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"Strategic Partnerships for Embodiment Design Methodology in Vocational Education(Yellow Tulip) Project", with application no 2016-1-TR01-KA202-033973, which has been
implemented within the framework of Strategic Partnerships for Vocational Education within the scope of ERASMUS+ Programme KA2 Innovation and Cooperation for the Exchange of
Good Practices by T. R. Ministry of European Union, Center for EU Education and YouthPrograms and Erciyes University, Department of Industrial Design
INTRODUCTION
“Strategic Partnerships for Embodiment Design Methodology in Vocational Education (Yellow Tulip)Project”, with application no 2016-1-TR01-KA202-033973, entitled an agreement within the scope ofKA2 - Strategic Partnerships under the heading of Vocational Education included within theERASMUS+ program conducted by The European Union and the Republic of Turkey Center forEuropean Union Education and Youth Programs (National Agency) began to be implemented within the body of Erciyes University, Department of Industrial Design Engineering. Within the scope of the36-month project, the institutions/organizations to take part in the project that will be implemented between 01/09/2016 - 31/08/2019 are listed as follows; TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITEIT DELFT (TUDelft, Faculty of Industrial Design) [Rotterdam, Netherlands], EuropeforALL/POLITECNICO DIMILANO (School of Design) [Milano, Italy], TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF SOFIA (FACULTYOF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY (FIT)) [Sofia, Bulgaria], ARÇELİK A.Ş. (Industrial Design Center) [Istanbul, Turkey], OCE TECHNOLOGIES B.V. [Rotterdam, Netherlands], ETIMDER[Kayseri, Turkey], SHARE [Brussels, Belgium], Ayşe Baldoktu MEM [Kayseri, Turkey], Republic ofTurkey Ministry of National Education, Directorate General for Innovation and Education Technologies (YEGITEK) [Ankara, Turkey]. In our YELLOW TULIP project, our aim is to includethe "Advanced Embodiment Design Application Method", which has been implemented, and forwhich training and application methods have been developed by our project stakeholders for over fiveyears, into the VET system, to bring it into the vocational education and training system in the shortterm and to expand its implementation in organizations across Europe in the long term. "EmbodimentDesign Methodology", which is intended to be transferred under the current project, starts with theconcepts of industrial design and product development, continues with the importance of design in terms of competition and its position in product development, and ends with design method and industrial design process project examples. Advanced Embodiment Design includes testing/approvaland commissioning processes. At the very beginning of all these processes, product identification (self-specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-based), transferring of the correct design approach from various perspectives into VET by the project stakeholder, and expanding itsimplementation constitute the main axis of the project. It is expected that an increase in the European Union harmonization and sustainable production quality will be achieved by increasing the QFD(Quality Function Deployment) value, which will give a significant acceleration in the European production sector, Turkey being in the first place. It is aimed that the VET implementation method that will be transferred with a strategic partnership will contribute to differentiation, added valuecreation, branding and cost reduction in the production sector of our country. Within the scope of theproject, developing awareness and innovation process in the production sector is not the sole aim. In
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VET institutions throughout Europe, it is aimed to develop educational materials and e-learning applications in order to disseminate the application method trainings transferred, especially those thatsupport production, and to make them available free of charge in several languages at the end of theproject period. The Advanced Embodiment Design process implementation method includescomputer aided design (CAD), virtual prototyping and rapid prototyping. In this context, there is aneed throughout Europe for vocational education and training processes and intermediate staff who can take part in and if necessary, lead the projects that especially require interdisciplinary work, haveteamwork skills and basic VET and industry knowledge, follow technological developments and renew themselves continuously, analyze and synthesize. It is expected that the employment area of theAdvanced Embodiment Design vocational education and training process is quite extensive and thatthe demand for qualified staff with VET training application method will increase. As a result, we plan to transfer the application method of the Advanced Embodiment Design process with our strategicpartnership project, and aim to introduce various practices and activities into the VET system and theindustrial institutions throughout Europe with the contribution of the project stakeholders.
Background of the Program: With the Erasmus+ Program, implemented between 2014 and 2020, itis aimed to provide new skills for individuals, strengthen their personal development and increase theiremployment opportunities regardless of their age and educational backgrounds. Erasmus+ Programcovers fields of education, training, youth and sports. The main reason for giving this name to theErasmus+ Program is to benefit from the recognition of the previous Erasmus program, which wasrecognized more publicly, strongly associated with education abroad and European cooperation."Strategic Partnerships", one of the Erasmus programs, are country-based; while "Sectoral SkillsPartnerships"and “Information Partnerships" are central activities. Key Action 2: These two differenttypes of projects can be summarized under the title of Collaboration for Exchange of Innovation and Best Practices.- Strategic Partnerships that support innovation: These are projects aimed at developing innovativeideas and projects. Applications from all sectors will be accepted for the Strategic Partnership Projectsthat support "the Production of Innovations", which includes intellectual outputs, multiplier activitiesand budget items.- Strategic Partnerships that support the Exchange of Good Practices: Applications from sectors other
than the field of higher education are accepted for the Strategic Partnerships Projects for "TheExchange of Good Practices", which support the sharing of methods, practices and ideas as well as theestablishment of networking.
Project Details: The total budget of the project is EUR 215,778.00 and EUR 209,975.00 of the projectbudget has been awarded as a grant under the ERASMUS+ program. Our priority axis selected underthe project is: "Strengthening key competences in the vocational education curriculum"; The VET areaselected to develop curriculum and pilot applications is the implementation of the "Advanced Embodiment Design (AED)" methodology in the Industrial Design/Computer Aided Design process.Integrated Design Methodology; It starts with technical product concept or solution principles and isdeveloped according to technical and economic criteria and ends with the detailed design phase.Designers identify their plan designs (general regulations and dimensional compatibility), first formdesigns (parts, materials and materials) and production processes, and provide solutions for each auxiliary function. Technology and economic evaluation are of utmost importance during all of theseprocesses. The design is developed through scale drawings, critical reviews, technical and economicevaluations. The concept of "Integrated Design" is provided by the Industrial Design Engineering Departments/Faculties in Europe. In this context, one of the project partners Delft TU (TheNetherlands) Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering, Department of Industrial Design has an
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important accumulation of knowledge and experience. In our country, the "Industrial Design Engineering ”departments, which will train technical staff/engineers in this field, have a few years ofhistory and do not have sufficient level of knowledge and experience. With the YELLOW TULIPproject;- The knowledge and experience in project partner universities that apply this methodology in an integrated way with the industry in Europe will be applied to universities, industry sector and young people working in this field in our country through digital integration.- Industrial Design - Integrated Design Methodology and sample application studies to be developed with the project partners within the scope of the project will be converted into the form of Open Education Resources (OER) and made available for common use.- ICT based materials to be developed within the scope of Industrial Design - Integrated Design Methodology and sample application studies will be used in the training of trainers in our country'suniversities and then in educational studies in order to increase the rate of employment and qualified personnel in this field.
The curriculum offered in our educational support book was developed to offer solutions with an innovative approach within the scope of Industrial Design within the vocational and technicaleducation framework in our country, and was made freely available to all educational processesnotably to the Turkish Vocational Education and Training System.
I would like to thank all the project team and expert staff who supported us in our proposed study carried out under European Union norms and PRAG rules. I wish success to all beneficiaries who areand will be active in the field with this project output prepared with the intention of becoming acountry that will generate more employment and tax, and products with higher added value during theEuropean Union accession process.
Project Coordinator; Professor Dr. Cem SİNANOĞ[email protected]
http://www.etimder.org/http://etm.erciyes.edu.tr
For more and detailed information please visit: http://www.yellowtulips.org"Funded by the European Commission under the Erasmus+Program. However, European Commission and the National
Agency of Turkey can not be held responsible for the opinions contained herein. "“Funded by the Erasmus+ Program of the European Union. However, European Commission and Turkish National Agency
cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein”
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Project Team who contributed to the preparation and submission of thebook:
Prof. Dr. Cem SİNANOĞLU (Chapter 1-3) (Project Coordinator)Erciyes University, Faculty of Engineering, Vice Dean, Erciyes University Head of Department of
Industrial Design Engineering
Assoc. Dr. Afsin Alper CERIT (Chapter 6-7) (Book Editor)Erciyes University Vice Head of Department of Industrial Design Engineering
Assoc. Dr. Bulent KAYA (Chapter 11) (Practical Application Coordinator)Academician in Erciyes University, Department of Industrial Design Engineering
Asst. Assoc. Dr. Prof. Dr. Derya HAROGLU (Chapter 4, 8)Academician in Erciyes University Department of Industrial Design Engineering/ERASMUS
Representative
Assist. Professor Dr. Rayna DIMITROVA (TU Sofia) (Chapter 12)TU Sofia Department Materials Science and Technology
Research Assistant Esra AKGUL (Part 1-3)Academician in Erciyes University, Department of Industrial Design Engineering
Research Assistant Ozgür AKSU (Section 5,9,10) (Project Technical Coordinator)Academician in Erciyes University Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Department of Aircraft
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Project Curriculum Advisors:Assoc. Prof. Dr. Elvin KARANA (TU Delft)
Prof. Dr. George Todorov Todorov (TU Sofia)Korkut AVCI (Arcelik)
Fahir Baran TIGREL (Arcelik)Sumeyye Hatice ERAL (MEB YEGITEK)
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Table of Contents:
1. Advanced Embodiment Design (AED) Curriculum
Content Title PageNo
Chapter 1: CONCEPTS AND SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN 1Chapter 2: INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN/FORMING DESIGN 18Chapter 3: THE CONCEPT OF ADVANCED SHAPING DESIGN 33Chapter 4: DETERMINATION OF CUSTOMER NEEDS 48Chapter 5: COMPARISON WITH THE BEST TO IMPROVE PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT58
Chapter 6: DESIGN PROCESSES AND SOLUTION-ORIENTED DESIGN 69Chapter 7: MATERIAL SELECTION AND USAGE IN DESIGN 83Chapter 8: ERGONOMIC PRODUCT DESIGN WITH QUALITY FUNCTION
DEPLOYMENT APPROACH95
Chapter 9: SMART DESIGN AND SMART SYSTEMS 107Chapter 10: DESIGN WITH REVERSE ENGINEERING SYSTEMS 118Chapter 11: PILOT PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT WITH RAPID PROTOTYPING
SYSTEMS129
Chapter 12: COMPARISON OF PRODUCT METHODOLOGY 170
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CHAPTER I
CONCEPTS AND SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
1. What is design?
Design; It has an ambiguous meaning, which can be either in the form of a noun or verb and
cannot be clearly defined in terms of its different functions. While the word design, as a verb,
can be defined as "to conceive and plan out in the mind, to have as a purpose: to intend, to
devise for a specific function or end (Merriam-WebsterAuthority & Innovation 2000) and
design, as a name, can be defined as "the way something is done, the picture of the form and
structure of something, decorative pattern, design process, schema, something planned
(Encarta World Dictionary, 2001).
The verb design is derived from the Latin word 'Designare', which means to show and
indicate what to do. Looking at the origin of the word, we see that it means "to show" and "to
draw". While design, meaning a purpose, defines a target and process, its "drawing" meaning
defines a sketch or visual composition of the plan (Mozota, 2006).
Design / Design = Aim + Drawing
Design; it can cause a perceptual chaos as it focuses on both an activity (the design process)
and the outcome of the activity.
There are many definitions of design. Design, in the most general sense, defines the process
of designer's envisioning the product in the mind in order to make a plan and a sketch, as the
form envisioned by the designer and as a whole of activities carried out from the designer's
envisioning until the production process (Onal, 2011). According to Cross (2006), design is
one of the most important forms in which human intelligence can be demonstrated and a
definition related to the ability of the mind. Tepecik (2002), defines design as the project of an
envisioned event or a whole of the works that a three-dimensional image can be applied to. In
fact, design can be named as the first form of a work, a thought that matures in the mind. In
this context, Bayazit (1994) defines design as an intellectual project or a schema in which
steps that prepare design are established. With a similar approach, Ulrich (2011) refers to
design as a part of human-problems solving activities that lead a plan for a new work, start
with the perception of a gap in a user experience and are concluded with the production of a
work (Gurcum and Yurt, 2016). Some design theorists from different disciplines have
explained their perception as follows (Bayazit, 2005).
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ß It is to find the physical components best-suited for the physical structure (Alexander,
1964).
ß It is the problem-solving process for this end (Archer, 1965).
ß it is a decision-making process where significant penalties are paid for mistakes in the
face of uncertainties (Asimov, 1962).
ß It is a simulation that we continue doing before evaluating that we intend to do, until
making sure of the result (Brooker, 1964).
ß It is the use of scientific technical knowledge and imagination in the engineering
design of a mechanical structure, a machine or a system that performs a certain
function with maximum economy and efficiency (Fielden, 1963).
ß It is the situation of satisfying with the relevant product (Gregory, 1966).
The International Council of Industrial Design Associations makes the following definition
for design; design is a creative activity that aims to use objects, plans, processes and various
qualities of their systems in their life cycle (https://wdo.org).
Design is what people do to contribute to and improve their lives. Again, it is the action of
problem determination and problem solving in order to achieve targets (Bayazİt, 2004).
Design is thought to be a phenomenon related to human intelligence and human skills. Design
is an essential part of the history, culture and technology of the all societies around the world.
It can also be defined as a system realized by combining technical knowledge and creative
imagination, supported by scientific views or as materializing the ideas that have never been
conceived before. Designers, carrying out the design process, discover both problem and
solution. In other words, design aims to solve problems. The solution obtained in the result
part constitutes the need itself. The result state in design is presented in a form. The form is
composed of function and the function is composed of needs.
One of the biggest problems encountered in design is to use the information obtained by
predicting the future. In this case, the success of the design is inevitable if the correct
prediction is created. The concept of design differs depending on location, time, people and
cultural structure. Various problems can arise when establishing a design. The solution phases
of the problems are accelerated by handling similar ones as a whole. The design process
emerges when all of the plan, research and shaping factors for any purpose come together. In
order to solve the problems, and create a design, we need to make them go through a process.
To summarize in the light of all these definitions; design is the most important type of
awareness that requires a good analysis of the opportunities of technology and production, as
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well as the needs of society and the environment and that reflects the past of the societies and
helps to determine the today and tomorrow of them.
