, with lithology controlling the relative stability of slopes. In fact, the largest landslides took place in slopes formed in mudstone and siltstone with intercalations of greywake and clayey sand-stone (Valle de Angeles Group), all highly degradable and weathered, while in the other lithologic group outcroppings in the zone, and formed by massive tuffs (Padre Miguel vol-canoclastic Group) only isolated rock falls occurred.

A view of the landslide affecting part of the city of Tegucigalpa.


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math of Hurricane Mitch. The hurricane devastated Central Copyrighted

math of Hurricane Mitch. The hurricane devastated Central America, causing more than 25,000 deaths and incalCopyrighted

America, causing more than 25,000 deaths and incalculable economic losses. Its effects were aggravated by

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culable economic losses. Its effects were aggravated by intense deforestation and urban encroachment on unsta

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intense deforestation and urban encroachment on unstable hillsides. Landslides on some of the shanty-covered,

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ble hillsides. Landslides on some of the shanty-covered, populated slopes surrounding the city of Tegucigalpa

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populated slopes surrounding the city of Tegucigalpa wreaked tremendous damage. Hundreds of households

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wreaked tremendous damage. Hundreds of households lost members of their family and experienced perma

Copyrighted lost members of their family and experienced permanent economic setback in what was perhaps the costliest

Copyrighted nent economic setback in what was perhaps the costliest natural catastrophe in the history of a country, with major

Copyrighted natural catastrophe in the history of a country, with major social losses and economical damages, in terms of homes

Copyrighted social losses and economical damages, in terms of homes destroyed and people affected by the landslides.

Copyrighted destroyed and people affected by the landslides.The El Berrinche landslide destroyed the neighbour

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destroyed and people affected by the landslides.Material

destroyed and people affected by the landslides.The El Berrinche landslide destroyed the neighbourMaterial

The El Berrinche landslide destroyed the neighbourhood of same name and partially affected others. It caused

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hood of same name and partially affected others. It caused the blockage of the Choluteca River, which diverted its

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the blockage of the Choluteca River, which diverted its course into inhabited areas, flooding the lower parts of the

Material course into inhabited areas, flooding the lower parts of the city and causing many deaths. A river of mud swept along

Material city and causing many deaths. A river of mud swept along

weathered, while in the other lithologic group outcroppings

Material weathered, while in the other lithologic group outcroppings in the zone, and formed by massive tuffs (Padre Miguel vol

Material in the zone, and formed by massive tuffs (Padre Miguel volcanoclastic Group) only isolated rock falls occurred.

Material canoclastic Group) only isolated rock falls occurred.

Material - Taylor & Francis

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Comparing geological and human time is fundamen-tal to appreciate the possible consequences of geological factors and hazards. Most projects are expected to have a service life of 50–100 years; it is, however, accepted practice to demand geological and environmental safety guarantees of periods of 500–1000 years in areas which can be affected by flooding, earthquakes, etc. There are cases where geologi-cal stability must be ensured for even longer periods, such as in the storage of radioactive waste, where periods of more than 10,000 years are envisioned.

On a human scale, many geological processes and most large-scale natural hazards have a very low probability of occurrence. Engineering planning and design must take into account the great variability in the frequency with which geological processes occur, from almost instantaneous pro-cesses, like earthquakes, to very slow ones, such as dissolu-tion and erosion.

Mapping scales as a means of spatial representation are another differential aspect to be considered. In geology, the scales are adjusted to the dimensions of the pheno mena or the geological units, formations and structures which need to be represented. Most geological maps use scales of between 1/1,000,000 and 1/50,000, whereas in engineering the most frequent scales are between 1/10,000 and 1/500. Regional geological maps allow factors to be identified which, although not within the specific project area, may be neces-sary in order to appreciate regional geological aspects or the presence of hazards whose scope may affect the zone under survey. Small-scale geological maps are the norm in geotech-nical, lithological and thematic cartography, where disconti-nuities, hydrogeological data, materials, etc. are represented on the same scale as the project documents.

Another problem which often arises when integra-ting geological data into engineering projects is the lack of communication between these two fields. Independently of the geological or engineering terminology itself, there tend to be differences in approach and in the evaluation of results, depending on the point of view from which the problem is being addressed. Engineering deals with materials whose properties vary within narrow margins, do not change sub-stantially over time, and can be tested in laboratory, such as concrete, steel, etc. In geology, however, the majority of materials are anisotropic and heterogeneous, they have extremely variable properties and undergo alterations and changes over time.

