Introduction to Ethical Theories

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Most everyone shares core values, desiring:LifeHappinessAbility to accomplish goalsTwo ways to view worldSelfish point of view: consider only your own self and your core valuesEthical point of view: respect other people and their core valuesA society is an association of people organized under a system of rules designed to advance the good of its members.Questions: Do individuals always agree on one course of action? Do people always agree on achieving the goal the same way?Why Ethics?

Ethics: a way to decide the best thing to doNew problems accompany new technologiesCommon wisdom may not exist for novel situations brought about by new technologies

*Especially Important Nowadays or interesting to study at least Technology is rapidly emerging and altering social norms and how goals are accomplished in society While these technologies have advanced our society they also allow others to prey on the ignorant. We are reactive as a society and not proactive which allows us to fall victim as well as not have an understanding of how things operate. Programming a VCR is not an excuse anymore.Phishing Scams, Cell phone use at customer service situations, storing all personal info, etc.

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Question: What is the difference between something being ethical, moral and legal?

Ethics The philosophical beliefs of what is right and wrong.SocietalReligiouspoliticalMorals An individuals beliefs to what is right and wrong.The difference between morals and ethics is the ethical man knows he should not cheat on his wife, whereas the moral man doesnt cheat on his wife. Dr. Donald Ducky MallardLegal Being in conformity with the law.

Whats the Difference?

Can there be a situation where breaking the law can be morally right?3

Is it Ethical or Not?

Other scenarios:4

A Good Ethical Theory Supports Persuasive, Logical Arguments

Ethics: rational, systematic analysisDoing ethics means explaining conclusionsBest explanations based on facts, shared values, logicEthics focuses on peoples voluntary, moral choicesWorkable ethical theory: produces explanations that might be persuasive to a skeptical, yet open-minded audience

Logical decision making. Competence vs. reflex vs. Consequences to OthersThis is an argument by defense attorneys when determining competence in their clients. Were they in control when making the decision?

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RelativismNo universal norms of right and wrongOne person can say X is right, another can say X is wrong, and both can be rightSubjective relativismEach person decides right and wrong for himself or herselfWhats right for you may not be right for me

Subjective Relativism

VS

Subjective Relativism Serial Killers, VaccinationsBeauty is in the eye of the beholderDefine each color with a unique name?

Case ForWell-meaning and intelligent people disagree on moral issuesAbortionEthical debates are disagreeable and pointless

Case AgainstBlurs line between doing what you think is right and doing what you want to doPro Choice vs. Pro LifeMakes no moral distinction between the actions of different peopleSerial Killers vs. SaintsSR and tolerance are two different thingsDecisions may not be based on reasonWithout Reason anything can be ethical

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Cultural relativismWhat is right and wrong depends upon a societys actual moral guidelinesThese guidelines vary from place to place and from time to timeA particular action may be right in one society at one time and wrong in other society or at another time

Cultural Relativism

Cultural Relativism Satanic rituals , Scalping, different time and place when looking historically, different influences

Case ForDifferent social contexts demand different moral guidelines3rd vs. 1st world countries10,000 years ago vs. NowIt is arrogant for one society to judge another

Case AgainstBecause two societies do have different moral views doesnt mean they ought to have different viewsIt doesnt explain how moral guidelines are determinedCultsWhat if there are no cultural norms?It doesnt account for evolution of moral guidelines.DesegregationIt provides no way out for cultures in conflictGaza StripSocieties do, in fact, share certain core valuesOnly indirectly based on reasonTraditions

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Good actions: those aligned with Gods willBad actions: those contrary to Gods willHoly books reveal Gods willWe should use holy books as moral decision-making guides

Divine Command Theory

God has told Abraham to kill IssacNoahEgypt and the Jews

Case ForWe owe obedience to our Creator (Omnibenevolent)God is all-good and all-knowing (Omnicious)God is the ultimate authority (Omnipotent)

Case AgainstDifferent holy books disagree on certain teachingsKuran, Torah, Bible, The Book of MormonSociety is multiculturalSome modern moral problems not directly addressed in scriptureSmart Phones, Computers, PlumbingThe good God (equivalence fallacy)Its good b/c God commands it or God commands it so it is goodBased on obedience, not reason