1.1.Design Process
The most important step for designers when creating designs is to determine the design
process. Inputs and outputs are very important when determining this process. After analyzing
and synthesizing and determining and evaluating the inputs at the final stage, an output
product is formed (Bayazıt, 2004).
Figure 1. Design Processes (Bayazit, 2004).1
As seen in Figure 1, the design process start from first design proposal, to the first design;
continues with the analysis-synthesis-evaluation phases, and is completed with the final
product decision-making process after the detailed design phase.
Analysşs Synthesis Evaluation
Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
Decision Making
Decision Making
Decision Making
PROPOSAL
PRELIMINARYDESIGN
DETAILED DESIGN
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The design process is also emphasized as the arrangement of actions laid down on the basis of
design techniques and tools. The design process means the continuation, execution and
advancement of these actions (Milton et al., 2013).
Visualization Observation
Interpretation Comprehension
Application
Following Steps
Figure 2. Design Process (Milton et al., 2013).
The rationale of constructing information in the design process is taken as a basis. In the
design process, production techniques as well as the cost and time are very important factors
to reach the solution. The process is based on the analysis of customer needs. It is seen that
the delivery times of the products produced on the request of the customer are realized on
time. The first of the necessary steps in creating a new design involves the realization of the
task distribution of designers. This distribution allows a designer to handle sub-divided parts
of the project rather than the whole. It is seen that such a division prevents the loss of time in
design formation. Designers use the information obtained from the product life cycle. Any
problem that arises during the design process is accepted as the starting point for the decision-
making phase. Criteria that are determined in the solutions found are evaluated. At the end of
the evaluation is the selection of solutions, which covers the conceptual design (Pokojski et
al., 2018).
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INPUT Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
OUTPUT
Figure 3. Input-Output Relationship (Bayazit, 2004)
The main features of the design structure are as follows:
- Design is naturally integrative, not a separative.
- Design is intellectually soft, intuitive and informal.
Design is in people's lives when rearranging a desk drawer, educating a child, decorating a
house, etc. As indicated in Figure 4, design integrates all human activities in research and
industry contexts (Owen, 1990).
Figure 4. Design is Integrative (Owen 1990).
When designing and planning something in mind, professional managers, engineers,
architects, scientists etc. act as designers in the industrial context and design for a specific
function or purpose. Design is also at the center of professional education; because schools
prepare students for meeting their own needs in life.
Design, in academic context, can be used in the humanities (literature, history, philosophy,
mathematics, etc.), sciences (natural, mathematical, behavioral, physical, economic sciences
etc.), engineering (electricity, construction, chemistry, textile, human engineering, etc.) .
Art Science Engineering Human-related
Jobs
Design
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Design is the main objective of engineering discipline; because it facilitates the creation of
new products, processes, software, systems and organizations that contribute to the society by
fulfilling the needs and demands of engineering.
The duty of design has been attributed to art for many years. The discipline of art has
improved its knowledge by using design. The unifying principles of design in art are
expressed as repetition, diversity, rhythm, balance, emphasis and economy. Design is defined
by these principles in the discipline of art (Zelanski et al., 1996).
1.3.Design Types
The design area also covers many different professions that serve different industries. With
the development of technology, design disciplines are diversified, as well. In the past, four
main classifications including product design, graphic design, interior design, fashion design
and textile design were defined, while we can now see design variations in different
disciplines as follows;
¸ Graphic design
¸ Brand identity design
¸ Packaging design
¸ Product design
¸ Interior design
¸ Fashion and textile design
¸ Interaction design
¸ Transportation design
¸ Service design
¸ Architectural design
¸ Design of sales spaces (design, council, 2015)
As a result of the extensive and integrative design, the complex design of the design in the
professions can be more easily understood. Various types of design expertise are classified by
designer Dhillon as in Figure 5.
Types of Design
Engineering
Design
IndustrialDesign
Process Design
VisualDesign
ProductDesign
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Figure 5. Types of Design (Dihillon 1985)
Engineering Design; is related to the development and analysis of basic functional features
of systems, devices etc. by applying various technical and scientific principles.
Industrial Design; creates an independent design effort by the individual with combined skills
in areas such as product design, style and engineering.
Process Design; is generally related to the design type covering the design of components,
tools, equipment, etc. (items for mass production systems).
Visual Design (Style Design); relates to the physical properties of an item.
Product Design; is especially related to the products to be sold to consumers.
In this classification, the industrial designer is considered a consultant, but not a part of the
manufacturing organization of a particular product. However, the industrial designer can be
part of a variety of product manufacturers and, as a result, can work in a team consisting of
engineers, marketers, sociologists and so on.
1.4.Types of Design Products
In the literature, design products are grouped under 7 categories (Milton et al., 2013).
1. Consumer Products
These products cover medicinal products, household appliances, motor vehicles, furniture and
designed objects that are often used in daily life. Consumer products must meet the demands
of consumers. These requests are basic demands such as functionality, aesthetic appearance,
being cost-effective. Consumer products require compliance of multiple sectors because they
contain numerous components. Having a good outer appearance, successful functioning and
the particular characteristics of the company that will produce the item should also be
emphasized among the vital characteristics of the modern consumer products.
2. One-off Artistic Works
Nowadays, the products, which are limitedly designed as one-off items, have created a wide
spectrum for designers. The main feature of such products is that they are aesthetic at first
glance and their functionality remain in the background. Many artists present their one-off
design products for trade fairs in certain parts of the world.
3. Consumable products
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Products such as water bottles, carbonated beverage cans are included in this group. Product
designer mainly designs packaging, branding and advertising designs for this group of
products. Performance and functionality remain in the background.
4. Casting Products
They are considered raw materials used in the production of other products. Plastics, sheets,
foil and laminates can be included in this group. Product designers may sometimes be
involved in the surface texture phase of the product.
5. Industrial Products
Examples of such products include products purchased for assembly, such as roller bearings,
circuit boards, gas turbines.
6. Industrial Tool Products
In industrial tool products, aesthetics, functionality and performance remain in the
background. The products in this group are products such as machine tools, commercial
vehicles and passenger aircraft, which enable the realization of complex tasks and are targeted
for the use in industry.
7. Special-Purpose Products
The products in this group include special tools, special purpose robots, equipment and
assembly machines. The production of these products is realized on demand of the customer.
They are produced as single products or mass-produced. It is expected that the people who
will design the products are highly flexible due to the customized production.
1.5.What is industrial design?
There is no one definition of design and industrial design that is accepted by everyone today.
As in design, there are different definitions of industrial design that sometimes contradicts
with each other and sometimes draw attention to different aspects of this profession (Oygur,
2006).
American Industrial Designers Association (IDSA), defines industrial design as "the
professional service for creating and developing concepts and features that will optimize the
function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of both the
user and the manufacturer" (http://www.idsa.org).
Industrial design is the area that helps to create and develop concepts and features for the user
and the manufacturer. Although always used interchangeably with the definition of product
design, the term industrial design incorporates both engineering and aesthetic design, and
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gives more importance to the attention of users. For these reasons, industrial designers can be
defined not only as those who are directly involved in engineering, but also as people who
communicate ideas to an engineer. For example, Alexander Graham Bell is the person
responsible for inventing the telephone, but Henry Dreyfuss is the industrial designer, who is
responsible for giving a form to the telephone. Therefore, creativity is essential in the context
of industrial design and plays an important role in finding ideas and solutions (Zainol et al.,
2012).
The main purpose of industrial design is to meet the needs of the users with the visual and
concrete elements within the design criteria. Since industrial design is a method that can be
applied in many industries, its impact is unlimited. Industrial design process is defined
primarily as the phases of user-defined activities rather than technology. This situation directs
the industrial design process mainly to a place between the user and the product (Abdullah et
al., 2013).
Industrial design process is primarily related to the relationship between the user and the
product, rather than the relationship with the product. Therefore, the technical aspects of the
product do not go into industrial design. Instead, these activities are often related to
engineering.
In general, the industrial design process has six stages:
1) Investigation of user needs.
2) Conceptualization of design.
3) Preliminary improvement of a design.
4) The ultimate concept selection of a design.
5) Production of control drawings.
6) Coordination with functional project members
It should be kept in mind that meeting the needs of both the producer and the consumer is an
essential point at all stages of the process, taking into account the critical measures of
industrial design (Abdullah et al., 2013). However, while industrial design process is
completed; the following topics should be included in it:
ÿ Usability: Ease of use, ease of maintenance, quality and quantity of interaction,
safety, innovation of interaction, ergonomics
ÿ Aesthetics: Product differentiation, image and fashion, communication.
ÿ Costs: Cost advantages and exchanges, appropriate use of resources.
ÿ Production: Manufacturing and assembly, proper use of raw materials, packaging.
ÿ Product life cycle: Life cycle design, material selection.
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1.6.Product design
In general, the term "product design" confuses individuals in the same way as the term
"design". Product design has an indirect relationship with 'engineering design' and 'industrial
design'. In many cases, product design means engineering design (Haik, 2003, Hollins, 1990)
and is also addressed in industrial design (Lorenz, 1986, Tjalve, 1979). Roozenburg (1995),
defines product design as the process of designing and placing the plans needed for the
production of a product.
Horvăth (2004) explains that the product design is placed between industrial design and
engineering design, and these two designs overlap with product designs (Figure 6). In this
regard, despite having their own definitive features and field, engineering design and
industrial design, are involved in the product design process to a certain degree.
Therefore, neither industrial design nor engineering design can define the product design
process alone.
Figure 6. Positioning of product design (Horvăth 2004)
From another aspect, product design is not an isolated process, but a part of the product
development process. Some researchers use product design as term equivalent to product
development or see it as an embedded process in product development (Hollins, 1990, Pugh,
1996, Roozenburg, 1995, Ulrich and Eppinger, 2008). There are several different disciplines
in the product development process. Ulrich and Eppinger (2008) stated that the core team
members for developing an electromechanical product that covers a significant part of the
consumer products market are industrial designers, mechanical designers, electronic
designers, purchasing experts, manufacturing engineers and marketing experts.
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Roozenburg (1995) argued that engineering design, industrial design, ergonomics, marketing
and innovation management are almost always disciplines involved in product design. All of
these professions consist of those who support design activities rather than those directly
involved in design practice. For example, marketers are those who support the design activity
by providing market and consumer data. Purchasing specialist and manufacturing engineer are
mostly those who work in the production process, and their work focuses on the realization of
predetermined product forms and functions by engineering designers and industrial designers.
For this reason, when we talk about "product design", engineering designers and industrial
designers are those involved in practical design activities in the product development process.
Therefore, engineering design and industrial design are seen as the main elements of product
design who put effort in practical design activity.
In short, product design consists of two design types: engineering design and industrial
design. In product design; engineering design is often called mechanical design. The
engineering design in product design is responsible for the design of internal parts, therefore it
is related to the layout design. Industrial design in product design is responsible for designing
the exterior of a product, and therefore it is concerned with the external form and related user
interfaces. As the two designs are fundamental parts of product design, they focus on
incorporating engineering designers and industrial designers to develop successful products.
Product design actually requires the incorporation of different disciplines to develop a new
product to achieve a common goal. In this respect, product design, whether it be engineering
design or industrial design, should be examined as an interdisciplinary issue, rather than
considering it under a single discipline (Kim et al., 2010).
In engineering design, mechanical components and industrial plants are included in the
product category, but they are not generally considered as part of the product design process
for industrial designs. On the other hand, even though industrial design considers the crafted
works of art as products, these factors are hardly taken into account in engineering design.
Otherwise, an isolated perspective of product design will not be of significance. For such a
perspective, the disciplines related to the product design should be defined and studied.
Because different disciplines have their own characteristics, there may be different ways of
conducting product design according to different conditions, such as developing different
types of products under different market conditions.
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The competitive and volatile nature of the industrial environment requires constant changes in
the products in line with the demands and needs of the customers and forces the processes to
be dynamic. Factors such as the formation of different customer requests, the short life cycle
of the products have led the market to focus more on the concept of new product
development. New product development is a multidimensional process including cost and
time management.
The requirements of a successful product design process are listed below (Buyukozkan,
2005).
ÿ Shortening the time that a product is in the market
ÿ Increasing product quality and variety
ÿ Reducing product costs
ÿ Designing the service-maintenance conditions of the product
ÿ Working in an integrated way with the Internet and information technologies
ÿ Increasing stakeholder engagement in all information created during the design
process
ÿ Designing three-dimensional models
ÿ Performing product performance and manufacturability simulations
1.7.Product Design Process
The product design process is based on the combination of engineering design and industrial
design. The engineering design covers material knowledge and production knowledge, while
the industrial design represents the desired product form. The idea of product design starts
with the determination of a need and then searching for solutions provided that they meet the
needs (Yuan, 2014). After determining the ideas about the product, some methods and
methods are used to implement these ideas. These are (Milton, 2013);
ÿ Research analysis: In order for the designer to create and understand the product
model, a method should be developed in order to categorize and analyze the data and
this data should be transferred to customers.
ÿ Scenarios: Design scenarios allow designers not only to predict the future, but also to
reveal the problems related to it.
ÿ Transferring Ideas to Paper: It is the best way to show the formation and concept of
designs. Thanks to sketches, which are a key research and development tool that
allows the design ideas to be evaluated on paper and then discussed, changes to the
product can be determined more easily and errors are noticed.
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ÿ Modeling: Vaious CAD software such as SketchUp, Freecad, Meshmixer, Blender,
Solidworks, 3d Max, Rhino, UGNX etc. can be used in the modelling phase.
Additionally, 3-dimensional models created in these programs can be tested in
software such as ANSYS program, and experiments and tests can be performed on
them.
Figure 7. Product Design Process Steps
The model that includes design steps such as analyticalness, creativity and execution is also
called the product design process. This process can be expanded by obtaining various
information. Then, the product design process is presented by addressing the sub-solutions.
Stages of all product development processes consist of; design planning, concept
development, system design and detailed design.
Product design process;
Figure 8. Steps of Product Design Process (Yuan, 2014).
• Programming• Data collectionAnalyticalness
• Analysis• Synthesis• Development
Creativity CommunicationExecution
Step 1•User need starts with the definition of the problem and data collection.