In an engineering project the data must be quantifia-ble and allow modelling. In geology, numerical quantification is not always easy, and simplification of a wide range of varia-tion in properties to figures that fall within narrow margins can be difficult and, at times, it is impossible to achieve numerical precision that satisfies project requirements. While in engi-neering very precise knowledge of construction materials is

usually available, geological and geotechnical information is generally based on a limited number of surveys. As a result, there is an uncertainty factor present in geotechnical studies which affects most projects. An understanding of these dif-ferences and the use of a common language appropriate to the aims of a project is fundamental to the practice of engineering geology. Engineering geology has methods at its disposal to quantify or express geological data in a way which allows them to be integrated into numerical model-ling and into decision-making processes during planning and construction.

Statistics is an important tool for the analysis of very variable or even random data. The study of certain pheno-mena with insufficiently known periodicity can be approached from probability analysis with acceptable results, as is the case in specific geological hazards. The quantification of a set of engineering geological properties for construction appli-cations is possible through systems of geomechanical clas-sifications of rock masses. The factor of safety concept, normally used in engineering to express the degree of sta-bility of the work underway, is also integrated into geological engineering practice. By including these and other proce-dures, with relation above all to knowledge of the geologi-cal medium and its interaction with construction activities, geological factors affecting safety and engineering issues can be defined, evaluated and integrated.

1.3 Geological factors and geotechnical problems

Given the diversity of the geological environment and the complexity of its processes, engineering solutions must be found for those geological factors that may create problems for project execution.

The most important problems are related to geological hazards which may affect the safety or viability of a project. Of a secondary but still crucial importance are all the geologi-cal factors which affect the technical or economic aspects of the project. These factors and their influence on geotechnical problems are shown in Tables 1.1 to 1.4.

Tables 1.1 and 1.2 show the possible influence of lithology and geological structure on the geotechnical beha viour of rock and soil materials. Tables 1.3 and 1.4 show how water and materials are affected by different geologi-cal pro cesses, causing geotechnical problems. To sum up, the following conclusions are reached:

— Geological factors are the cause of most geotechnical problems.

— Water is one of the factors with the highest incidence affecting the geotechnical behaviour of materials.


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cal stability must be ensured for even longer periods, such as in the storage of radioactive waste, where periods of more Copyrighted

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than 10,000 years are envisioned.On a human scale, many geological processes and

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On a human scale, many geological processes and most large-scale natural hazards have a very low probability

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most large-scale natural hazards have a very low probability of occurrence. Engineering planning and design must take

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of occurrence. Engineering planning and design must take into account the great variability in the frequency with which

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into account the great variability in the frequency with which geological processes occur, from almost instantaneous pro

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geological processes occur, from almost instantaneous processes, like earthquakes, to very slow ones, such as dissolu

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as a means of spatial representation

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need to be represented. Most geological maps use scales of between 1/1,000,000 and 1/50,000, whereas in engineering

Material between 1/1,000,000 and 1/50,000, whereas in engineering the most frequent scales are between 1/10,000 and 1/500.

Material the most frequent scales are between 1/10,000 and 1/500. Regional geological maps allow factors to be identified which,

Material Regional geological maps allow factors to be identified which, although not within the specific project area, may be neces

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Material -sary in order to appreciate regional geological aspects or the

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Material presence of hazards whose scope may affect the zone under - 1.3

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1.4

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Photo A Granite with quartz, plagioclase and micas.

Photo C Leaning tower of Pisa. Photo D Settlement of the basilica Na Sa de Guadalupe, Mexico City, built on soft lacustrine soils affected by subsidence.

Photo B Slope failures in open cast mines, southern Spain.