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Good will: the desire to do the right thingImmanuel Kant: Only thing in the world that is good without qualification is a good willReason should cultivate desire to do right thingCategorical Imperative1st Imperative: Act only from moral rules that you can at thesame time will to be universal moral laws

2nd Imperative: Act so that you treat both yourselfand other people as ends in themselvesand never only as a means to an endKantianism

1st FormulationQuestion: Can a person in dire straits make a promise with the intention of breaking it later?Proposed rule: I may make promises with the intention of later breaking them.The person in trouble wants his promise to be believed so he can get what he needs.Universalize rule: Everyone may make & break promisesEveryone breaking promises would make promises unbelievable, contradicting desire to have promise believedThe rule is flawed. The answer is No.2nd This is usually an easier formulation to workwith than the first formulation of theCategorical Imperative.

Case ForAligns with common moral concern: What if everyone acted that way?Produces universal moral guidelinesTreats all persons as moral equals

Case AgainstSometimes no rule adequately characterizes an actionSometimes there is no way to resolve a conflict between rulesIn a conflict between a perfect duty and an imperfect duty, perfect duty prevailsIn a conflict between two perfect duties, no solutionKantianism allows no exceptions to perfect dutiesDespite weaknesses, a workable ethical theory9

A Means to an End

CarlaSingle motherWorks full timeTakes two evening courses/semesterHistory classRequires more work than normalCarla earning an A on all work so farCarla doesnt have time to write final reportCarla purchases report; submits it as her own work

Plagiarism Scenario

Dont do it, its plagiarism. Its StealingGo ahead, And use it, It doesnt hurt anyone.

1stCarla wants credit for plagiarized reportRule: You may claim credit for work performed by someone elseIf rule universalized, reports would no longer be credible indicators of students knowledge, and professors would not give credit for reportsProposal moral rule is self-defeatingIt is wrong for Carla to turn in a purchased report

2ndCarla submitted another persons work as her ownShe attempted to deceive professorShe treated professor as a means to an endEnd: passing the courseMeans: manipulate professorWhat Carla did was wrong

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Utility is the tendency of an object to produce happiness or prevent un happiness for an individual or a community.An action is good if its benefits exceeds its harmsHappiness, Advantage, Benefit, Good, PleasureAn action is bad if its harms exceed its benefitsUnhappiness, Disadvantage, Cost, Evil, PainFocus on the consequencesGreatest Happiness Principle: An action is right (or wrong) to the extent that it increases (or decreases) the total happiness of the affected parties.

Act UtilitarianismAdd up change in happiness of all affected beingsSum > 0, action is goodSum < 0, action is badRight action to take: one that maximizes the sum

Act Utilitarianism

Beings vs. persons animals, but white men vs others, children

Case ForFocuses on happinessDown-to-earth (practical)Comprehensive

Case AgainstUnclear whom to include in calculations and how far out into the future to considerToo much workIgnores our innate sense of dutyWe cannot predict consequences with certaintySusceptible to the problem of moral luck12

State will create a new stretch of highwayNew highway segment will circumvent towns allowing trucks an alternate route.Some wildlife habitat would be destroyedTaxes will be raised

DE 301 Highway Scenario

Costs$20 million to compensate homeowners$10 million to construct new highwayLost wildlife habitat worth $1 millionBenefits$39 million savings in automobile driving costsConclusionBenefits exceed costsBuilding highway a good action13

Applying principles of utility to rulesRule Utilitarianism: We ought to adopt moral rules which, if followed by everyone, will lead to the greatest increase in total happinessAct utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to individual actions, while rule utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to rulesBoth rule utilitarianism and Kantianism are rule focusedMany derived rules overlapHow the rules are derived are vastly differentCategorical Imperative vs. Means to an EndConsequences of action vs. motivation of action

Rule Utilitarianism

Case ForNot every moral decision requires performing utilitarian calculusMoral rules survive exceptional situationsAvoids the problem of moral luckReduces the problem of biasAppeals to a wide cross-section of society

Case AgainstAll consequences must be measured on a single scale.All units must be the same in order to do the sumIn certain circumstances utilitarians must quantify the value of a human lifeUtilitarianism ignores the problem of an unjust distribution of good consequences.Utilitarianism does not mean the greatest good of the greatest numberThat requires a principle of justiceWhat happens when a conflict arises between the Principle of Utility and a principle of justice?Despite weaknesses, both act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism are workable ethical theories