Step 2•Presenting the solutions• Designers will respond to the user needs, provide solutions to the defined problems, and handle the design
in detail.
Step 3• Concept design is produced and feasibility analysis is carried out.
• Decision making status is established.• The design concept fully emerges.
•Dimensions, production of the design with colurs.
Step 4
Step 5
14
Multiple factors are considered when performing product design. The quality of a designed
product is the main factor that distinguishes the manufacturer from its competitors, and it will
provide success to the company. Creativity in product design is one of the details that
symbolize the performance quality of the design. This emphasizes the importance of creativity
both at the product design stage and at the end of the design.
Product creativity often brings concept design with it. Concept design is a process in which
many people come together and blend their ideas with traditional, intuitive methods such as
brainstorming. The most effective situation is the clear establishment of the purpose of the
design. Another point that emphasizes the importance of concept design is its ability to reveal
the cost. Thus, if the product in the design process is not at a certain level in terms of design,
it eliminates the risk of losing money.
The performance of design processes is demonstrated by engineering in two ways. The first
one is the realistic modeling and the other is the analysis and decision making of the realistic
models. These design process performances are presented by designers. The design process
can be carried out in a very simple or complex way, while designers create a solution.
Extremely complex structures require the common solution of more than one designer
(Pokojski, 2018).
Traditional design approaches are not seen as very sufficient as a result of economic, social
and technological advancements together with the nature and boundaries of the industry, .
There is a need for a new type of designers who can understand people, enterprises and
technology and work across disciplines, and for design methods that can address these issues
as a whole (Er, 1993). Product-centered, problem-centered, user-centered approaches have
increased the importance of industrial design and have made the development of different
solution methods possible. In this case, the industrial design process needs to cover logical,
objective, analytical and subjective, holistic intuitive thinking, application and research,
problem-solving ability and aesthetic sensitivity (Alparslan et al., 2011).
REFERENCES
1. Abdullah, M. F. A.,Zahari, S. E. S. S. M., &Lamat, M. (2013). Industrial
Design Innovation of SarawakContemporaryFurniture
Design. ProcediaEngineering, 53, 673-682.
15
2. Alexander, C., (1964). Notes on theSynthesis of Form, Harvard
UniversityPress, Oxford.
3. Alparslan, M. ve Börekçi, N., (2011), “Areas of Expertise, Types of Services
Givenand Client Industries of Design ConsultancyFirms in Turkey”
(Türkiye’de Tasarım Danışmanlık Firmalarının Uzmanlık Alanları, Verdikleri
Servis Çeşitleri ve Müşteri Sanayiler), METU JFA, sayı:2011/1 (28:1), ss.131-
146.
4. Archer, B. L., (1965). SystematicMethodforDesigners. Council of Industrial
Design, London.
5. Asimov, M. (1962). A philosophy of engineeringdesign. In Contributionsto a
Philosophy of Technology (pp. 150-157). Springer, Dordrecht.
6. Bayazıt, N. (1994). Endüstri Ürünlerinde ve Mimarlıkta Tasarım Metodlarına
Giriş. İstanbul: Literatür Yayıncılık.
7. Bayazıt, N.. (2004) Endüstriyel Tasarımcılar için Tasarlama Kuramları ve
Metodları. İstanbul: Birsen yayınevi.
8. Bayazıt, N. (2005). Tasarım, Zanaat ve Endüstriyel Tasarım Farklarının
İrdelenmesi. Legal Fikri ve Sinai Haklar Dergisi.
9. Brooker, P. J., (1964) On theTeaching of Engineering Design, London:
Institution of EngineeringDesigners.
10. Büyüközkan, G. (2005). Ürün Geliştirme Sürecine Destek Tasarım Teknikleri
Ve Anahtar Başarı Faktörleri. V. Ulusal Üretim Araştırmaları Sempozyumu,
İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi, 25-27 Kasım 2005.
11. Cross, N. (2001). Designerlyways of knowing:
designdisciplineversusdesignscience. Design Issues 17, no. 3 49–55.
12. Dhillon, B. S. (1985). Qualitycontrol, reliability, andengineeringdesign. CRC
Press.
13. Encarta World Dictionary developedfor Microsoft byBloomsbury Publishing
Plc., 2001.
14. Er, Alpay, (1993). TheState of Design: Towards An Assessment of the
Development of Industrial Design in Turkey (Tasarımın Durumu: Türkiye’de
Endüstriyel Tasarımın Gelişiminin Bir Değerlendirmesi), METU JFA,
sayı:1993 (13:1-2), ss.31-51.
15. Fielden, G. B. R., (1963). TheFielden Report, Engineering Design, London: H.
M. S. O.
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16. Gregory, S. A., (1966). The Design Method, London: ButterworthPress
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Grove CA. USA,
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Metoduna GöreTasarlanması Yaklaşımı”, İdil, 22:(5), ss. 603-640.
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Research in engineeringdesign, vol. 15.,pp 155-181.
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designapproachesregardingindustrialdesignandengineeringdesign in
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Design Conference, Dubrovnik, Croatia..
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China.
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model in designmanagement
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Studies, 11(4), 202-206.
29. Oygür, I, (2006). Endüstriyel Tasarımcı-Kullanıcı İlişkisinin Türkiye
Bağlamında İncelenmesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
30. Önal, K. G. (2011). Yaratıcılık ve Kültürel Bağlamda Mimari Tasarım Süreci.
Uludağ Üniversitesi Mühendislik – Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi 16, no. 1
31. Pokojski, J.,Oleksiński, K., &Pruszyński, J. (2018). Knowledge
basedprocesses in thecontext of conceptualdesign. Journal of Industrial
Information Integration
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Wesley Massachusetts.
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33. Roozenburg, N. F. M. &Eekels, J., (1995). “Product Design: Fundamentals
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34. Tepecik, A. (2002). Grafik Sanatlar. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.
35. Tjalve, E., (1979). A Short Course in Industrial Design. Newnes: Butterworths.
36. Ulrich, K. T. (2011). Design is Everything.» DJournal of Product Innovation
Management, no:28.3, 394-398.
37. Ullman, D. G., (2004). “TheMechanical Design Process”, McGraw-
HillSingapore.
38. Ulrich, K. T. &Eppinger, S. D., (2008). “Product Design and Development”,
McGraw-HillSingapore,
39. www.designcouncil.org.uk
40. Yuan, X.,& Lee, J. H. (2014). A quantitativeapproachforassessment of
creativity in productdesign. Advanced EngineeringInformatics, 28(4), 528-541.
41. Zainol, A. S.,Yusof, W. Z. M., Mastor, K. A., Sanusi, Z. M., &Ramli, N. M.
(2012). Using groupbrainstorming in industrialdesigncontext:
Factorsinhibitandexhibit. Procedia-SocialandBehavioralSciences, 49, 106-119.
42. Zelanski, P.,Fisher, M.P., (1996). Design PrinciplesandProblems,
HarcourtBraceCollegePublishers, Second Edition, USA.
18
CHAPTER II
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN/EMBODIMENT DESIGN
Design can be defined as a system realized by combining technical knowledge and creative
imagination, supported by scientific views or as materializing the ideas that have never been
conceived before. It is stated that design is a phenomenon related to human intelligence and
human abilities (Cross, (1999). People who realize the task of design, i.e. designers, discover
both the problem and the solution focus. Briefly, design aims to solve problems. The solution
obtained in the last part constitutes the need itself. The result state in design is presented in a
form. The form is composed of function and the function is composed of needs.
The concept of design differs depending on location, time, people and cultural structure.
Various problems can arise when establishing a design. The solution phases of the problems
are accelerated by handling similar ones as a whole.
With the industrial revolution, the concept of industrial product was introduced and thanks to
mass production, people started to buy products easily and it became easier to have products.
Industrial design can be defined as combining product design and engineering designs with
the related technologies and current design tools, and going into production after determining
whether it is economical, easy to produce and suitable to market. It is very important to
consider certain stages when creating designs, and a good research process and some basic
methods are necessary. When doing research, the community that will use the design and for
whom the design will be presented should be determined well. The cultural levels of people,
their sociocultural structures, daily needs, financial situations, activities and art perspectives
should be evaluated in the right way. These evaluations reveal multidisciplinary studies using
different studies.
Each designer starts the design process by aiming to make the best design. A benefit and
contribution is sought in every new product created by the designer. The designer should take
into account the benefits of the design as well as the design's rate of meeting suitability, costs
and expectations. After the design go through certain stages during the creating of the design,
the designed product is introduced into the market. Not every beautiful design will be a good
design and not every good design may be an optimal one that meets expectations. Systematic
engineering design concept has been developed in order to make the design in the most
appropriate and beautiful way. This section discusses the systematic engineering design and
embodiment design, which is a stage of systematic engineering design.
19
1. Product Design Process in Engineering
The idea of product design starts with the determination of a need and then searching for
solutions provided that they meet the needs. The idea of product design is in fact a cycle
totally comprised of design activities. Product design process is carried out in 7 basic stages
including conceptual design, product development, embodiment design, detailed design,
production plan, distribution plan, planning for usage, planning for product discontinuation
(Bayazit, 2004).
Figure 1. Design Process (Bayazit, 2004).
1
Product Planning Conceptual Design
Detailed Design Embodiment Design
Figure 2. Design Process Cycle (Bayazit, 2004).
Conceptual Design• Creating alternative solutions to
design• Determination of functions• Creating design options
Product Development• The process in which products for a
certain purpose go through fromconcept development phase to theirplacement on the shelf
Embodiment Design• The embodiment design is a part of
the design process related to theproduction of the product concept,engineering and economicfeasibility.
Detail Design• Controlling the solutions• Collecting experiment and test
documents• Conducting all controls
20
1.2. Creating A Product Design Specification
The product specification includes the design stages and the features of the design. There are
several issues to be considered in the product specification. The product specification
provides the guidance for the products planed to be produced in the future and for the new
points of design views. It is based on market research as a starting point. The subjects
addressed are as follows: market analysis, product status basic information, standards,
regulations, laws, product service specification (Bayazit, 2004).
Figure 3. Product Design Specification (Bayazit, 2004).
Lega
lTer
ms • Product
Performance• Standards• Legislation• Patents
Prod
uctS
pecif
icatio
ns •Quality•Test•Safety•Material•Appearance•Packaging and Service•Size and Weight•Cost•Product Number•Producibility Co
nsum
erQ
ualif
icatio
ns • Ergonomy• Consumer
Mar
ketC
ondi
tions • Market
Restrictions• Sales Potential• Competition
Desig
nPr
oces
ses • User Training
• Design process
Prod
uct-E
nviro
nmen
tRe
latio
nshi
p • PoliticalProperties
• Environment
Effe
ctso
fLife
Cycle
•Process Terms•Service -Maintenance
•Product Life Time•Shelf Life•Product Disposal
Reso
urce
Allo
catio
n
•CompanyRestrictions
•EnergyConsumption
21
1.3. Conceptual Design
Figure 4. Conceptual Design Process
Conceptual design is the first stage of design morphology. At this stage, the design process is
initiated by defining the problem and ends with the best, most successful concept.
À Conceptualization
À Determining customer needs
À Collection of related information
À Design, Review and Redefinition
À Selection of the Concept (Solution)
À Identifying the Problem
1.4. Embodiment Design
Embodiment design was defined by Pahl and Beitz (1996) as the fact that a product is a part
of the design process starting from the concept stage (Pahl and Beitz, 2013). When designing
a product, it must be economically and economically viable. In other words, in order to
present a purpose, production and material design are also emphasized. As it can be
understood here, it has been found out that the embodiment design is related to geometry,
production, material and function activities (Langeveld, 2011).
Determination of User Needs
Determination of Design Specifications
Determination of Problems Conceptual Design
22
Mutual relations are very important in embodiment design. When we consider the
embodiment design as a tree, it is possible to treat the fruits of the tree as product design,
designer and production. It is fruits that make a tree meaningful. The product design team is
in constant communication. Design teams perform process planning with qualitative and
quantitative information they gather. The design process starts with the introduction of basic
needs. The following are some of the principles of embodiment design (Abrahamson and
Lindgren, 2014).
À Minimum production costs
À Minimum Requirements
À Minimum weight
À Minimum losses
À Optimal use
Embodiment design consists of production, parts construction and product assembly.
Figure 5. Conceptual Design Process
Embodiment Design
Production
Parts Production
Product Assembly
23
Figure 6. Designer's Needs of Hierarchy Based on Maslow (Dieter et al. 2013).
Realization of the design in order to increase the aesthetic value of the existing designs by
carrying out the sizing of the parts in the embodiment design stage, both user and
environmentally friendly designs are obtained. These features play an important role in terms
of achieving a good design (Baxter, 1995).
The embodiment design is a stage in which the design takes on a physical form. This stage
takes place in 3 steps.
1. Product Architecture: New perspective on design with physical elements
2. Configuration Design: Design of special-purpose components
3. Parameter Design: Choice of sizes or tolerances
1.4.1. Product Architecture
Product architecture is the arrangement of the physical parts of a product in order to fulfill the
required functions. Product architecture begins with the emergence of such things as function
schemes, sketches or proof of concept in the conceptual design phase. It can also be called the
first task step in the embodiment design. The parts are identified and the details of integration
with each other are created, here. The designer should consider product boundaries,
constraints and design elements for the creation of the architecture of a product. During the
development process of the product architecture, parts are placed in accordance with their
functions (UlrichandEppinger, 2004.). There are four steps at this stage:
Design Phase
Conceptual Design
Product Design
Design Tests
Knowledge Tools and Methods
24
À Obtaining Product Schematic Diagram
À Creation of Product Cluster
À Forming Rough Geometry
À Determination of Interaction Between Components
1.4.2. Configuration Design
The configuration design determines the shape and overall dimensions of the components. In
this step, the aspects that are aimed at are: the function clarity, uncomplicated design, that is
simplicity, guarantee function, that guarantees the safety of the design, and giving harmful
effects to the environment at a minimum level (Dieter et al. 2013).
The following steps are followed when starting the configuration design (Ullman, 2010):
Reviewing the product design specification and all the features developed for the particular
subassembly to which the component belongs,
À Determining the spatial constraints related to the designed product or subassembly.
The vast majority of this part should be realized by the product architecture.