Table 1.1 INFLUENCE OF LITHOLOGY ON THE GEOTECHNICAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE GROUND

Lithology Characteristic factors Geotechnical problems

Hard rocks — Hard and abrasive minerals — Abrasivity (Photo A)— Excavation difficulties

Soft rocks — Medium to low strength— Alterable minerals

— Slope failures (Photo B)— Deformability in tunnels— Change of properties over time

Hard soils — Medium to high strength — Problems in foundations with expansive clays and collapsible soils

Soft soils — Low to very low strength — Settlements of foundations (Photo C)— Slopes failures

Organic and biogenic soils — High compressibility— Metastable structures

— Subsidence (Photo D) and collapse


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Organic and biogenic soils

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Organic and biogenic soils—

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—

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Material

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Taylor Slope failures in open cast mines, southern

Taylor Slope failures in open cast mines, southern Spain.

Taylor Spain. & & Francis

Francis


Table 1.2 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES AND GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS

Geological structures Characteristic factors Geotechnical problems

Faults and fractures (Photo A)

— Very continuous surfaces; variable thickness

Failures, instabilities, seepages and alterations

Bedding planes (Photo B)

— Medium-highly persistent surfaces; little separation

Failures, instabilities and seepages

Discontinuities (Photo B)

— Small-medium persistence; closed or open

Failures, instabilities, seepages and weathering

Folds (Photo C) — Surfaces with high continuity or persistence

Instabilities and seepages

Foliation, schistosity (Photo D)

— Surfaces with low continuity; closed features

Anisotropic behaviour dependent on the orientation

Photo A Normal fault. Photo B Strata and joints.

Photo C Folds in quartzite. Photo D Folded schist.


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(Photo B)

Folds (Photo C)

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Folds (Photo C)

Foliation, schistosity

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Foliation, schistosity —

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features

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Material - - Taylor Strata and joints.

Taylor Strata and joints.

Taylor & Strata and joints.& Strata and joints.

Francis

Francis


Table 1.3 EFFECTS OF WATER RELATED GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Water-related geological processes Effects on materials Geotechnical problems

Dissolution (Photo A) — Loss of material in soluble rocks and soils— Karstification

— Cavities— Subsidence— Collapse

Erosion – piping (Photo B) — Loss of material, sheetwash— Piping, internal erosion— Gully erosion

— Subsidence— Collapse— Settlement— Piping and undermining— Silting

Chemical reactions (Photo C) — Changes in chemical composition — Attacks on cement, aggregates, metals and rocks

Weathering (Photo D) — Changes in physical and chemical properties — Loss of strength— Increased deformability and

permeability

Photo A Gypsum karst, southeast Spain.

Photo C Concrete attacked by sulphates: formation of ettringite in the form of very fine fibres and carbonate crystals.

Photo B Erosion and gullies in pyroclastic deposits, Guatemala.

Photo D Weathering in Tertiary materials, central Spain.


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Erosion – piping (Photo B)

Chemical reactions (Photo C)

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Chemical reactions (Photo C)

—

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Material

Material - Taylor

Taylor Erosion and gullies in pyroclastic deposits,

Taylor Erosion and gullies in pyroclastic deposits, Guatemala.

Taylor Guatemala. & Erosion and gullies in pyroclastic deposits, & Erosion and gullies in pyroclastic deposits, & Francis

Francis


Photo A Building destroyed in the Mexico earthquake, 1985.

Photo B Lava flow in the Teneguía eruption, Canary Islands, 1971.

Photo C Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City, affected by the subsidence of the Mexico valley soils.

Photo D Silting of riverbed to above road level, requiring excavation to an artificial channel, northwest Argentina.

Table 1.4 INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES ON ENGINEERING AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Geological processes Effects on the physical environment Geo-environmental problems and actions

Seismicity (Photo A) — Earthquakes, tsunamis— Ground movements and failures,

landslides, liquefaction

— Damage to population and infrastructure— Anti-seismic design— Preventive measures— Emergency plans

Volcanism (Photo B) — Volcanic eruptions— Changes in relief— Tsunamis and earthquakes— Collapse and large scale slope

movements

— Damage to population and infrastructure— Monitoring systems— Preventive measures— Evacuation plans

Uplift and subsidence (Photo C)

— Long term morphological changes— Long term changes in coastal dynamics

and sea levels

— Monitoring and control measures

Erosion-sedimentation (Photo D)

— Medium term morphological changes— Short term hydrological changes— Silting

— Increased risk of flooding and landslides— Protection measures for river beds and coasts

(continued)


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Volcanism (Photo B)

Uplift and subsidence

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Uplift and subsidence

Erosion-sedimentation

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—

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—

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Taylor Lava flow in the Teneguía eruption, Canary

Taylor Lava flow in the Teneguía eruption, Canary Islands, 1971.

