Introduction to Qualitative Introduction to Qualitative ResearchResearch

Philosophical AssumptionsPhilosophical Assumptions

• Ontology: Metaphysical study of being and Ontology: Metaphysical study of being and the nature of realitythe nature of reality

• Axiology: Study of nature of values and Axiology: Study of nature of values and judgements (overriding goal)judgements (overriding goal)

• Epistemology: Study of Epistemology: Study of the nature of the nature of knowledge, its presuppositions and knowledge, its presuppositions and foundations, and its extent and validity foundations, and its extent and validity

Positivistic vs. Positivistic vs. InterpretiveInterpretive• Ontological – Ontological –

nature of realitynature of reality– ObjectiveObjective– SingleSingle– DivisibleDivisible

• Nature of social Nature of social beingsbeings– DeterministicDeterministic– ReactiveReactive

• Ontological – Ontological – nature of realitynature of reality– Socially constructedSocially constructed– MultipleMultiple– Holistics/ContextualHolistics/Contextual

• Nature of social Nature of social beingsbeings– VoluntaristicVoluntaristic– ProactiveProactive

Positivistic Vs. Positivistic Vs. InterpretiveInterpretive

• Axiological Axiological – Explanation via Explanation via

subsumption under subsumption under general lawsgeneral laws

• AxiologicalAxiological– ““Understanding” Understanding”

based on Verstehenbased on Verstehen

Positivistic Vs. Positivistic Vs. InterpretiveInterpretive

• EpistemologicalEpistemological

• Knowledge GenerationKnowledge Generation– NomotheticNomothetic– Time-freeTime-free– Context-independentContext-independent

• View of CausalityView of Causality– Real causes existReal causes exist

• Research relationshipResearch relationship– Dualism, separationDualism, separation– Privileged point of Privileged point of

observationobservation

• EpistemologicalEpistemological

• Knowledge GenerationKnowledge Generation– IdiographicIdiographic– Time-boundTime-bound– Context-dependentContext-dependent

• View of CausalityView of Causality– Multiple, simultaneous Multiple, simultaneous

shapingshaping

• Research relationshipResearch relationship– Interactive, cooperativeInteractive, cooperative– No privileged point of No privileged point of

observationobservation

Qualitative InquiryQualitative Inquiry

• Qualitative questions: why or howQualitative questions: why or how

• Fit of Question and MethodFit of Question and Method

• Sampling and Saturation:Sampling and Saturation:– Purposeful, convenience, nominated, Purposeful, convenience, nominated,

theoreticaltheoretical– Data saturationData saturation

MethodsMethods

• Ethnography Ethnography – Focused ethnography (decision making) Focused ethnography (decision making) – Critical ethnography (aids emancipation)Critical ethnography (aids emancipation)

• PhenomenologyPhenomenology– Experience snapshotsExperience snapshots– Describing the essence of human experienceDescribing the essence of human experience

• Grounded theoryGrounded theory– Highly inductiveHighly inductive– Iterative process – evolving theoryIterative process – evolving theory

MethodsMethods

• NarrativeNarrative– Story that reveals person’s experiencesStory that reveals person’s experiences– Represents larger social experience Represents larger social experience

• Case StudyCase Study– Intrinsic (understanding 1 case)Intrinsic (understanding 1 case)– Instrumental (refining theory)Instrumental (refining theory)– Collective (several instrumental cases, Collective (several instrumental cases,

looking for broader context)looking for broader context)

MethodsMethods

• Participatory Action ResearchParticipatory Action Research– Reflects needs of the peopleReflects needs of the people– Group ownership of process Group ownership of process

(involvement of participants from design (involvement of participants from design to results)to results)

– Conducted to solve social or community Conducted to solve social or community problemsproblems

Data CollectionData Collection

• Interviews (depth)Interviews (depth)

• ObservationObservation

• Field NotesField Notes

• DocumentsDocuments

• Video, photographsVideo, photographs

Triangulation Triangulation

Uses a combination of more than one research Uses a combination of more than one research strategy in a single investigation.strategy in a single investigation.