À In addition to physical-spatial constraints, considering the limitations of the product's
life cycle, such as the constraints of a person working with the product and the need to
provide access for maintenance or repair or removal for recycling,
À Creating and developing interfaces or connections between components. Again, the
product architecture should be fairly guiding in this regard. There is a lot of design
work on the connections between the components, because these parts are where the
failure occurs frequently in the product. The interfaces that transfer the most critical
functions should be carefully observed.
À Before spending a lot of time on the design, you need to answer a number of
questions: Can the piece be eliminated or combined with another piece? This is
because the manufacturing design shows that making and assembling fewer, more
complex parts is less costly than a design with a higher number of parts. Another
question is: Can a standard component or subassembly be used? Although a standard
component is generally less costly than a special-purpose component, two standard
components may not be less costly than a special-purpose component replacing them.
In general, the best way to get started with the configuration design is to begin to draw
alternative configurations of a component. The importance of sketches should not be ignored.
Sketches are an important help in generating ideas and are an alternative way of bringing
25
unconnected ideas together in design concepts (Duff and Ross, 1995, Bertoline and Wiebe,
2007).
1.4.3. Parametric Design
The main purpose in configuration design is to start with the product architecture and then
find the best shape for each component. Qualitative reasoning about physical principles and
production processes has played a major role, dimensions and tolerances have been
temporarily determined, and the analysis is often used to "size parts", but is often not very
detailed or complex. Now; it is time for the parametric design, which is the second part of the
editing a design.
In parametric design, the properties of the components defined in the configuration design
become design variables for parametric design. A design variable is the quality of a
component whose value is under the control of the designer. This is typically a dimension or
tolerance, but may be a material applied to the component, heat treatment or surface quality.
In parametric design, exact dimensions and tolerances are determined. This aspect of design
is much more analytical than conceptual or configuration design. The aim of parametric
design is to determine values for design variables that will produce the best possible design by
considering both performance and cost (Dieter et al. 2013). The parametric design stage
consist of 5 steps.
À Formulation of Design Problems
À Creating Alternative Designs
À Analysis Process of Alternative Designs
À Evaluation of Analysis Results of Alternative Designs
À Optimization Operation
It should be noted that the process followed in parametric design is the same as that is
followed in the overall product design but is performed in within a smaller scope. This is the
proof of the repetitive nature of the design process.
The embodiment design phase precedes the detailed design phase. It constitutes the design
configuration where basic dimensioning and basic components are determined. There is no
supporting tool for the designer when the decision is made. It is a stage where product
performances are evaluated and decisions are taken according to the concept. The problems
arising in embodiment design are interpreted as the situations where the solution cannot be
established with the use of mechanical simulation tools, and problems of dissatisfaction come
to surface due to the constraints of complexities in the system. The problems at this stage are
addressed with many different problem-solving strategies (Scaravetti and Sebastian, 2009).
26
1.5. Types of Embodiment Design
There are 4 acceptable types of embodiment design. They are classified as; the embodiment in
the visualization perception of the product, embodiment guided by product features such as
material and sound, and embodiment in terms of motion perception of the product (Van
Rompay and Ludden, 2015).
1.5.1. Anthropomorphism and Similarities
It is common practice to imitate human body or aspects in products. And, consumers have the
same tendency to easily identify human characteristics or properties in products. Many
designs are similar to human aspects or human body. This is called personification or
anthropomorphism. It is based on similarity (Aggarwal and McGill, 2007). Similarity of the
contours of a vase to the female figure can be given as an example for this, another example is
the likening of clouds to animal faces or features while watching them as a child. Designers
benefit from this similarity thus obtaining open designs. The anthropomorphism, which is one
of the types of embodiment design, is a part of the non-embodiment design as the product
design may resemble bodily features of a human (Guthrie, 1993). Designers encounter many
familiar figures of face in this type of design. This situation is interpreted in the art
community as the fact that people get confidence and relax when they see familiar faces.
Anthropomorphized products facilitate product-user interaction. This type of design is thought
to be highly human, familiar and reliable (Van Rompay and Ludden, 2015).
1.5.2. Relational Properties
It is a tool for the conceptual relationship between appearance and meaning based on schemas
and symbols and also after the evaluation of the research of the designers. The distance
between objects and the enclosure factors that objects provide to other objects are perceived
as the visual-spatial relations. Patterns in this format are called schemas. During the
expression of the product in this type, it is indicated that the design has arisen from the
perception of the relational characteristics that the product constitutes. Here, designers need to
continue their research by answering questions such as how schemas gain meaning in
different products (Lakoff, and Johnson, 1980, 1999).
1.5.3. Meaningful Sensory Experiences
Outside the visual field, designers can also use multi-dimensional product experiences to
create a predicted product expression. For example, designers have a large repertoire of
materials that affects the visual appearance and tactile feel of a product. In recent years,
continuous attention to the links between tactile impressions and product evaluations has
encouraged an important research group related to the design context (Ackerman et al. 2010,
27
Bargh and Shalev; 2012, Jostmann et al. 2009). It addresses the effects of sensory characters
on the product. It is thought to be a source of inspiration in terms of smart designs. The sound
of a product, along with its tactile feel, is also important for establishing the characteristics of
a product. While making some designs, the harmony and relationship between the appearance
and sounds of the product were investigated. For example, when the appearance of a citrus
juicer and the sound it produces were applied to a different product, it was found that the
perceived impression of that product changed. In short, it is observed that the selection of
materials and sound to be used in that product is an important factor in shaping the impresion
a product gives and can also affect the social interaction. Here, designers should carry out
research on how features such as material and sound interact with the product (Özcan and Van
Egmond; 2012, Ludden and Schifferstein, 2007).
1.5.4. Embodiment in Product Movement
This final form of embodiment design is one of the most common design among researchers
who are interested in interaction design, who address the central concepts for design
disciplines, and who focus on new media interaction, concrete design and interaction design
in general (Dourish, 2001).
It deals with the depiction of motion perception on the product. It is important to know how to
use bodily actions to carry out sketch work on physical skills. It is the type of embodiment
design in terms of the motion in the product. Even the most ordinary motion shows its
particular meaning. In addition to the concept of motion, some designers prioritize speed and
force associations. For example, in one of their studies, designers have investigated whether
the expression of sadness or happiness is reflected in the expressions of dancers more slowly
or faster. This dance investigation was examined in order to determine the motion in the
product interaction. Other examples are the smooth and stable closure of the kitchen cabinet
lid, intelligent deceleration and click sound. In terms of the goal of the designer, creating an
impression with the movement paths of the products continues until the user changes his/her
experience with a body movement. Here, designers should carried out their studies finding
answers to questions such as how products express features that bare movements such as
speed and force, and how this situation affects the product (Von Laban and Ullmann; 1988,
Hekkert et al., 2003).
1.6. The Position of Embodiment Design in Design Process
The design process starts with the problem determination, which is the first step of the
conceptual design phase. At this stage, which is the first step of the design process, designers
28
present problems making use of the problem announcements, making comparisons between
products, and with the help of quality function. Quality function deployment (QFD) is a link
where design needs and customer needs meet.
Figure 7. The Position of Embodiment Design in Design Process
In order to completely eliminate the problem, a collection of information about the problem
should be carried out. Designers can obtain this information through internet, articles,
magazines and consultants. Brainstorming, creativity and systematic design methods are used
to form a concept with appropriate information. After the evaluation of the formed concept,
concept selection is realized. Decision making, selection criteria and decision matrix are
effective in concept selection (Dieter et al. 2013). The design process carried out up to this
stage is called conceptual design.
Following the completion of the conceptual design, the next step is the completion of the
product architecture phase of the embodiment design with the arrangement and modularity of
the physical elements. In the configuration design, the pre-selection process is carried out;
material and production processes, modeling and dimensions of the component are
determined. The parametric design in embodiment design is based on excellent design and
tolerances. The final step in the design process is the detailed design. The detailed design
29
phase is the stage where the engineering sketches and the design features of the product are
finalized.
Figure 8. The Position of Embodiment Design in Systematic Design (Pahl and Beitz, 2013).
30
1.7. Difficulties in Embodiment Design
The solution processes that are performed manually require knowledge of the variable values
of the design. Because of this, designers present initial values without addressing variable
values of design problems. At this stage, the equipment support is at a rather low level. The
realization of the sizing procedure in the design process is handled for the product life cycle
phase in the most critical situation (Scaravetti and Sebastian, 2009).
1.8. Detail Design
The boundary between the embodiment design and detailed design has been blurred and
shifted over time, with emphasis on reducing product development cycle time by using
simultaneous engineering methods provided by computer aided engineering (CAE). In most
engineering processes, it is no longer true to say that the detail design is the design phase in
which all dimensions, tolerances and details are completed. However, it is possible to define
the detail design as the stage in which the details are gathered and formed as a whole, where
the final decisions are presented in order to release the production step of the design. Every
stage of the design process is of great importance. Making good design out of a bad
conceptual design process may not be enough for the design. Detail design aims to create a
product by ensuring the designs developed in test procedure to be of high quality and cost-
effective. It is a stage based on the elimination of deficiencies (Dieter et al. 2013).
Detailed design;
À Decision Making
À Sizing Design
À Completion of engineering drawings with Product Design Specification covers:
À Prototype Testing
À Preparing a Cost Report
À Preparing a Design Report
À Design Review
À Manufacturing.
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978-007-132625-4.
12. Dourish, P. (2001). Wheretheaction is: Thefoundations of embodiedinteraction.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
13. DuffJ. M. andRossW. A., (1995). FreehandSketchingforEngineering Design, PWS
Publishing Co., Boston.
14. Guthrie, S. (1993). Faces in theclouds: A newtheory of religion. New York, NY:
Oxford UniversityPress.
15. Hekkert, P.,Mostert, M., &Stompff, G. (2003). Dancingwith a machine: A case of
experience-drivendesign. InProceedings of the International Conference on
DesigningPleasurableProductsandInterfacespp. 114-119.
16. Jostmann, N. B.,Lakens, D., & Schubert, T. W. (2009). Weight as an embodiment of
importance. PsychologicalScience, 20(9), 1169-1174.
17. Lakoff, G.,& Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphorsweliveby. Chicago, IL: TheUniversity of
Chicago Press.
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18. Lakoff, G.,& Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in theflesh. New York, NY: Basic
Books
19. Langeveld, L., (2011). Product Design with Embodiment Design as a New
Perspective, Netherlands
20. Ludden, G. D. S.,&Schifferstein, H. N. J. (2007). Effects of visual–
auditoryincongruity on productexpressionandsurprise. International Journal of Design,
1(3), 29-39].
21. Özcan, E.,& Van Egmond, R. (2012). Basic semantics of productsound. International
Journal of Design, 6(2), 41-54.
22. Pahl, G.,&Beitz, W. (2013). Engineeringdesign: a systematicapproach.
SpringerScience& Business Media.
23. Scaravetti, D.,&Sebastian, P. (2009). Design spaceexploration in embodimentdesign:
an applicationtothedesign of aircraftairconditioners. International Journal of Product
Development, 9(1), 292.
24. Ulrich K. T. andEppinger, S. H (2004). Product Design and Development, 3d
ed.,McGraw-Hill, New York , , pp. 128–48.
25. Ullman, D. G. (2010). Themechanicaldesignprocess: Part 1. McGraw-Hill
26. Van Rompay, T.,&Ludden, G. (2015). Types of embodiment in design:
Theembodiedfoundations of meaningandaffect in productdesign. International journal
of design, 9(1).
27. VonLaban, R.,&Ullmann, L. (1988). Themastery of movement. Plymouth, MA:
Northcote House.
33
CHAPTER III
THE CONCEPT OF ADVANCED EMBODIMENT DESIGN
The design method is to develop new product ideas in line with the needs of the society and to
link the formed ideas with the product to be produced. A systematic approach is generally
preferred in order to build this connection on sound foundations. This design process starts
with the conceptual design stage, continues with the embodiment design stage and ends with
the detail design stage. In these stages, although engineering design plays an active role, the
same terminology may not be used to express the stages of the industrial design process.
Almost everyone agrees with the idea that the first step in design is the problem definition or
the need analysis. Some consider the problem definition as the first stage of the design
process, while others consider the conceptual design phase as the first step of the design
process. The product design process includes the following activities in general:
• Determination of market needs
• Problem analysis and formulation
• Product design specification
• Concept development
• Embodiment design
• Detail design
• Design for assembly
• Life cycle assessment
• Outcome evaluation
1. Embodiment Design
The systematic approach emphasizes the question of how a function can best be performed
with a particular problem and a fixed solution principle and what will happen to each function
carrier. The embodiment design is generally known as pre-design in the process of systematic
design approach. It is also called system-level design. The term of embodiment design has
been introduced by Pahl and Beitz (Pahl and Beitz, 1996). The terminology is located at a key
point after the conceptual design and before the detailing design and systematically supports
the design solution of a product.
34
Embodiment design is one of the most important stages in the design process in which the
concept of design is made by physical form. It can be called the stage in which 4 components
of design including function, form, harmony and completion are evaluated together. It is the
stage in which most analyses are made in order to determine the physical form and
configuration of the components constituting the design. In the literature, the embodiment
design is divided into three parts according to the growth trend of the design (Dieter and
Schmidt, 2008).
Establishment of product architecture; includes organizing the functional elements of the
product into physical units. The main purpose is how much modularity or integration should
be achieved in the design.
Configuration design; involves creating the general form and dimensions of components.
Design models required for the principles of producibility are applied in order to reduce the
cost of In pre-selection of materials, manufacturing processes and manufacturing.
Parametric design: Further detailing is carried out to determine critical design variables to
improve the robustness of the design. This includes the optimization of critical dimensions
and the tolerance setting.
Figure 1. Steps showing the embodiment design in the design process is carried out from the
installation of the product architecture and to the realization of configuration and parametric
design (Dieter and Schmidt, 2008).
35
Upon completion of the embodiment design, a full scale working prototype of the product will
be generated and tested. This is presented as a technical and visually completed study model
used to verify that the design meets all customer requirements and performance criteria.
Figure 2. The position of embodiment design in systematic design (Pahl and Beitz, 1996).