Taylor Islands, 1971.& Lava flow in the Teneguía eruption, Canary & Lava flow in the Teneguía eruption, Canary Islands, 1971.& Islands, 1971.Francis

Francis


Table 1.4 INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES ON ENGINEERING AND THE ENVIRONMENT (CONT.)

Geological processes Effects on the physical environment Geo-environmental problems 4 and actions

Slope movements (Photo E) — Landslides, rock falls, subsidence— Short and medium term morphological

changes, diversion of river beds

— Damage to populations and infrastructures— Impounding of river beds— Stabilization, control and preventive

measures

Changes in water table (Photo F)

— Changes in aquifers— Changes in soil properties— Drying out and waterlogging— Subsidence and instability of slopes

— Problems in foundations— Effect on crops and irrigation— Drainage measures

Tectonic processes — Natural stress— Seismicity— Instabilities

— Rock bursts in mines and deep tunnels— Long term deformations in underground

works— Design measures in tunnels and mines

Geochemical processes — High temperatures— Thermal anomalies— Presence of gases

— Hazards from gas explosion— Difficulties during tunnel construction

Photo E Damage to motorways caused by landslides, southern Spain.

Photo F Subsidence along active faults caused by water extraction from wells, Celaya, Mexico.


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Changes in water table

Tectonic processes

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Tectonic processes—

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—

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— Instabilities

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Instabilities

—

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Taylor Damage to motorways caused by landslides,

Taylor Damage to motorways caused by landslides, & Damage to motorways caused by landslides, & Damage to motorways caused by landslides,

Francis


The failure of Aznalcóllar Dam: An example of underestimation of the geological and geotechnical conditions with serious environmental consequences

Box 1.3

The tailing dam of Aznalcóllar (southern Spain), owned by the mining company Boliden-Apirsa, was 28 m high when it failed on April 25, 1998. The safety conditions of the dam had been checked three years earlier and both the owners and those responsible for the design confirmed that it fulfilled all construction and safety requirements. This conclusion was reiterated just 5 days before the disaster.

The failure of the dam released a 4.5 Hm3 of liquid mine waste into the river Agrio, and from there into the Guadiamar, tributary of the Guadalquivir. The surrounding land was flooded, contaminated with acid water containing heavy metals, affecting all the surrounding ecosystems in the area, including Doñana National Park.

The dam was founded on a Miocene over-consolidated high-plasticity clay formation, known as

blue marl, which contains frequent shear surfaces with slickensides.

These blue marls have been extensively studied and the problems they cause were well known, especially in the stability of slopes of roads and railways of southern Spain. Their strength can be very low when they come into contact with water and when high pore pressures are generated along shear surfaces. According to the expert reports, the failure of the dam was due to a failure in the clay substratum, causing the foundation of the dam to slide forward (see Box 11.3, Chapter 11).

After the event, it became clear that the geologi-cal and geotechnical factors which caused the dam failure were not adequately taken into account, and that the monitoring systems were not operative, both fundamental aspects in geological engineering.

The Aznalcóllar dam after failure.


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The tailing dam of Aznalcóllar (southern Spain), owned Copyrighted

The tailing dam of Aznalcóllar (southern Spain), owned by the mining company Boliden-Apirsa, was 28Copyrighted

by the mining company Boliden-Apirsa, was 28when it failed on April 25, 1998. The safety conditions

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when it failed on April 25, 1998. The safety conditions of the dam had been checked three years earlier and

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of the dam had been checked three years earlier and both the owners and those responsible for the design

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both the owners and those responsible for the design confirmed that it fulfilled all construction and safety

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confirmed that it fulfilled all construction and safety requirements. This conclusion was reiterated just 5

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requirements. This conclusion was reiterated just 5before the disaster.

Copyrighted before the disaster.

