introduction to special education: making a difference seventh edition

Introduction to Special Education: Making a Difference, 7th ed., ISBN 0135056020Deborah Deutsch Smith

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.1

Chapter 5Chapter 5

Learning DisabilitiesLearning Disabilities

Introduction to Special Education: Introduction to Special Education: Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference

Seventh EditionSeventh Edition



Chapter Objectives List the key features of the IDEA ’04 definition

of learning disabilities. Discuss the different types of learning

disabilities. Explain how an individual’s response to

intervention (RTI) is assessed. Explain what is meant by the practice of “early

intervening” and why it holds great promise. Describe two data-based practices that make a

difference in the learning outcomes of students with disabilities.



Learning Disabilities A learning disability is a condition that can

cause significant problems in both school and life.

Learning disabilities have been a source of controversy for the past fifty years. Some question the existence of “learning

disabilities.” The concept of learning disabilities originated

in the U.S., but is now accepted worldwide. Research focusing on the challenges that

students face has generated remarkable instructional strategies that help to improve learning outcomes for students.



History of the Field During the 1920s and 1930s, Samuel Orton, a

neurology specialist, developed theories and remedial reading techniques for children whom he called “dyslexic.”

1960s: Marianne Frostig developed materials for improving visual perception.

1961: Professor Sam Kirk and colleagues published the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA), which was used to identify students with disabilities.

The term “Learning Disabilities” was coined by Professor Kirk in 1963.



History of the Field In the 1970s, the field of learning disabilities debated

the best way to remediate students’ academic deficits. Process/product debate

In 1974, Don Hammill and Steve Larsen showed that perceptual approaches were seldom effective in teaching academic skills, but direct instruction techniques made a difference.

Many fads and invalidated practices have been proposed for solving a learning disability, including:

Teaching students to crawl again, regardless of age. Special diets. Removing fluorescent lighting. Plants placed on desks.

These fads were promoted by the media, but had little scientific evidence to support their claims.



Challenges that Learning Disabilities Present Difficulty organizing thoughts for writing Problems with reading and listening

comprehension Difficulty conveying thoughts, feelings,

or knowledge In some cases, being uneasy and

uncomfortable around others Challenges with reading fluency



Learning Disabilities Defined A condition of unexpected

underachievement Academic performance is significantly lower

than would be predicted. Comprises 4 to 5% of all students Largest group of students with

disabilities served in special education Federal term: “specific learning

disability”



Concerns Regarding Learning Disabilities Delay in delivering needing services Over-reliance on IQ tests Overwhelming number of students

identified Inconsistency of characteristics

observed in those identified



IQ/Achievement Discrepancy Prior to IDEA ’04, most states required

students to demonstrate a significant IQ/achievement discrepancy to be identified as having a learning disability. Difference between potential (score on IQ

test) and performance (academic achievement)

At least two years behind the student’s expected grade level



Criticisms of Discrepancy Formulas IQ tests are not reliable and are unfair to many

groups of children. Results have little utility in planning a

student’s educational program. The process is not helpful in determining which

interventions might be successful. Outcomes do not relate to performance in the

classroom, with the general education curriculum, or on statewide assessments.

Children must fail before they qualify for needed services.



Characteristics of Learning Disabilities Unexpected

underachievement Lack of motivation or

poor attribution Attention deficits Inability to

generalize Faulty information

processing Insufficient problem-

solving strategies

In some cases, learned helplessness and inactivity in the learning process

Poor language and/or cognitive development

Immature social skills

Disorganization



Characteristics of Learning Disabilities Negative Attributions

Frustration and failure in school can negatively affect students’ motivation and convince them there is nothing they can do to be successful (learned helplessness).

Non-Strategic Approaches to Learning Students struggle with paying attention to the

important features of a learning task. Inability to Generalize

Students are unable to transfer learning from one situation to another.

Faulty Information Processing Students may have difficulty with the input, output,

or processing of information.



Social Skills About 75% of students

with LD struggle with social skills.

This area affects most of the student’s life.

Deficits in social skills are now considered a common and defining characteristic of learning disabilities (Kavale & Mostert, 2004).

To improve social skills: Pair students with mutual

interests. Integrate students with

and without disabilities. Teach students with

disabilities the importance of self-control.