36
The embodiment design is the part of the design process in which a technical product
principle solution or technical product concept is addressed according to the technical and
economic criteria of the design, and developed according to the point where the detail design
is made in the light of further information. It can directly lead to production.
The embodiment design is a well-known concept in product development. The first person to
refer to the embodiment design is Kesselring and introduced a number of principles including
minimum production costs, minimum requirements, minimum weight, minimum losses and
optimum use (Kesselring F., 1954). These principles are usually calculated at the end of the
design process and are often used for verification. The embodiment design is to be understood
as a design step in which a product structure, a product layout and operating principle are
involved.
However, a product has other features besides technical and economic ones only. A product
can also show aspects of other values in a living creature such as emotion, beauty, charm and
happiness. If earnings are higher than the cost of basic needs, people like to pay for these
values.
The embodiment design process is part of the design process related to the production,
engineering and economic feasibility of the product concept. Production includes components
and product assembly. In brief, the embodiment design is carried out with material,
production and geometry to fulfill a new function, and provides the updating of the function
and must meet the requirement with the physical aspects of use, interaction, ergonomics, etc.
(Langeveld, 2011).
37
Request and wish program
Fuzzy information
Material Function
Concept Embodiment Design
Embodiment
Detail
Production Form Language Geometry
Product Design
Figure 3. Embodiment Design Model (Langeveld, 2011).
Ideas are given importance to in Embodiment Design, so a body is created in the titles that
will be explained in detail in the later parts of the design process. In the DMGP model shown
in Figure 3, the design (D), Material (M), Geometry (G) and Production (P) design
characteristics have relations defined as design activities (Kandachar et al., 2001). Design
activities can enrich existing products or product design concepts with innovative design
solutions. All product designs can be designed in a variety of design directions, which may
include several design elements. Design consists of engineering database, designer needs,
product structure, product layout, designer's role, creativity, education and culture.
38
Figure 4: Areas of embodiment design (Langeveld, 2011).
In product design, embodiment design is a process that must be taken into consideration in
many different aspects. Figure 4 shows the areas of rendering and making in which the
reciprocal relationships are created. Designers use the embodiment design to follow a
structural process that depends on the design task. The result is a product design that can
actually be produced. Designers should also develop their design knowledge on producibility.
Product designs are concerned with strategic and innovative aspects of production systems
and planning facilities. In the embodiment design, decisions are made by the designer; in
detail design, properties related to the component such as the dimensions, materials,
tolerances, geometric tolerances, surface roughness and volume are formed. At every stage of
form and detail design, the uncertainty will decrease and it will most probably approach to an
accuracy of 100% each time.
2. Steps of Embodiment Design
Once the first solution has been prepared at the conceptual stage, the underlying idea can be
consolidated. During the forming process, designers should determine general layout and
39
spatial compatibility, pre-embodiment designs (component forms and materials) and
production processes and provide solutions for auxiliary functions. Throughout all this,
technological and economic considerations are of great importance. The design should be
developed with the help of scale drawings, critically reviewed and subjected to a technical and
economic assessment . Often, there is a need for a number of embodiment designs in order for
a precise design to be suitably produced. So, the design, taking into account the customer
requests, should be developed according to the point where a clear control of order, function,
durability, production, assembly, operation and costs can be made. Only if this is done, is it
possible to prepare the final production needs.
Unlike the conceptual design, embodiment design involves a number of corrective steps that
analysis and synthesis continuously follow and complete each other. Design explains that the
familiar methods underlying the search for solutions and assessments should be supported by
methods that will help identify existing errors and that will help with optimization. The
collection of information about materials, production processes, repeated parts and standards
is a matter that requires considerable effort and attention for embodiment design. Therefore,
during the embodiment design process;
• Many actions should be performed at the same time.
• It should be repeated at higher levels of knowledge.
• The additions and changes in one area are reflected in the existing design in other
areas.
It is, therefore, necessary to create a flexible planning process for the embodiment design
phase. In addition, a general approach has been proposed with the main study steps as shown
in Figure 5 (Pahl and Beitz, 2013).
40
Figure 5: Steps of the embodiment design (Pahl and Beitz, 2013)
Certain specific design problems may, in rare cases, require predictable deviations and
auxiliary steps. This should be planned by recognizing that more changes should be made to
match with the design problem at hand. Basically, the process will move from the qualitative
to the quantitative, from abstract to concrete and from rough design to detail designs. It is
41
important to make preparations for inspections and corrections if necessary (Pahl and Beitz,
2013). The first step is to define requirements that have a significant impact in embodiment
design, starting with the principle solution and using the list of requirements:
• Requirements for determining dimensions such as output, efficiency, size of
connectors etc.,
• Requirements for determining layout such as flow direction, movement,
position etc.,
• Requirements for determining materials such as corrosion resistance, service
life, specified materials etc.
Conditions such as safety, ergonomics, production, assembly and recycling include
specific application considerations that may affect the size, shape and selection of
materials.
1. Then, spatial constraints that define or restrict the embodiment design should be
identified (e.g. gaps, axle positions, assembly requirements, etc.).
2. Once the form-determining requirements and spatial constraints are identified, a rough
pattern derived from the concept is generated, highlighting all form-determining main-
function carriers, i.e. the mechanisms and components that perform the main
functions. The following helpful questions should be answered in accordance with the
design principles:
• Which main functions determine the size, layout, and component shapes of the
overall layout? (for example, blade profiles in turbo machines or flow area of
valves)
• Which main functions need to be carried out with which functions or
separately (e.g. torque is transmitted and radial movement is provided through
a flexible shaft or rigid shaft plus a special coupling)?
3. Basic scale layouts and embodiment designs should be developed for the main form-
determining carriers; that is, the general layout, component forms and materials should
be determined temporarily.
4. One or more suitable basic layouts should be selected taking into account the relevant
items in the checklist.
5. Basic layouts and embodiment designs should be developed for the main functions
that are not yet known.
42
6. Then, determine which basic auxiliary functions (such as support, retention, sealing
and cooling) are required, and if possible, use known solutions (such as repeated parts,
standard parts, catalog solutions).
7. For the main function carriers, detailed layouts and embodiment designs should be
developed in accordance with the design rules and forming guidelines, and be
developed paying attention to standards, regulations, detailed calculations and
experimental findings, as well as the compatibility problem with these auxiliary
functions.
8. You should continue to develop detailed layouts and designs for auxiliary function
carriers adding standard and purchased parts.
9. Layouts should be evaluated according to technical and economic criteria.
10. The first basic layout should be arranged. All layouts shall define the complete
external structure of the designed system or product.
11. By eliminating the weak points detected during the evaluation, the embodiment design
for the selected layout should be optimized and completed.
12. The embodiment design should be checked in order to investigate functional-design
errors, spatial compatibility and disturbing factors. It should be investigated which
improvements may be necessary.
13. A pre-part list and pre-production and assembly document should be prepared and the
embodiment design stage should be finalized.
14. Final arrangements should be completed and detail design phase should be started.
Many details need to be clarified, approved and optimized while preparing the embodiment
designs. The more in detail it is investigated, the more obvious it is that the right solution
concept is chosen. Thus, it can be seen whether the market requirement can be met or whether
the chosen concept is suitable for the product. When this issue is noticed during the
embodiment design, it will enable the review of the procedure adopted in the conceptual
design phase.
3. Checklist for Embodiment Design
The embodiment design is characterized by repeated discussions and verification. Each
embodiment design is an attempt to fulfill a specific function with appropriate layout,
component forms and materials. The process begins with pre-scale layouts based on rough
43
analysis of spatial requirements and takes into account safety, ergonomics, production,
installation, operation, maintenance, recycling, costs and timings.
When dealing with these factors, designers will discover a large number of mutual
relationships, therefore, their approach should be progressive as well as iterative. However,
the design approach should always be such that it allows the quick identification of the
problems that should be solved.
The checklist shown in Table 1 has been obtained from general objectives and constraints.
Although the factors are interrelated, this checklist keeps them arranged through a useful
procedure and offers a systematic control for the designers for each of them. Thus, the
checklist not only provides a strong mental acceleration, but also ensures that nothing is
forgotten (Pahl and Beitz, 2013)
Table 1. Forming Design Checklist
Titles Examples
FunctionIs the intended function performed?
Which auxiliary functions are required?
Operating Principle
Do the selected operating principles provide the desired effects and
advantages?
What can the disturbing factors be?
Layout
Do all of the selected layouts provide component shapes, materials, anddimensions?
Sufficient durabilityPermissible deformationAvoding resonanceBarrier-free expansionAcceptable corrosion and wear
Safety
Have all the factors that affect the safety of the components and the
operation of the enterprise and the environment been taken into
account?
Ergonomics
Have human-machine relationships been considered?
Have unnecessary human stress and damaging factors been avoided?
Has aesthetics been paid attention to?
ProductionHas a technological and economic analysis of production processes
been carried out?
44
Quality ControlCan the required controls be applied at any time during or after
production?
AssemblyCan all internal and external assembly work be done simply and
accurately?
TransportHave all internal and external transport conditions and risks been
examined and taken into account?
OperationHave the factors such as noise, vibration and maintenance affecting the
operation been taken into account?
Maintenance/Repair Can maintenance, inspection and revision be easily done?
Recycling Can the product be reused or recycled?
CostsHave the anticipated cost limits been considered?
Are there any other costs?
TimingCan delivery dates be met?
Are there design changes to improve delivery status?
These titles and examples provide a systematic approach to the embodiment design. For
example, dealing with assembly problems will lead to a loss of time before detecting whether
the required performance or minimum durability is ensured. This checklist provides an easy
and consistent review of the embodiment design.
4. Basic Rules of Embodiment Design
The following basic rules apply to all embodiment designs. If neglected, problems,
malfunctions and accidents may occur. When used in conjunction with the checklist and
design error detection methods, they assist the designer in selection and evaluation (Dieter
and Schmidt, 2008).
There are many rules and guidelines for embodiment design in the literature. The basic
features of product design are openness, simplicity and security;
Openness; that is, the clarity or lack of uncertainty of the function of a design - facilitates
reliable estimation of the performance of the final product, and in most cases saves time and
costly analyses.
45
Simplicity; usually guarantees economic feasibility. Fewer components and simple shapes are
produced in a faster and easier way.
Security; brings a coherent approach to problems of power, reliability, accident prevention
and environmental protection.
In short, by paying attention to these three basic rules, designers can increase their chances of
success. Because they help to combine functional efficiency, economy and security. Without
this combination, it is thought that the chance of achieving a satisfactory solution in the
embodiment design will be reduced.
5. Exemplary application for Embodiment Design
An exemplary application for embodiment design has been carried out by the students of
Erciyes University Department of Industrial Design Engineering. In the study, it was planned
that the mouth cushions that would keep the mouth open during the dental treatment by the
dentists, be designed as a modular product that provides ease of use for parents to the children
and that can be adjusted as desired (Akkas, 2017).
Figure 6. The mouth gag on the market
After the needs analysis and market research was made for this, sketching studies were carried
out inspired by nutcrackers for the geometry of the product to be designed. Technical
drawings were made in CAD environment.
46
Figure 7. Sketches for new mouth gags
Figure 8. Technical drawings of 3 different sizes for the new mouth gag
47
Material properties to be used later were investigated. Silicone and plastic are very commonly
used in mouth gags. Silicon is preferred mostly for this product. Finally, a 3-D model of the
product was formed and then simulated.
Figure 9. 3D modeling of the mouth gag planned to be produced
REFERENCES
1. Dieter, G.,&Schmidt, L. C. (2008). Engineeringdesign, engineeringseries.
2. Kandachar,P.V.,Langeveld, L.H., (2001).SyllabusMaterialisation, DelftUniversity of
technology, Industrial Design engineering, Delft, pp7-9.
3. Kesselring F., (1954).TechnischeKompositionslehre, Springer, Berlin.
4. Langeveld, L. (2011). Product designwithembodimentdesign as a newperspective.
In Industrialdesign-New frontiers. IntechOpen.
5. Pahl, G., .Beitz, W., (1996). Engineering Design, a systematicapproach, London, 1996
secondedition.
6. Pahl, G.,&Beitz, W. (2013). Engineeringdesign: a systematicapproach.
SpringerScience& Business Media.
7. Akkaş, Ş., Cerit, A.A. (2017). SmartProp. Erciyes Üniveristesi, Endüstriyel tasarım
Mühendisliği Bölümü, Kayseri.
48
CHAPTER IVDETERMINATION OF CUSTOMER NEEDS
1. Introduction
Development of new products in an effective and accurate way is important for companies to remain
competitive in the global environment. When Companies analyze the phase of determining customer
needs well during the new product development process, they will be able to act faster in offering new
products that will provide original benefits to their customers.
The phase of determining customer needs consists of collecting raw data from customers, interpreting
raw data in terms of customer needs and arranging them as primary, secondary, and tertiary customer
needs, and aligning needs according to order of importance (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015). Focus groups,
interviews, questionnaires sent via electronic mail and related websites are mainly used for the
collection of raw data.
The Kano model, which was introduced by Dr. Kano in 1984, provides a more detailed
understanding of the customer voice by grouping customer needs as must-have, one-dimensional, and
exciting needs (Kano, 1984; Matzler, Hinterhuber, Bailom, & Sauerwein, 1996).
In this way, determining the customer needs correctly and efficiently in the first place will help to
prevent design repetitions and thus wasting time and resources.
1. Determining Customer Needs
1.1. Collection of raw data
The marketing departments of the companies can identify customer needs; or firms can outsource
market research with an outside marketing agent. Some methods used to collect customer needs:
• Focus groups: In focus groups, 8-12 customers in a private room are asked to talk about their
wishes and needs, and discussions are usually videotaped (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015; Urban &
Hauser, 1993). This process lasts 1-2 hours, moderated by a member of the new product
development team or a professional market researcher, which provides a deep understanding
of customer impressions for these products (Urban & Hauser, 1993; Eppinger & Ulrich,
2015). The cost for the room rental, fees paid to participants, video recording, and snacks can
reach $ 5,000 altogether (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015).