The failure of the dam released a 4.5 Hm

Copyrighted The failure of the dam released a 4.5 Hm

mine waste into the river Agrio, and from there into the

Copyrighted mine waste into the river Agrio, and from there into the Guadiamar, tributary of the Guadalquivir. The surrounding

Copyrighted Guadiamar, tributary of the Guadalquivir. The surrounding land was flooded, contaminated with acid water

Copyrighted land was flooded, contaminated with acid water heavy metals, affecting all the surrounding ecosystems in

Copyrighted heavy metals, affecting all the surrounding ecosystems in Material

land was flooded, contaminated with acid water Material

land was flooded, contaminated with acid water heavy metals, affecting all the surrounding ecosystems in Material

heavy metals, affecting all the surrounding ecosystems in the area, including Doñana National Park.

Material

the area, including Doñana National Park.The dam was founded on a Miocene over-

Material

The dam was founded on a Miocene over-consolidated high-plasticity clay formation, known as

Material consolidated high-plasticity clay formation, known as



— The geological model.— The geomechanical model.— The ground behaviour model.

The geological model represents the spatial distri-bution of materials, tectonic structures, geomorphologic and hydrogeological data, and other characteristics of the site and its area of influence. The geomechanical model gives a geotechnical and hydrogeological description of the materials and their geomechanical classification. The ground behaviour model describes the response of the ground during and after construction.

This methodology constitutes the basis for the fol-lowing applications of geological engineering to civil and mining engineering and to the environment:

— Transport infrastructures.— Hydraulic and maritime works.— Urban, industrial and service buildings.— Power stations.— Mining and quarrying.— Storage for urban, industrial and radioactive waste.— Regional and urban planning.— Civil defence and emergency planning.

— Geological processes may modify the behaviour of materials, affecting the physical medium and causing geotechnical problems.

Thus it is evident that geotechnical problems can often require expensive solutions to be adopted. Depending on the scope of the problems, projects could be modified or sites relocated. For example, foundations might have to be laid more deeply because of the insufficient bearing capacity of the ground at depths nearer the surface. In contrast, favourable geotechnical conditions provide greater security for the work site and also mean work can go ahead unin-terrupted, which has a significant influence on the cost and delivery schedule for the completed work.

In general terms, the conditions a site must meet to be geologically and geotechnically suitable are as follows:

— The absence of active geological processes which present unacceptable risks for the project.

— Adequate bearing capacity of the ground for the structural foundations.

— Materials with strength enough to be stable in surface or underground excavations.

— Watertight geological formations for storing water and solid or liquid wastes.

— Availability of materials for the construction of earth works.

— Easy extraction of materials for excavation.

The relationship between the geological factors and geotechnical problems, and the difference between favourable and unfavourable geotechnical conditions, make clear that the starting point for any geotechnical site investi-gation must be geological knowledge. Interpreting geology from the perspective of engineering geology allows the behaviour of ground to be defined and predicted. The potential for advances in geotechnical engi neering that can be provided by geology is extensively described by de Freitas (2009).

1.4 Methods and applications in geological engineering

Geological engineering is based on geology and on the mechanical behaviour of soils and rocks. It requires a knowledge of site investigation techniques, mechanical, instrumental and geophysical, as well as a knowledge of methods for ground analysis and modelling. Methodology used in geological engineering studies follows the sequence described in Table 1.5, in general terms.

To develop the methodological sequence three types of models must be defined (Figure 1.3):

Table 1.5 METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES FOR GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING DESIGN

1. Identification of geological materials and geological processes. Analysis of geomorphological, structural, lithological and groundwater conditions.

2. Site and ground investigation. 3. Defining the spatial distribution of materials,

structures and discontinuities. 4. Defining the hydrogeological, in situ stress and

environmental conditions. 5. Characterization of geomechanical, hydrogeological

and chemical properties. 6. Characterization of the geological materials to be

used in the construction. 7. Selection of design parameters of the ground to

be used in stability analyses for excavations, earth structures, foundations, etc.

8. Modelling of ground behaviour under construction and operational conditions.

9. Assessment of ground treatments to control seepages, settlements, instability, etc. and to improve ground conditions.

10. Analysis of geological hazards and environmental impact on engineering design.

11. Geological and geotechnical monitoring and control during construction and operational service.


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laid more deeply because of the insufficient bearing Copyrighted

laid more deeply because of the insufficient bearing of the ground at depths nearer the surface. In contrast, Copyrighted

of the ground at depths nearer the surface. In contrast, favourable geotechnical conditions provide greater security

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favourable geotechnical conditions provide greater security for the work site and also mean work can go ahead unin

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for the work site and also mean work can go ahead uninterrupted, which has a significant influence on the cost and

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terrupted, which has a significant influence on the cost and delivery schedule for the completed work.