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August 2003: Blaster worm infected thousands of Windows computersSoon after, Nachi worm appearedTook control of vulnerable computerLocated and destroyed copies of BlasterDownloaded software patch to fix security problemUsed computer as launching pad to try to infect other vulnerable PCsAnti-Worm Scenario

Proposed rule: If I can write a helpful worm that removes a harmful worm from infected computers and shields them from future attacks, I should do soWho would benefitPeople who do not keep their systems updatedWho would be harmedPeople who use networksPeople whos computers are invaded by buggy anti-wormsSystem administratorsConclusion: Harm outweighs benefits. Releasing anti-worm is wrong.15

Thomas HobbesIn a state of nature our lives would be solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and shortWe implicitly accept a social contractEstablishment of moral rules to govern relations among citizensGovernment capable of enforcing these rulesJean-Jacques RousseauIn ideal society, no one above rulesThat prevents society from enacting bad rulesKinds of RightsNegative right: A right that another can guarantee by leaving you alonePositive right: A right obligating others to do something on your behalfAbsolute right: A right guaranteed without exceptionLimited right: A right that may be restricted based on the circumstances

Social Contract Theory

Morality consists in the set of rules,governing how people are totreat one another, that rationalpeople will agree to accept, for theirmutual benefit, on the condition thatothers follow those rules as well.Positive rights tend to be more limitedNegative rights tends to be more absolute

Case ForFramed in language of rightsExplains why people act in self-interest in absence of common agreementProvides clear analysis of certain citizen/government problemsWhy okay for government to deprive criminals of certain rightsWhy civil obedience can be morally right action

Case AgainstNo one signed social contractSome actions have multiple characterizationsConflicting rights problemMay unjustly treat people incapable of upholding contract

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Bill owns chain of DVD rental storesCollects information about rentals from customersConstructs profiles of customersSells profiles to direct marketing firmsSome customers happy to receive more mail order catalogs; others unhappy at increase in junk mail

Marketing Scenario

Consider rights of Bill, customers, and mail order companies.Does customer have right to expect name, address to be kept confidential?If customer rents DVD from bill, who owns information about transaction?If Bill and customer have equal rights to information, Bill did nothing wrong to sell information.If customers have right to expect name and address or transaction to be confidential without giving permission, then Bill was wrong to sell information without asking for permission.

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Virtue EthicsKantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory ignore important moral considerationsmoral educationmoral wisdomfamily and social relationshipsrole of emotionsTwo types of virtueintellectual virtues: virtues associated with reasoning and truthmoral virtues: virtues of character (e.g., honesty)

Moral virtuesdeveloped by habitually performing right actiondeep-seated character traitsCharacter is what you do when no one is watchingdisposition to act in a certain way and feel in a certain wayVice: a character trait that prevents a human being from flourishing or being truly happyOpposite from a virtueExcessDeficiencyOften, a virtue situated between two vicesCourage between cowardliness and rashnessGenerosity between stinginess and prodigality

A good person does the right thing at the right time for the right reason.

Aristotle: Happiness derives from living a life of virtue. charities

A right action is an action that a virtuous person, acting in character, would do in the same circumstances.

A virtuous person is a person who possesses and lives out the virtues.An honest person will tell the truth no matter what. Character is what you do when no one is looking

The virtues are those character traits human beings needs in order to flourish and be truly happy.

Case ForIt often makes more sense to focus on virtues than obligations, rights, or consequencesPersonal relationships can be morally relevant to decision makingOur moral decision-making skills develop over timeWith this theory there are no irresolvable moral dilemmasEmotions play an important role in living a moral life

Case AgainstReasonable people may disagree on character traits needed for human flourishingCannot use virtue ethics to guide government policyVirtue ethics undermines attempts to hold people responsible for their bad actions

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Kantianism: Every person is equally valuable, and when you interact with other people you should always respect them as rational beings.

Utilitarianism: You should consider the consequences of an action before deciding whether its right or wrong.

Social contract theory: We should collectively promote human rights, such as the rights to life, liberty, and property.

Virtue ethics: You can count on a good person to do the right thing at the right time in the right way.Summary

Its Up to YouYou can consider duties and rights and consequences and virtues when making moral decisionsUltimately, you to have to decide:What kind of person do I want to be?What kind of world do I want to live in?

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