• Interviews: One-to-one interviews conducted by phone or face-to-face usually take 45 to 60
minutes (Day, 1993; Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015). This method allows the interviewer to ask
questions until he learns the actual need of the customer (Day, 1993). However, this method
is expensive and time-intensive; which limits the number of interviews (Day, 1993). Urban &
Hauser (1993) claim that 20-30 interviews are sufficient for each customer segment in
49
understanding 90-95% of customer needs. Silver & Thompson (1991) showed that a one-hour
face-to-face interview and a one-hour focus group study had the same degree of impact in
terms of determining customer needs for a group of complex office equipment. Thus,
interviewing two customers for one hour each would be much more economical than
interviewing a focus group with 6-8 clients for two hours (Griffin & Hauser, 1993; Eppinger
& Ulrich, 2015).
• Surveys by mail: This is an expensive method. However, a contradiction may occur if the
respondent fails to understand what the author really means (Day, 1993). The length of the
survey determines the response rate and motivation of the respondent and this rate is at 25-
60% (Futrell, 1994).
• Product clinics: Surveys are conducted with customers to report their preferences on different
product concepts, often involving competitors' products (Jürgens, 2000). Confidentiality is
obligatory since the products offered convey the product strategy of the company (Jürgens,
2000). The automotive industry uses virtual product clinics that save time and money to
evaluate products and that bring customers together (Jürgens, 2000).
• Murmurings and observations: Listening and observing customers experiencing the products
of both the company and its competitors in retail outlets and commercial shows may show
potential problems related to products, resulting in improvement of the product (L.-K. Chan
& Wu, 2002).
Firstly, Eppinger & Ulrich (2015) recommends conducting interviews since they allow evaluation of
the product where it is used; and then supporting this with one or two focus groups as a group of
customers can be observed at the same time. Griffin & Hauser predicted that 30 interviews for the
portable food transport vehicle would be sufficient to determine 90% of customer needs (Hauser,
2008).
Von Hippel (1986) explained that interviews would be more effective when they were made with
leading users who were defined as the precursors of future needs in the market. Leading users are
users who may have already come up with the problems associated with the current product or service
and have already produced solutions to these problems and/or will benefit from the solution of these
problems most (Von Hippel, 1986; Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015). Automobile manufacturers, for
example, follow the teams in the NASCAR (The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) to
be aware of the new solutions they have developed for the challenges they face (Von Hippel, 1986;
Garcia, 2014).
Apart from these methods; complaints, warranty and sales data, and publications also help companies
to define the needs of the customers (Chan & Wu, 2002).
50
The internet, emerged in the early 1970s (Paul, 1996), has been spreading rapidly since the 1990s
(Schibrowsky, Peltier, & Nill, 2007). The Internet was born as a new tool to obtain the voice of the
customer in addition to the traditional methods discussed above (Howe, Mathieu, & Parker, 2000;
Wilson & Laskey, 2003). The Internet, the ‘International electronic network’ (Paul, 1996), provides
global communication through e-mails, websites, news groups and forums (Howe et al., 2000). This
opportunity provided by the Internet allows millions of people and data to be accessed quickly and
without much effort (Wilson & Laskey, 2003). E-mail and web-based surveys make the geographic
boundaries irrelevant due to the electronic format of the data, which enables the determination of
customers needs with low costs and short customer response times (Ilieva, Baron, & Healey, 2002). A
study conducted in Spain by Barrios, Villarroya, Borrego, & Ollé (2011) showed that the customer
response rate of the e-mail surveys (64.8%) was higher than that of mail surveys (48.8%). In addition,
the e-mail survey contains less missing data than the mail survey, which determines the quality of the
data (Barrios et al., 2011). However, customer response rate and data quality may vary in terms of
survey design, attractiveness of the subject, internet use in the population, and the level of education of
the sample (Ilieva et al., 2002; Barrios et al., 2011). In the last two decades, social media that creates
interactive virtual platforms supported by users, and includes blogs (e.g. gizmodo.com), social
networks (e.g. facebook.com, twitter.com), forums (e.g. epinions.com), and video sharing websites
(e.g. youtube.com) is becoming increasingly important (Constantinides & Fountain, 2008;
Constantinides, Romero, & Boria, 2008). Customers can freely share their suggestions, comments, and
comments on a company's products through the common blogs and discussion forums (e.g.
www.reddit.com) (Constantinides et al., 2008; Jeong et al., 2017). Companies can track changes in
customer behavior, customers' reactions to new products, requests, ideas through websites such as
youtube.com and flickr.com where subscribers can upload pictures and videos (Constantinides et al.,
2008). Social networks first started in 1995 with classmates.com; then, continued with myspace.com
in 2003, facebook.com in 2004, and twitter.com in 2006 (Rucker, 2011). Each network contains
websites where the user shares his information with other members he is in contact with(Trusov,
Bodapati, & Bucklin, 2010). Currently, facebook.com, the most popular website, has over two billion
members across the world (Statista, 2019). This situation emphasizes the potential importance of
social networks for firms. Companies can use these websites to create their own profiles and listen to
the customers' voice (Fluss & Rogers, 2011). Members can freely share their feelings about products
or services in these profiles, which will help companies fully understand customer needs (CBR
Software New Media and Search, 2009).
In addition to these, companies can observe their customers when using an existing product without
the need to ask questions about products; to contact with them directly (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015).
Companies go to the places where customers meet products or services, which is called as 'gemba' by
the Japanese, and analyze the customer voice (Lampa & Mazur, 1996; Zultner & Mazur, 2006). For
51
example, Procter&Gamble observes thousands of customers each year at home or at work (Eppinger
& Ulrich, 2015). However, the observation can also take place when the company contacts the
customers and experiences the product with them (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015). This way, companies
can observe the problems and opportunities they cannot normally see in meeting rooms at a time they
occur (Mazur, 2003; Zultner & Mazur, 2006). And this provides a better understanding of the
customer's wishes which are vital for making appropriate designs (Mazur, 2003).
1.2. Interpreting and Organizing Customer Needs
The new-product development team can obtain approximately 200-400 customer needs by interpreting
the descriptions by the customers collected using traditional methods (Urban & Hauser, 1993; Takai &
Ishii, 2010). When customer comments are converted into customer needs, it should be noted that the
needs should include as much detail as possible in the original data; be presented as a feature of the
product, and express what the product should do rather than how (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015). In the
next step, since it will be difficult to work with a list containing about 400 customer needs, customer
requirements are categorized into primary, secondary, and tertiary requirements, mostly by affinity
diagrams, tree diagrams, and hierarchical cluster analysis tools (Griffin & Hauser, 1993; Eppinger &
Ulrich, 2015). ).
The affinity diagram method is often called the KJ method by its inventor Kawakita Jiro
(Franceschini, 2002). Affinity diagrams are created by the new-product team members instead of
customers and may not represent customer opinions (Urban & Hauser, 1993; Franceschini, 2002).
However, they do not take much time; and are economical and practical (Urban & Hauser, 1993). The
team members classify customer needs as tertiary, secondary, and primary, and eliminate duplicate
needs by building a hierarchy tree (Urban & Hauser, 1993). On the other hand, the tree diagram is
more categorical than the affinity diagram; shows any deficit in grouping; and helps the team to
determine both the lowest and the highest detail (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995). In addition, the
hierarchical cluster analysis is considered to be better than affinity and tree diagrams (Urban &
Hauser, 1993; Franceschini, 2002). The hierarchical cluster analysis is based on customers'
perspectives because it is created by customers (Urban & Hauser, 1993; Franceschini, 2002).
However, it is time consuming and costly (Urban & Hauser, 1993). In this method, similar customer
needs are grouped as a cluster; thus, various clusters are formed (Urban & Hauser, 1993). These
clusters are then categorized into the hierarchy of primary, secondary, and tertiary needs (Urban &
Hauser, 1993).
Primary needs or strategic needs are related to the Core Benefit Proposition (CBP), which describes
the specific benefits of the product (Griffin & Hauser, 1993; Urban & Hauser, 1993). Secondary needs
or tactical needs determine what needs to be done to achieve primary or strategic needs (Griffin &
52
Hauser, 1993). Tertiary requirements or operational needs are detailed engineering features that meet
secondary needs (Griffin & Hauser, 1993).
Nevertheless, various digital techniques are still being proposed and developed to overcome the
thousands of customer reviews that are commonly referred to as idea mining and emerge through
social media to attract, classify and understand the useful ones, and to use the findings in product
design (Chen, Chiang, & Storey, 2012; Jin, Ji, & Liu, 2014).
1.3.Ranking of Customer Needs by Significance Level
In order to use resources such as time, money, and personnel effectively, firms eliminate unimportant
customer demands and focus on the most important ones (Terninko, 1997; Chan & Wu, 2002).
In many cases, relative importance (sometimes called rate-scale importance) ranking is used, and
customers are asked to rank customers' needs on a scale (from 1 to 5, from 1 to 7, from 1 to 9, or from
1 to 10; 5,7,9 and 10 being the most important here) through mail/electronic mail surveys (Cohen &
Cohen, 1995; Franceschini, 2002). The results are statistically analyzed, and if the distribution is
unimodal, the mean values of the rankings are taken into account (Franceschini, 2002). If the
distribution is not unimodal and there are significant variations in distribution, the distribution can
mean two different market segments (Franceschini, 2002). Therefore, respondents should be analyzed
in terms of age, gender, and socioeconomic status (Akao, 1990).
In recent years, quantitative techniques such as Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), Analytic Network
Process (ANP) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) have been used to rank customer needs by
importance (Carnevalli). & Amp; Miguel, 2008). In AHP, developed by Saaty in 1970, customers are
asked to compare two customer needs according to a 1-9 scale, which ranges from equally important
to extremely important (Franceschini, 2002). This dual comparison continues until all the needs are
evaluated according to each other (Franceschini, 2002). Fuzzy logic theory proposed by Professor
Zadeh in 1965 is a technique used for solving and modeling uncertain problems (Zadeh, 1965;
Guiffrida & Nagi, 1998). The fuzzy method can be used to determine the relative importance of
customer needs, which can provide a more rational ranking by minimizing the ambiguity in the
customer voice (L. K.Chan, Kao, & Wu, 1999). ANP, created by Professor Saaty after AHP, is a
multi-criteria decision-making tool not resembling AHP; a single network is created to model complex
problems (Saaty, 2004; Raharjo, Brombacher, & Xie, 2008). ANN is a mathematical model which was
developed by simulating the human brain and that has been known since the 1940s (Jain, Mao, &
Mohiuddin, 1996; Bouchereau & Rowlands, 2000). .
2. The Kano Model
To understand the voice of the customers The Kano model was introduced in 1984 by Noriaki Kano,
Japanese professor and quality expert (Kano, 1984; Matzler et al., 1996). Dr. Kano divides product or
53
service characteristics into three groups (Mazur, 2003), as shown in Figure 1 to explain how to meet
customer needs.
(1) The must-have features. The lack of these features makes the customer dissatisfied (Shen, Tan,
& Xie, 2000). Therefore, these features have to be met even though they do not increase
satisfaction when met beyond expectations (Mazur, 2003). These features are essential for a
product or service and are not reported by the customer (Terninko, 1997). For example, a
vehicle owner expects the airbag to be fully opened in an accident.
(2) One-dimensional features. When these features are met, customer satisfaction occurs and
when not met, customer dissatisfaction occurs (Shen et al., 2000). These characteristics are
usually reported by the customer (Terninko, 1997). For example, the more kilometers a car
goes per liter, the more satisfied the customer is (Matzler et al., 1996).
(3) Exciting features. Although these exciting features do not make the customer dissatisfied, the
presence of them makes the customer happy (Shen et al., 2000; Mazur, 2003). Meeting these
features can lead to the emergence of innovative products (Griffin & Hauser, 1993).
Figure 1. The Kano Model (Kano, 1984; Matzler et al., 1996; Tan & Shen, 2000)
In a car, a good viewing distance is a must-have feature, the spaciousness of the rear-seats is a
one-dimensional feature, and the advanced traction system is an exciting feature (Zultner & Mazur,
2006).
54
Exciting needs can also be defined as hidden needs (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015). For example,
people were not aware of such a need until the camera feature was integrated into their mobile phones
(Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015).
The Kano model has a dynamic structure; today's exciting features are a must-have for
tomorrow; customer needs change over time (Lampa & Mazur, 1996; Terninko, 1997). Therefore,
companies should be in constant contact with customers to be aware of any possible changes in
customer needs (Lampa & Mazur, 1996; Terninko, 1997).
3. Result
Commercial websites such as amazon.com that give particular importance to social networks (e.g.
facebook.com), forums (e.g. reddit.com), customer comments, apart from methods such as
interviewing and meeting with focus groups for accurate and effective understanding of customer
voice, are becoming increasingly important.
In recent years, quantitative techniques such as Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), Analytic Network
Process (ANP) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) have been used to rank customer needs by
importance have gained importance.
Nevertheless, various digital techniques are still being proposed and developed to overcome the
thousands of customer reviews, to understand, classify and rank them by their importance, and to use
the findings in product design (Chen, Chiang, & Storey, 2012; Jin, Ji, & Liu, 2014).
1. References
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implement change. USA: CRC Press
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deployment (QFD). Benchmarking: An International Journal, 7(1), 8–20.
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on QFD—Types of research, difficulties and benefits. International Journal of
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quality function deployment by fuzzy and entropy methods. International Journal of
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Chan, L.-K., & Wu, M.-L. (2002). Quality function deployment: a comprehensive review of
its concepts and methods. Quality Engineering, 15(1), 23–35.
Chen, H., Chiang, R. H., & Storey, V. C. (2012). Business intelligence and analytics: from big
data to big impact. MIS Quarterly, 1165–1188.
Cohen, L., & Cohen, L. (1995). Quality function deployment: how to make QFD work for
you. Addison-Wesley Reading, MA.
Constantinides, E., & Fountain, S. J. (2008). Web 2.0: Conceptual foundations and marketing
issues. Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice, 9(3), 231–244.
Constantinides, E., Romero, C. L., & Boria, M. A. G. (2008). Social media: a new frontier for
retailers? In European Retail Research (pp. 1–28). Springer.
Day, R. G. (1993). Quality function deployment: Linking a company with its customers. Asq
Press.
Eppinger, S. D., & Ulrich, K. T. (2015). Product design and development (Sixth Edition).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Fluss, D., & Rogers, M. (2011). How to Listen to the Voice of the Customer in a
Multichannel World. CRM Magazine, 15(2), 40–41.