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delivery schedule for the completed work.In general terms, the

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In general terms, the conditions a site must meet

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conditions a site must meetto be geologically and geotechnically suitable are as follows:

Copyrighted to be geologically and geotechnically suitable are as follows:

The absence of active geological processes which

Copyrighted The absence of active geological processes which present unacceptable risks for the project.

Copyrighted present unacceptable risks for the project.Adequate bearing capacity of the ground for the

Copyrighted Adequate bearing capacity of the ground for the Material

Materials with strength enough to be stable in surface Material

Materials with strength enough to be stable in surface

Watertight geological formations for storing water

Material Watertight geological formations for storing water

Availability of materials for the construction of earth

Material Availability of materials for the construction of earth

Material

Material 10.

Material 10.

impact on engineering design.

Material impact on engineering design.

11.

Material 11. Geological and geotechnical monitoring and control

Material Geological and geotechnical monitoring and control - - - during construction and operational service.- during construction and operational service.Taylor The geological model.

Taylor The geological model.The geomechanical model.

Taylor The geomechanical model.The ground behaviour model.

Taylor The ground behaviour model.

geological model

Taylor geological modelbution of materials, tectonic structures, geomorphologic

Taylor bution of materials, tectonic structures, geomorphologic

Taylor

Taylor & represents the spatial distri& represents the spatial distri

bution of materials, tectonic structures, geomorphologic & bution of materials, tectonic structures, geomorphologic and hydrogeological data, and other characteristics of the

& and hydrogeological data, and other characteristics of the site and its area of influence. The

& site and its area of influence. The Francis

and hydrogeological data, and other characteristics of the Francis

and hydrogeological data, and other characteristics of the site and its area of influence. The Francis

site and its area of influence. The geomechanicalFrancis

geomechanicalgives a geotechnical and hydrogeological description of the

Francis

gives a geotechnical and hydrogeological description of the materials and their geomechanical classification. The

Francismaterials and their geomechanical classification. The

describes the response of the ground

Francis describes the response of the ground

This methodology constitutes the basis for the fol

FrancisThis methodology constitutes the basis for the following applications of geological engineering to civil and

Francislowing applications of geological engineering to civil and


1.5 Information sources in engineering geology

The main periodical publications in engineering geology/geological engineering are published by national and international associations, which regularly hold congresses and symposia, as well as publishing reviews or bulletins. The most important associations include:

— International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment (IAEG)

— Association of Environmental and Engineering Geologists (AEG)

— International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM)— International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotech-

nical Engineering (ISSMGE)

Periodical publications include:

— Engineering Geology (Elsevier)— Environmental & Engineering Geoscience Journal

(GSA and AEG)— Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydro-

geology (The Geological Society of London)— Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment,

IAEG (Springer)

— Géotechnique (T. Telford)— Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engi-

neering, ASCE.— International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining

Sciences, ISRM (Elsevier)— Canadian Geotechnical Journal (NRC Research Press)— International Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE.— Soils and Rocks, ABMS and SPG.— Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (Springer)

1.6 How this book is structured

This book provides an introduction to geological engineering and engineering geology, their fundamentals and basic con-cepts, methodologies and main applications. The study of geo-logical engineering requires a sound knowledge of geology. Emphasis has been made throughout the text to point out how the geology is closely related to engineering problems, as this is one of the principal objectives of engineering geology. Examples are given to illustrate these issues. However, this book does not include basic descriptions of geological concepts.

This book has 15 chapters, divided into four parts. Part I deals with the fundamentals of geological engineering.

GEOMECHANICAL MODELGEOLOGICAL MODEL

GROUND BEHAVIOUR MODELS

IVIV

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IV

IIIV

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II IIIV

V

II

IV

During construction After construction

Figure 1.3 Examples of modelling in geological engineering.


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GEOLOGICAL MODEL

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Material Examples of modelling in geological engineering.

- Taylor

—Taylor

— Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental EngiTaylor

Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE.