Model, coach, and provide specific feedback.

Have student practice a social skill.

Peer tutoring.



Prevalence Major issues of concern about the

prevalence of learning disabilities Size

Largest special education category Cost

Special education costs are almost twice that of general education.

Misidentification Students from diverse backgrounds are

disproportionately represented



Causes and Prevention of Learning Disabilities The cause is most often unknown. Some may have proven brain damage. A genetic link for some is becoming better

understood (Hallahan et al., 2005). There is also a strong relationship between low

socio-economic status (SES) and learning disabilities.

Many factors associated with poverty could be contributing to LD, such as:

Little access to health care. Lack of a supportive environment.



Assessment/RTI IDEA ‘04 allows a new approach, Response to

Intervention (RTI), as a means of identifying students with learning disabilities.

Pre-Referral Multi-tiered instruction that provides more intensive

instruction to students who are struggling (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Vaughn, 2008)

Universal Screening: All students in primary grades, beginning in Kindergarten or first grade, are tested at least once in the fall to identify students who may struggle.

Students at risk are identified for intervention. Students receive data-based explicit instruction on

reading. Each student’s progress is monitored frequently using

curriculum-based measurement (direct and frequent assessments) (Tier 1).



Assessment/RTI Those students who do not meet academic

expectations receive more intensive instruction (Tier 2).

Tier 2 instruction is typically delivered in small groups and lasts for at least twelve weeks.

Continual progress monitoring ensures that the student is making adequate progress.

Students who are not successful in Tier 2 either receive more intensive instruction or (depending on district policy) are identified as having a learning disability or are referred for further assessments (Tier 3).



Evaluation: Progress Monitoring Mastery Measurement

A classroom assessment measure used on a frequent basis

Assessment on a specific skill being taught until mastery is achieved

Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) Measures student progress directly from

curriculum All skills for the instructional year



Core Skills for Preschool and K Mathematics

Counting objects Reading one-digit numerals Adding one-digit numbers when using manipulatives Comparing two one-digit numbers when using

number lines Reading

Phonological Awareness Rapid naming of alphabetic sounds and letters Beginning phonics

Early instruction in these areas is vital!



Access to the General Education Curriculum The power and importance of providing explicit

instruction as soon as students begin to struggle are supported by key findings:

Students who fail to acquire core skills of reading soon after entering school become poor readers.

Students who have completed first grade without mastering phonological awareness tend to be poor readers in fourth grade.

Struggling readers in third grade tend to be poor readers in ninth grade.

Struggling readers do not catch up by themselves. Early and intensive explicit instruction can help

struggling readers.(Dion et al., 2004; Ehri et al., 2001; Fuchs, Fuchs, &

Compton, 2004)



Data-based Practices Learning Strategies (Don Deshler and Jean

Schumaker) Strategy Instruction Model (SIM)

Gives students a plan and methods for success in school

Often assists students in learning and remembering information

Includes advanced organizers and mnemonics Curriculum-Based Measurement

Frequent progress monitoring of students allows teachers to see which tactics are working and where they need to make adjustments.



Use of Technology Technology can:

Augment an individual’s strengths. Compensate for the effects of disabilities. Provide alternative modes of performing

tasks. Assistive technology can reduce barriers Software exists that:

Helps students take notes and create graphic organizers.

Recognizes and reads text to students. Word processors help spelling,

definitions, and grammar.



Transition It is a mistake to believe that students with

learning disabilities cannot succeed in postsecondary education.

Students with learning disabilities, however, do not access college at the levels they should.

By age 16, all students should have a transition plan in their IEP.

Carefully written and orchestrated transition plans can help lead students into college.

Students will require accommodations to succeed.



True Collaboration Communication is open and ongoing. Participation is voluntary. Parity exists in the relationship. Goals are shared. Evaluation of student performance is

continual. Decision making is done as a team. Resources are pooled. Trust and respect are the basis of the

partnership. Planning time is scheduled.



What constitutes an appropriate What constitutes an appropriate education for students with learning education for students with learning

disabilities, and in what setting should it disabilities, and in what setting should it be provided?be provided?

Challenge Question

introduction to special education: making a difference seventh edition

Documents