Franceschini, F. (2002). Advanced Quality Function Deployment QFD. St. Lucie Press. US.
Futrell, D. (1994). Ten reasons why surveys fail. Quality Progress, 27(4), 65–70.
Garcia, R. (2014). Creating and Marketing New Products and Services. CRC Press.
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Guiffrida, A. L., & Nagi, R. (1998). Fuzzy set theory applications in production management
research: a literature survey. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 9(1), 39–56.
Hauser, J. R. (2008). Note on the Voice of the Customer. MIT, Cambridge, MA.
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experience. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media.
Kano, N. (1984). Attractive quality and must-be quality. Hinshitsu (Quality, The Journal of
Japanese Society for Quality Control), 14, 39–48.
Lampa, S., & Mazur, G. H. (1996). Bagel sales double at host Marriott: using quality
function deployment. Japan Business Consultants.
Matzler, K., Hinterhuber, H. H., Bailom, F., & Sauerwein, E. (1996). How to delight your
customers. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 5(2), 6–18.
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Raharjo, H., Brombacher, A. C., & Xie, M. (2008). Dealing with subjectivity in early product
design phase: A systematic approach to exploit Quality Function Deployment
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A review of the literature and future research directions. European Journal of
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approach to the" voice of the customer" (PhD Thesis). Massachusetts Institute of
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function deployment. Total Quality Management, 11(8), 1141–1151.
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CHAPTER V
BENCHMARKING THE BEST TO IMPROVE PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
1. Introduction
In today's era of faster, cheaper and better products, companies focus on improving the
product development process at a higher rate. Technology that allows for new business
strategies, new organizational approaches, new business processes and are new opportunities
is being used by many forward-thinking companies to continuously improve their product
development processes. How can a company catch up with these rapid changes? Some
improvement opportunities are defined for the staff in an organization. Other opportunities
may not be open, or may contain too many objects to become a matter of where to begin.
Management often creates a number of questions in their minds: How can we compare it with
the rest of the industry? With the best ones in the industry? What are our strengths and
weaknesses? Does our development process meet our strategic goals? What improvements
need to be made? Where do we start? What are the priorities given to the resources we have?
What benefits can we expect? How can we understand this quickly so that we can get started?
These questions and answers constitute an important step in the design; Benchmarking and
Transferring the Result to Design.
2. Product Development Processes and Aspects
No organization can develop all aspects of product development process at once.
Implementation of product development best practices can best be viewed as a journey (an
ongoing process improvement) rather than a destination. Priorities should be developed to
implement the product development best practices. The organization should start by
understanding what applications should be adopted (possible). It then needs to consider its
strategic direction (for example, time to market, low-cost manufacturer, most innovative
manufacturer, highest quality/reliability manufacturer, flexibility to respond to new products
and markets), taking into account its goals. They should also consider their rivals in this
process. Then, the designer/firm has to evaluate his/its strengths and weaknesses. Priorities
can be identified to make improvements by focusing on the "gap" between where a
designer/company is and where he/it should be (identifying priorities). An exemplary
approach is presented in Figure 1 on this topic;
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Figure 1. Product development quality gap [1,2]
Within the scope of the gap in the product design process, which is intended to be identified;
corporate visits, consultancy assignments, conferences, workshops and meetings, literature
review, phone calls, technology vendors, production analysis, Software Engineering,
Competency Maturity Models (CMM) and other resource books can be used. This quest
should be constantly updated as best product is revealed and defined, and as current best
practices become a standard practice and are no longer noteworthy. Figure 2 shows the
targeted design and comparison cycle.
Figure 2. Continuous design and comparison cycle [3].
Within the continuous design cycle, applications are divided into five main dimensions:
strategy, organization, process, design optimization and technology, and the best twenty-eight
application categories (Process Areas in the CMM Terminology). Twelve different steps are
encountered when the relevant five areas are examined as an application step [4,5];
60
i. STEP: PLANNING 1. Determining what to compare 2. Determination of
companies to be compared 3. Determination of data collection methods
ii. STEP: ANALYSIS 4. Determining the existing performance gap 5. Projecting
future performance level
iii. STEP: INTEGRATION 6. Evaluating the findings and making them acceptable 7.
Determination of functional targets
iv. STEP: GOING INTO ACTION 8. Development of action plans 9. Improving
specific actions and monitoring progress 10. Re-adjustment of the comparison
v. STEP: MATURITY 11. Reaching the leadership position 12. FulL integration of
applications into processes
It is recommended that the designer pay attention to the processes in five steps and take into
account stepwise theory plan presented in Figure 3 to move on to the next while developing
his design and production capability through five defined steps and twelve application steps.
Figure 3. Stepwise Theory Plan [6]
As a result of researches from past to present, an application framework that will ensure
optimum and highest performance has been obtained. The developed design and
implementation framework starts with the strategy process, continues with the organizational
61
approach and operational steps, and ends with technology support through design
optimization. Figure 4 presents a pre-evaluation table for scoring and viability assessment.
Figure 4. Scoring and Viability Assessment Table [7-10].
Most of these best practices are universal - applicable to the development of any product of
any type and size. And, some of these best practices are related to specific product types or
business environments. For example, ease-of-maintenance/service applications do not apply
to consumer products, the productability design is not as important as a one-off product such
as a satellite, the applications for electrical design or embedded software are not entirely
related to a mechanical product. Therefore, a weighting is used to adapt the importance of best
practices to each company's products and business environment. The “Ishikawa Result-Effect
Diagram", in which the input data to be used to generate the absolute effect is defined, is
given in Figure 5.
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Figure 5. The Ishikawa Result-Effect Diagram [8]
The absolute input values for the result obtained according to Ishikawa are; material in
production, production technology/method, production automation capacity and production
evaluation measurements. It is emphasized, in this model that the identified data is used as
input, that the designer should make an effort for these input effects to get the basic output
effect.
In relation to each of these best practices, there are a number of questions to help with this
evaluation process. A company's product development activities are assessed in relation to
each of these best practices and a quantitative rating is developed. This rating is supported by
an oral explanation of the characteristics of the product development approach, as the
organization evolves towards a worldwide approach to IPD. An example of a worksheet for
this evaluation process is given in Figure 6:
63
Figure 6. Exemplary Study for Integrated Product/Design Evaluation [9]
3. Strategic Compliance
To be successful, the manufacturing company must have a basis for the competitive
advantage. While an organization needs to do a reasonable job in various competitive
dimensions, not every possibility is possible for all people. The firm must focus on one or two
dimensions of competition to be truly successful. These dimensions are typically the
dimensions of competition listed below that are associated with product development;
• Time to Market
• Low development cost
• Low-cost manufacturer/low-cost, high-value products
• Innovation and product performance
• Quality, reliability, ease of use, ease of service, etc.
• Agility
Many of the best practices are related to one or more of these competitive dimensions or
strategies. If the practice is strongly related to one of these strategies, it can be defined as a
strategic advantage. For example, strategic advantages for time to market are as follows:
2.7 Take on a new development project only when resources are available. This makes
excessively labor-intensive projects and projects delaying the time to market a cluster of
problems. Resources can be focused on ongoing high priority projects. The next highest
priority project can be realized when it is ready to support resources as quickly as possible.
5.4 Make a full commitment to the project and start the plan quickly so that the staff can make
a good start.
8.9 Focus on the redesign of modules, components, cores, cells, component models,
requirement documents, plans, technical documentation, simulation models, toolkit materials,
and so on to minimize development costs and timing.
11.8 Manage requirements strictly to minimize changes that require redesign cycles. Consider
new requirements in the new version or in the new generation product.
13.4 Ensure early participation in suppliers' opinions and recommendations to collaborate,
use, and develop a design that is compatible with process capabilities.
23.7 Use product data management systems to control product data and facilitate the process
with workflow capabilities.
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24.4 Use electronic mock-up and assembly modeling capabilities instead of creating physical
models.
25.1 Highlight the importance of early analysis and simulation to minimize construction and
testing cycles carried out with physical hardware.
Looking at the performance level for these strategic leverages, a competitive strategy is
aimed. The question is whether this strategy is in line with the target strategy. One way to see
the overall strategy is to look at the weighted average of performance ratings for best
practices, which are strategic leverages associated with each of the six competitive
dimensions or strategies. For a particular strategic dimension, a high weighted average
performance rating compared to weighted average performance ratings in other strategic
dimensions indicates that the product development process is strategically aligned with that
strategic dimension. Ideally, the ranking of these weighted average performance ratings
should be aligned with the intended strategy priorities. If not, the product development
process needs to be improved by implementing best practices that are strategic leverage for
the desired strategy.
4. Analysis and Improvement
In addition to the performance rating for each best practice and each top-level category, a
general performance rating has been developed by assigning a weight factor to each category
according to their importance, taking into account the nature of the work and the product. This
performance rating is an indication of the urgency of improving the development process
compared to other companies. The design analysis is then used to focus on development
opportunities that will provide the highest gain. Categories with high weighting factors
(showing its importance for your product development success) and having relatively low
performance ratings give the biggest gaps between what is important for the organization and
what it does best. These areas require the highest priority in improving the development
process and are likely to offer the biggest gain. On the other hand, categories with low level of
importance and categories with relatively high performance ratings show low priority areas
that not much interest was taken in.
Strategic compliance analysis and gap analysis form the basis for determining implementation
actions and priorities. This concept creates a manageable set of improvement initiatives to
focus your attention. Figure 7 presents an example of performance and gap analysis:
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Figure 7. Performance and gap analysis study [2,10]
Once the large gap categories have been defined, examining the best performances as having
a low level of performance will help identify priority areas that require attention. In addition,
it is important to identify and focus on the strategic lines that have low performance ratings
and are associated with the organization's intended strategy. For this reason, the executive
board, as a pre-requisite, should define the product development vision and determine the
competition development strategy as a basis for harmonizing product development practices
and developing implementation priorities. This analysis forms the basis for developing
priorities and ultimately an improvement or implementation plan. In addition, the expertise of
an internal manager or external consultant who knows a lot about integrated product
development concepts and improvement strategies can help set priorities. This expertise is
important because of the natural relationships and sequences with the application and use of
these best practices. For example, replacing paper drawings with a digital product model is
not a realistic action until a certain level of CAD capability, workstation access to the model,
product data management system, and on-site network infrastructure are found. Experience
and good project planning are necessary to transform these high priority improvement needs
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into specific actions, responsibilities, programs and assignments. Staff resources are required
to support implementation or improvement activities. If the overall performance rating is low,
a critical team of staff within the organization needs to develop an understanding of the best
practice concepts. These persons can then improve the implementation plan, perform various
application activities, and be involved in defining the desired path to develop new products,
and can help to report the best practical approaches and desired approach to the rest of the
organization. The process model is summarized in Figure 8.
Figure 8. The Solution Model [3,4]
The implementation plan should start with low-cost activities that yield high returns. It should
be noted that, in the absence of other strong and weak indicators, these initial actions should
be the product development basis for product development teams, effective product/project
planning and resource management should be created, and the use of a quality function
deployment (QFD) methodology. It should be used as a method to capture and understand the
voice of the customer. When these steps start to create savings, the organization can move to
other IPD elements and will be able to self-finance the initiative. There are two elements of
implementation planning that need to be addressed. The first is the implementation plan for
the described business activities. It is a design that covers all the actions to be formed, which
is best practice based and a cost-effective for all development projects. This also includes the
determination of an aerodynamic product development process, the development of
producibility rules, the establishment of appropriate CAD/CAE/CAM and product data
management system tools, and so on. The project delivery plan, which is the second
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planning element, is composed of the actions to be taken to support an individual product
development project. This plan is will be developed with the participation of the management
staff responsible for development efforts, such as the engineering manager, program manager,
product line manager, and so on. This plan will address a staff plan that will support the
team structure required to support the project. Early participation, training requirements,
facilities and ranking applications, required technical resources (workstations, software etc.),
quality function deployment, supplier/subcontractor participation, development methodology,
etc.
5. Result
Many organizations tend towards completely different directions in the development of the
product development process. Some of these differences are the result of differences in the
business strategies, business environments, organizations and legal, product patent and
protection rights of their products. A common problem is the lack of a common framework
for best practices in product development. With a comprehensive time investment, a firm can
develop a broad, internal experience-expertise that is necessary to produce an effective
improvement plan for product development. This requires significant participation and
comprehensive benchmarking. Based on the best 270 product development practices, the
Product Development Best Practices and Assessment methodology offers an adaptive
alternative to identifying strengths and weaknesses in a common framework of a
comprehensive set of best practices. This supports a firm/designer to develop a faster action
plan to improve the development process.
6. References
1. Benchmarking Best Practices to Improve Product Development, Product DevelopmentAssessment and our Product Development Best Practices and Assessment Software,http://www.npd-solutions.com/benchmarking.html2. Madigan, D., ACI, Benchmark Method, University of Bath 1997.3. Demirdöğen, O., Küçük, O., Kıyaslama Süreci ve Ürün Odaklı Kıyaslama'nın İmalatçıİşletmelerde Uygulanmasının Verimliliğe Etkisi, İktisadi Ye İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 17 Ekim2003 Sayı: 3-4.4. Fong, S.W., Eddie W.L. Cheng, ve eK. Ho Danny, Benchmarking: a General Reading forManagement Practitioners", Management Decision. MCB University Press. 36/6, 5.409, 1998.5. Bhutla S.,K., Huq F., Benchmarking Best Practices; An Integrated Approach,Benchnıarking: An Imernational Journal, MCB University Press, , Vol. 6 No. 3, ss. 256, 1998.
68
6. Camp, R.C., Benchmarldng The Search for Industry Best Practices that Lead to SuperiorPerformance, ASQC Quality Pres, USA, s.229, 1989.7. K. Ishikawa, Guide to quality control Asian Productivity Organisation, 1976.8. K. Bemowski, The Benchmarking Bandwagon, Quality Progress, pp 19-24, January 1991.9. Bergstrom J., Kivimaki I., Benchmarking, Seminar in Industrial Management, HelsinkiUniversity of Technology, 1993.10. Vaziri H.K., Using competitive benchmarking to set goals, Quality Progress, pp 81-85.October 1992.