Taylor

neering, ASCE.International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining

Taylor International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, ISRM (Elsevier)

Taylor Sciences, ISRM (Elsevier)Canadian Geotechnical Journal (NRC Research Press)

Taylor Canadian Geotechnical Journal (NRC Research Press)International Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE.

Taylor International Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE.Soils and Rocks, ABMS and SPG.

Taylor Soils and Rocks, ABMS and SPG.& International Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE.& International Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE.Soils and Rocks, ABMS and SPG.& Soils and Rocks, ABMS and SPG.Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (Springer)

& Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (Springer)Francis

Francis

Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (Springer)Francis

Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (Springer)

How this book is structured

FrancisHow this book is structured

This book provides an introduction to geological engineering

FrancisThis book provides an introduction to geological engineering and engineering geology, their fundamentals and basic con

Francisand engineering geology, their fundamentals and basic concepts, methodologies and main applications. The study of geo

Franciscepts, methodologies and main applications. The study of geo


Special attention is paid to basic concepts of soil and rock mechanics as well as hydrogeology (Chapters 1 to 4). Part II deals with site investigations methods with a description of the different procedures for identifying the properties and geome-chanical characteristics of materials (Chapters 5 and 6; geo-technical mapping is included in Chapter 7). Part III describes the different applications of geological engineering, focussing on the most important fields of application to foundations, slopes, tunnels, dams and earth structures (Chapters 8 to 12). Part IV deals with geological hazards most relevant to geo-logical engineering, focussing on the prevention, mitigation and control. Chapter 13 deals with landslides and other mass movements, Chapter 14 with earthquakes and Chapter 15 with prevention and mitigation of geological hazards.

Recommended reading

General and background to engineering geology

Blyth, F.G.H. and de Freitas, M.H. (1984). A geology for engi-neers. 7th ed. Arnold, London.

Culshaw, M.G. (2005). From concept towards reality: developing the attributed 3D geological model of the shallow subsurface. Ql. Jl. of Eng. Geol. and Hydro-geol., 38, 231–284.

de Freitas, M.H. (2009). Geology; its principles, practice and potential for Geotechnics. The 9th Glossop Lecture, Geological Society of London. Ql. Jl. of Eng. Geol. and Hydrogeol., 42, 397–441.

Fookes, P.G. (1997). Geology for engineers: the geological model, prediction and performance. Ql. Jl. of Eng. Geol. and Hydrogeol., 30, 293–424.

Fookes, P.G., Baynes, F.J. and Hutchinson, J.N. (2000). Total geological history. A model approach to the anticipation, observation and understanding of site conditions. Geo2000. Int. Conf. on Geotechnical & Geological Engineering, Melbourne. Vol. 1: Invited Papers. Technomic Publishing Co., 370–460.

Johnson, R.B. and DeGraff, J.V. (1988). Principles of engi-neering geology. J. Wiley & Sons. New York.

Legget, R.F. and Karrow, P.F. (1983). Handbook of geology in civil engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Parriaux, A. (2009). Geology: basics for engineers. CRC Press/Balkema. The Netherlands.

Price, D.G. (2009). Engineering geology. Principles and practice. Edited and compiled by M. H. de Freitas. Springer.

Rahn, P.H. (1996). Engineering geology: an environmental approach. 2nd ed. Prentice Hall.

Terzaghi, K. (1960). From theory to practice in soil mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Education and training in engineering geology

Bock, H. et al. (2004). The Joint European Working Group of the ISSMGE, ISRM and IAEG for the definition of professional tasks, responsibilities and co-operation in ground engineering. Engineering Geology for Infra-structures Planning in Europe: A European Perspective. Hack, Azzam and Charlier, Eds. Lecture Notes in Earth Sci. Springer, Berlin, 104:1–8.

de Freitas, M.H. (1994). Keynote Lecture: Teaching and training in engineering geology: professional prac-tice and registration. Proc. 7th Cong. of the Int. Assoc. of Engineering Geology, Lisbon. Oliveira, Rodrigues, Coelho & Cunha Eds. Balkema. Vol. 6, pp. LVII–LXXV.

Knill, J. (2003). Core values: the first Hans-Cloos lecture. (2003) Bull. of Eng. Geol. and the Environment, 62 (1), 1–34. Springer.

Oliveira, R. (2008). Geo-engineering education and training. The past and the future. Proc. 1st Int. Cong. on Edu-cation and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London, 79–86.