• Data: time, space, personData: time, space, person

• Investigator: complimenting areas of expertiseInvestigator: complimenting areas of expertise

• Theory: testing and comparison of theoriesTheory: testing and comparison of theories

• Methods: simultaneous & sequential Methods: simultaneous & sequential implementation (separate analysis)implementation (separate analysis)

Depth InterviewsDepth Interviews

• Funnel Method Funnel Method – let respondent do all the talkinglet respondent do all the talking– can be a diagnostic interviewcan be a diagnostic interview– the idea is let the subject direct the the idea is let the subject direct the

interview interview

• Inverted Funnel: Specific to generalInverted Funnel: Specific to general

– You want to jog the interviewees memoryYou want to jog the interviewees memory

– You want to motivate a reluctant You want to motivate a reluctant participantparticipant

– You want to get specific facts before You want to get specific facts before general impressionsgeneral impressions

Interview TechniqueInterview Technique

• silent probesilent probe

• encouragement probeencouragement probe

• immediate elaborationimmediate elaboration

• immediate clarificationimmediate clarification

• retrospective elaborationretrospective elaboration

• recapitulation proberecapitulation probe

• retrospective clarificationretrospective clarification

Interview TechniqueInterview Technique

• echo probeecho probe

• reflective probereflective probe

• interpretive probeinterpretive probe

• summary probesummary probe

• mutationmutation

Interview TechniqueInterview Technique

• formulate question before speakingformulate question before speaking

• keep questions simplekeep questions simple– no prefaceno preface– do not give respondent your lit reviewdo not give respondent your lit review

• note taking controls flownote taking controls flow

Interview IssuesInterview Issues

• avoid leading questionsavoid leading questions

• avoid ritual agreementavoid ritual agreement

• monitor the universe of discoursemonitor the universe of discourse

Universe of DiscourseUniverse of Discourse

Interview IssuesInterview Issues

• avoid leading questionsavoid leading questions

• avoid ritual agreementavoid ritual agreement

• monitor the universe of discoursemonitor the universe of discourse

• observe body languageobserve body language

• convey expectation of cooperationconvey expectation of cooperation

• avoid unprofessional statementsavoid unprofessional statements

To Tape or Not to TapeTo Tape or Not to Tape

• AdvantagesAdvantages– more accurate and less distractingmore accurate and less distracting– better than relying on your memorybetter than relying on your memory– excellent training tool for interviewerexcellent training tool for interviewer

• DisadvantageDisadvantage– one thing to tell you, another to go on one thing to tell you, another to go on

permanent recordpermanent record– worry about sound of their voiceworry about sound of their voice– worry who will hear tapeworry who will hear tape

IF Using a Tape RecorderIF Using a Tape Recorder

• tell respondent who will have access tell respondent who will have access to tapeto tape

• erase tape as soon as transcribederase tape as soon as transcribed

• place recorder in obvious placeplace recorder in obvious place– you can turn off/on; confirm working...you can turn off/on; confirm working...– no question of subterfugeno question of subterfuge

IF Using a Tape RecorderIF Using a Tape Recorder

• check recorder before you show upcheck recorder before you show up– tape blank?tape blank?– bring extra tapebring extra tape– check batteriescheck batteries– confirm that it is working!confirm that it is working!– move tape past leadermove tape past leader– check volume controlcheck volume control– practice with tape recorderpractice with tape recorder

WhoWho

• does this person have access to does this person have access to information that you want?information that you want?

• approaching interviewees & their approaching interviewees & their organizationsorganizations

WhenWhen

• schedule when no schedule when no competing demandscompeting demands

• approach with attitude approach with attitude that their time is more that their time is more important than yoursimportant than yours

• do not schedule too do not schedule too closely togetherclosely together– 45 minutes typical; 90 45 minutes typical; 90

minutes longestminutes longest

• sequencing sequencing

WhereWhere

• respondent’s place of businessrespondent’s place of business

• respondent’s homerespondent’s home

• neutral spotneutral spot

WhatWhat

• interview blueprintinterview blueprint– list research objective or research list research objective or research

question, actual question and sample question, actual question and sample prompts (listing any specifics you would prompts (listing any specifics you would like to elicit) in table/chart formlike to elicit) in table/chart form

The interview blueprint The interview blueprint should guide you, not should guide you, not confine youconfine you

Sample Interview BlueprintSample Interview Blueprint

ResearchQuestion orObjective

InterviewQuestion

Probes

Describe thecharacteristicsof our currentcustomerspreferredcookie?

Describe the“perfect”chocolate chipcookie.

How big would itbe?Hard? Soft?Big chips orlittle chips?

Who is the “endconsumer” ofthe purchasedcookie?

You bring thecookies homefrom the store.Who eats them?

Who eats themost ____ or____? How oldis ____?

ResearchQuestion

InterviewQuestion

Probes

Who factorsinfluence thepurchasingdecision?

You’re standing infront of thedisplay ofcookies—tell mewhat’s goingthrough yourmind?

What else?And then…Check for $,nutrition, familypreferences…

Estimateadvertising recallours versuscompetition

When I say“cookie ads” whatis the first thingthat pops intoyour mind?

Can you give memore details?Why do you thinkyou remember it?

WhatWhat

• interview guideinterview guide– questions simply wordedquestions simply worded– listed in orderlisted in order– key points of introduction & key points of introduction &

conclusionconclusion– leave space for notesleave space for notes

InterviewQuestion

Probes Notes:

Describe the“perfect”chocolate chipcookie.

How big would itbe?Hard? Soft?Big chips or littlechips?

You bring thecookies homefrom the store.Who eats them?

Who eats themost ____ or____? How old is____?

Sample Interview GuideSample Interview Guide

InterviewQuestion

Probes Notes:

You’re standing infront of thedisplay ofcookies—tell mewhat’s goingthrough yourmind?

What else?And then…Check for $,nutrition, familypreferences…

When I say“cookie ads” whatis the first thingthat pops intoyour mind?

Can you give memore details?Why do you thinkyou remember it?

Additional comments:

The interview blueprint The interview blueprint and interview guides and interview guides should serve as a road should serve as a road map. They can be used map. They can be used when you feel you are when you feel you are getting lost and to keep getting lost and to keep you focused on your you focused on your destination….destination….

But, remember, that But, remember, that sometimes the scenic sometimes the scenic route provides surprising route provides surprising discoveries.discoveries.

Interview ProcedureInterview Procedure

• phone ahead to confirm appointmentphone ahead to confirm appointment• when you arrivewhen you arrive

– reintroduce yourself and your studyreintroduce yourself and your study– explain how they were picked for studyexplain how they were picked for study– confirm use of tape recorderconfirm use of tape recorder– explain confidentiality and explain that explain confidentiality and explain that

they can end interview at any pointthey can end interview at any point– start tape (if using)start tape (if using)

Interview ProcedureInterview Procedure

• when tape is rollingwhen tape is rolling– say, say, “I’ve prepared some questions, but if “I’ve prepared some questions, but if

they don’t seem to be hitting at the core of the they don’t seem to be hitting at the core of the issue, feel free to correct me”issue, feel free to correct me”

– start questionsstart questions• if ask tape be turned off for one question, remember if ask tape be turned off for one question, remember

to start again afterto start again after

– after last question, always ask “Is there after last question, always ask “Is there anything else you’d like to add? Anything you anything else you’d like to add? Anything you think I’m missing?”think I’m missing?”

Interview ProcedureInterview Procedure

• after interview is overafter interview is over– don’t bolt….don’t bolt….– thank them for their participationthank them for their participation– say into tape recorder “the foregoing was an say into tape recorder “the foregoing was an

interview with Jane Doe (D-o-e) for project 43, interview with Jane Doe (D-o-e) for project 43, date, time, location, by your namedate, time, location, by your name

– turn off tape, but hang around making small turn off tape, but hang around making small talk — will often get best stuff yet, now that talk — will often get best stuff yet, now that formal interview is overformal interview is over

• once out of sight, debrief once out of sight, debrief

Interview ProcedureInterview Procedure

• DebriefDebrief– check that tape has recorded properlycheck that tape has recorded properly

• tape is blanktape is blank

• background noise obscures portions of tapebackground noise obscures portions of tape

• reconstruct missing data — but distinguish in transcript reconstruct missing data — but distinguish in transcript between verbatim and reconstructed paraphrasingbetween verbatim and reconstructed paraphrasing

– record details (such as body language) not record details (such as body language) not recorded on tape while still fresh in your memoryrecorded on tape while still fresh in your memory

– note your own preliminary interpretations and note your own preliminary interpretations and ideasideas