Rengers, N. and Bock, H. (2008). Competency-oriented cur-ricula development in Geo-engineering with particu-lar reference to engineering geology. Proc. 1st Int. Cong. on Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London, 101–110.

Turner, A.K. (2008). Education and professional recognition of engineering geologists and geological engineers in Canada and the United States. Proc. 1st Int. Cong. on Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London, 111–118.

Turner, A.K. (2010). Defining competencies for geo-engineering: implications for education and training. Proc. 11th IAEG Congress, Auckland, New Zealand. Balkema, The Netherlands (in press).

References

Bock, H. et al. (2004). The Joint European Working Group of the ISSMGE, ISRM and IAEG for the definition of professional tasks, responsibilities and co-operation in ground engineering. Engineering Geology for Infrastructures Planning in Europe: A European Per-spective. Hack, Azzam and Charlier, Eds. Lecture Notes in Earth Sci. Springer, Berlin, 104:1–8.

de Freitas, M.H. (2009). Geology; its principles, practice and potential for Geotechnics. The 9th Glossop Lecture,


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on the most important fields of application to foundations, Copyrighted

on the most important fields of application to foundations, slopes, tunnels, dams and earth structures (ChaptersCopyrighted

slopes, tunnels, dams and earth structures (Chapters deals with geological hazards most relevant to geoCopyrighted

deals with geological hazards most relevant to geological engineering, focussing on the prevention, mitigation

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logical engineering, focussing on the prevention, mitigation and control. Chapter

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and control. Chapter 13 deals with landslides and other mass

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13 deals with landslides and other mass movements, Chapter

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movements, Chapter 14 with earthquakes and Chapter

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14 with earthquakes and Chapterwith prevention and mitigation of geological hazards.

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with prevention and mitigation of geological hazards.

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General and background to

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Blyth, F.G.H. and de Freitas, M.H. (1984). A geology for engiMaterial

Blyth, F.G.H. and de Freitas, M.H. (1984). A geology for engi

Culshaw, M.G. (2005). From concept towards reality:

Material Culshaw, M.G. (2005). From concept towards reality:

developing the attributed 3D geological model of the

Material developing the attributed 3D geological model of the

Rengers, N. and Bock, H. (2008). Competency-oriented cur

Material Rengers, N. and Bock, H. (2008). Competency-oriented cur

- Cong. on Education and Training in Geo-Engineering - Cong. on Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor

- Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor Taylor

Cong. on Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Taylor

Cong. on Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor Taylor

Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London, 101–110.Taylor

& Francis Group, London, 101–110.Turner, A.K. (2008). Education and professional recognition

Taylor Turner, A.K. (2008). Education and professional recognition

of engineering geologists and geological engineers in

Taylor of engineering geologists and geological engineers in Canada and the United States. Proc. 1st Int. Cong. on

Taylor Canada and the United States. Proc. 1st Int. Cong. on Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences.

Taylor Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis

Taylor Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis & Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences. & Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis & Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London, 111–118.

& Group, London, 111–118.Turner, A.K. (2010). Defining competencies for geo-engineering:

& Turner, A.K. (2010). Defining competencies for geo-engineering: Francis

Francis

Turner, A.K. (2010). Defining competencies for geo-engineering: Francis

Turner, A.K. (2010). Defining competencies for geo-engineering: implications for education and training. Proc. 11th

Francisimplications for education and training. Proc. 11th IAEG Congress, Auckland, New Zealand. Balkema,

FrancisIAEG Congress, Auckland, New Zealand. Balkema,


Geological Society of London. Ql. Jl. of Eng. Geol. and Hydrogeol., 42, 397–441.

Fookes, P.G. (1997). Geology for engineers: the geological model, prediction and performance. Ql. Jl. of Eng. Geol. and Hydrogeol., 30, 293–424.

IGME (1987). Impacto económico y social de los riesgos geológicos en España. Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (Geological Survey of Spain), Madrid.

Turner, A.K. (2008). Education and professional recognition of engineering geologists and geological engineers in Canada and the United States. Proc. 1st Int. Cong. on Education and Training in Geo-Engineering Sciences. Manoliu & Radulescu Eds., CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, London, 111–118.


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de España (Geological Survey of Spain), Madrid.Copyrighted

de España (Geological Survey of Spain), Madrid.


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