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CHAPTER VI
DESIGN PROCESSES AND SOLUTION-ORIENTED DESIGN
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering design is a general problem solving process in which designer's knowledge,
experience and different methods are used to perform the specified tasks. In order for this
problem solving process to be successful, it has to follow a systematic way. A systematic
design process ensures that the design is easier, clearer and more understandable. This process
needs to have a certain order. However, this order does not mean that one cannot move to the
other after a process is complete. Therefore, feedback cycles are included in any phase of the
design process [1].
1.2 DESIGN PROCESSES
The design process is an iterative process that meets the need emerging from the market or a
new idea or that materializes an idea. Usually the following path is followed to fully define
the need: "A device is required to perform the X task." Designers emphasize that the
expression must be independent of the solution to avoid focusing on prejudices and a fixed
point. There are stages shown in Figure 1 between the need and the product specification. The
design proceeds by developing concepts to fill each of the sub-functions in the structure of the
function according to an operation principle. At this point, all options are open in the
conceptual design. The designer should consider alternative concepts for sub-functions and
their division or combination. In the layout phase, which is next, he takes and tries to analyze
the prominent concepts, tries to dimension and assign materials according to the environment
variables (temperature, load, etc.) and takes into account the effects on performance in terms
of cost. The detailed design phase starts after the layout phase. Here, technical data is
generated for each component, mechanical or thermal analyzes are performed for critical parts
and optimization methods are used to maximize the performance. Finally, production is
analyzed for the resulting form and materials; the cost is determined and the process is
finalized [2]. The design process schemes developed by design experts are shown in the
following figures.
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Market Need
•
Figure 1. Design flow chart [2]
• Defining the features• Defining the function structure• Studying the method of
operation• Evaluation and Selection of the
concept
• Developing dimensions, scale andform
• Modelling and assembly analyses• Optimization of the functions• Evaluation and selection of the
size
• Detailed analysis of thecomponents
• Selection of production pathways• Optimization of performance and
costs• Preparation of technical drawings
Concept
Embodiment
Detail
Product Features
Iteration
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Figure 2. Systematic approach of Pahl and Beitz [1]
72
Figure 3. Pugh design process model [3]
73
Figure 4. Systematic approach to the design of Verein Deutscher Ingenieure technical systemsand products [4]
74
Figure 5. Johnson design process map [5]
75
Figure 6. French engineering design process model [6]
76
Figure 7. Dym design process [7]
77
Figure 8. Haik design process model [8]
1.2.1 The Concept
In the concept stage, which is the first step of the design, a process works as described below
[9]:
• The concept stage of the design process starts with the expansion of the problem and the
production of many potential solutions.
• Forming many opinions by the ideas of the design team
• Creating different concepts from different angles with a simple perspective
78
• The nature has solved problems in many forms and the methods used can often be changed
in solving engineering problems.
• By releasing imagination, concepts are accepted without criticism.
• Once many concepts have been created, these concepts are brought together to create an
optimum solution.
1.2.2 Forming
The forming process is the bridge between conceptual design and detail design during the
design phases. It aims to correct and develop the drafts created during the concept stage to the
extent that detailed design and production planning can begin. The result obtained from this
stage is a clear diagram drawing accompanied by documentation such as calculations,
required tolerances and recommended materials and production processes.
Figure 9 Decision process [10]
1.2.3. Detail Design
The next stage following the layout step is to consider the individual components and to
optimize their design or selection. In the detail design phase, the design of each component
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constituting the system is finalized and necessary drawings and documents are created for the
production stage.
Figure 10. Process flow diagram [11]
2.2. Types of Design
Design does not always need to start from scratch. Original design, includes a new idea or
working principle. New materials can add unique features to the original design. For example,
the high-purity silicon transistor has been activated, fiber-optic technology has been
developed using high-purity glass. A new product sometimes suggests a new material and
sometimes leads to the development of a new material. For example, nuclear technology has
led to the development of a number of new zirconium-based alloys, space technology has
80
encouraged the development of lighter compounds. Turbine technology has promoted the
development of high temperature alloys and ceramics. Adaptive or development design
adopts an existing concept and demands an increase in performance by improving the
operation principle. This is often possible with improvements in materials. The use of
polymers in household appliances instead of metals and the use of composites in sports
equipment instead of wood has bocome more common [9].
2.3. Design Tools and Material Data
Tools enable modeling and optimization of a design. It also facilitates the routine aspects of
the phases. Function modelers recommend applicable functional structures. Three-
dimensional solid modeling programs allow the creation of visual models and digitally
controllable files. Optimization and cost estimation programs help to analyze the details.
Finite element programs enable the structural and thermal analysis of the system, even if they
have complex geometries. As the design progresses, there is a natural progress in the use of
tools: an approximate analysis and modeling is achieved in conceptual phase; a more complex
modelling and optimization in the layout phase and a certain analysis and result in the detail
design phase. The concept "certain" is a situation that must be paid attention to, as a result it
must be known that nothing is certain [2].
Material selection is present at all stages of the design. The nature of the data needed in the
preliminary stages may vary greatly according to the needs in the following stages. In the
concept design phase, approximate features of the material are required. However, all options
are available for the widest range of materials possible. Even if their functions are the same,
polymer may be the best option for one, and the metal for another. There is no definitive
solution to the problem at this stage. Width (differences in terms of quality, feature) and
accessibility: The question of how a wide range of data can be presented in order to provide
the designer with the highest freedom in evaluating alternatives. It is necessary to benefit from
the selection systems that provide this.
All these operations are like choosing a bicycle. First, the best concept is determined (normal,
mountain, race, portable, etc.), the selection is limited to a subset. Then in the next detailed
selection phase; it is restricted to selections such as how many gears it will have, the shape of
the handlebar, brake type. At this point, a subset that meets not only the requests but also the
budget is identified, considering the balance between weight and cost. Finally, if the bike is
81
important to the person, the most appropriate bike is selected through the researches and
information obtained on the related websites, manufacturers and forums.
2.4. Function, Material, Form and Production
Selection of a material or process cannot be independent of the selection of form. We use the
word form for the external appearance (macro form) and internal structure (micro-form) of the
product. To achieve the form, products go through a series of processing steps such as casting,
machining, etc. Function, material, form and production interact with each other. The more
complex the design is, the tighter the features are and the more interactions exist between
function, material, form and production . The interaction between function, material, form and
process is central to the material selection process.
Figure 11. Interaction between function, material, production and form [2]
References1. Pahl, G.,Beitz, W., 2014.Engineeringdesign a systematicapproach, Springer,2. Ashby, M. F., 1999.Materialsselection in mechanicaldesign. Cambridge: Butterworth-Heinemann.3. Pugh, S., 1991. Total designintegratedmethodsforsuccessfulproductengineering. Addison-Wesley.4. Sapuan, S. M., 2017, Compozitematerialsconcurrentengineeringapproach, Butterworth-Heinemann.5. Johnson, R.C., 1978. Mechanicaldesignsynthesis. Krieger.6. French, M.J., 1971. Engineeringdesign: theconceptualstage. HeinemannEducational.7. Dym, C.L., 1994. Engineeringdesign: a synthesisviews. Cambridge UniversityPress
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8. Haik, Y., 2003. Engineeringdesignprocess. brooks/cole. Thomson Learning9. Hurst, K. S., 2004. Engineeringdesignprinciples. Elsevier.10. Wang, J. X.,Tang, M. X., Song, L. N., Jiang, S. Q., 2009, Design andimplementation of an agent-basedcollaborativeproductdesignsystem, Computers in Industry, 60:520-535.11. Hasby, F. H., Roller, D., Sharing of Ideas in a Collaborative CAD for ConceptualEmbodiment Design Stage, Procedia CIRP, 50: 44-51
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CHAPTER VII
MATERIAL SELECTION AND USE IN DESIGN
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Materials used mainly in engineering applications are; metals, composites, plastics, ceramics
and glass. Each type of material consists of many sub-headings in themselves. This wide
range of products has hundreds of materials that can fulfill a function. It is quite important to
determine the best material from this pool of options. Because, material selection plays a very
important role from the very beginning to the very end in the design of a product or system.
For the selection of the material, a way that can be appropriate for that design should be
followed. There are many software applications and systems for this. These tools help
designers and engineers to make the right decisions. Figure 1 shows the evolution of the
materials used in engineering over years.
Figure 1 Evolution of engineering materials over years [1]
All materials are included in the selection of materials at the beginning of the design process.
In the early stages of design, the decisive features allow a significant number of materials to
be eliminated and helps to narrow down the selection pool. Towards the final stages of design,
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a certain number of materials remain, and more information and features are needed to
determine the most appropriate of these materials. These steps are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Design flow diagram [1]
1.2 Material Selection Methods
Many parameters such as mechanical, thermal, electrical, corrosion resistance and cost play a
role in the selection of a material. Within the framework of the parameters determined for a
design, the selection process among multiple materials is considered as a multi-criteria
Market Need
Concept
Embodiment
Concept
Product
Design Tools
• Modelling thefunctionality
• Sustainabilitystudies
• Estimatedanalyses
• GeometricalDesign
• Simulation• Optimization
Methods• Estimating
costs• Modelling the
components• Finite Element
Analysis
Material Selection
• All materials (lowaccuracy data)
• Sub-set of materials (Highaccuracy data)
• Single material(Highest accuracydata possible)
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decision making (MCDM) problem [2]. In other words, it is developed to determine only one
alternative option according to multiple criteria. There are many MCDM methods used, which
are described in detail below.
Figure 3 Classification of screening methods in material selection [3]
1.2.1 Cost Per Unit Feature Method
Material cost is a very important criterion for selecting a specific material for a particular
application. Therefore, at the beginning of the material selection process, it is appropriate to
consider the cost as a target. In general, materials that are too expensive are excluded from
this stage of the material selection process in order to achieve the possible successful and
functional products. At the end of the material selection, there may be a compromise between
the cost and performance of the materials. However, the most valuable evaluation factor for
selecting a material is the cost per unit feature that can improve the design performance. In the
first elimination of materials for a particular application, a particular feature is often
determined as the most important service requirement to ensure functionality, this cost per
unit feature method is strongly recommended. In this case, we can estimate the cost that
provides the most important needs for various types of materials. Generally, the cost per unit
force is one of the most valuable criteria for a suitable mechanical performance of the
mechanical components, and lower costs per unit force material are desired. In this technique,
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only one feature is accepted as the most critical and eliminates others that limit its description
[4].
1.2.2 Survey Method
The survey method is used by many researchers. In terms of performance requirements, the
materials are divided into two main categories: rigid and soft. If all material types are
considered, the rigid requirements must be complied with. Such requirements are generally
taken into account in the initial selection stages of materials to eliminate the non-compliant
alternative groups. Edwards [6] has introduced some important questions to improve the
likelihood of obtaining a better design solution. These are;
Have all the specified material properties been achieved and determined?
Have all environmental issues been taken into account?
Have all economic restrictions been taken into account?
Will the design settings and requirements change over time?
Have the effects of material processing and production conditions been taken into account?
Have the results of quantities and the production rate of the components been effectively
considered?
Have the access to new raw materials been considered?
A question-oriented methodology has been developed for the properties of user-interaction of
the materials [7]. This method consists of a list of questions for different stages in user-
product interactions and a checklist of sensory features. In this technique, both customers and
product designers generally try to predict the interaction between the user and the new
product, from the first contact, to the phases of trying the product, transport, unpacking, and
use.
1.2.3 Material in Product Selection Method
The material in product selection method (MIPS) is a method that combines the user-product
interaction in the selection of materials. This method helps users to clearly identify their
requirements related to the component and help the user and the designer to build a common
way for products at the stage of the primary material selection [8].
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2. Ashby Charts
Material selection charts established by Ashby are important for the pre-screening of
materials. Cambridge Engineering Selector (CES) is a software program based on Ashby's
material selection procedure. In the field of mechanical design, these charts provide a simple
and quick way to evaluate whether a material is suitable for the current situation. The Ashby
charts method is easy to apply when the component design consists of a simple objective,
such as minimizing weight, and a single constraint, such as a certain hardness, strength, or
thermal conductivity. The most important limitation of the chart method is that the chart
restricts the choice of materials to a solution with two or three criteria. Thus, multi-criteria
decisions are made to solve this problem. The performance of a component depends on a
combination of features, rather than a single feature, for example, the components of a design
whose design components are lightness and heaviness are strength-heaviness and rigidity-
heaviness. According to this idea, a region in which one feature is against the other can be
drawn, this area has an area and a sub-area, the areas usually contain the material class, and in
the sub-areas are separate special materials.
For example; E, Young's modulus; ρ, plotted against density; ρ for various materials are
shown in Figure 3. This figure shows that heavy envelopes contain data for a particular
material class. It may also show preferred guides for minimizing the mass with a certain force
for a given design.
Figure 3 Ashby chart [1]
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3. Advanced Material Selection Techniques
Artificial intelligence is a computer-aided system used to solve complex structures by
processing scattered information. The working principle of this method is suitable for material
selection. Some software programs that focus on the creation of scanning algorithms that can
blend databases and optimize material selection processes have been developed for material
selection. These methods are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Material selection programs [9]
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3.1. Optimization Methods Used in Material Selection
Various mathematical modeling, computer simulations and genetic algorithms have been
developed to improve material selection processes. Some of the optimization methods used
are detailed below.
Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
The AHP method is one of the most commonly used methods in multi-criteria decision
making methods. It is specifically designed to optimize and select the most appropriate one
for solution from a range of alternatives. It also reduces errors while making decisions
through objective evaluation and also examines the consistency of assessments and
alternatives through a helpful mechanism used in examining alternatives. The AHP method
basically follows these three steps [10]:
Figure 5 The Typical AHP hierarchy [11]
In the problem with complex and too many parameters; the general objective should be at the
top, the criteria at the midlevel, and the alternatives showing little difference at the lowest
level.
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The second step consists of the comparison of the alternatives and criteria. After the hierarchy
is created in the first step, the scaling process is started around in order to determine the order
of importance of the criteria. Comparisons are done in two levels in pairs and this process
starts at the second level and ends at the lowest level. These comparisons are presented in
Table 1 [7].
Table 1. Nine-Level Importance Scale [12]
After ensuring that all decisions made in the final step are consistent through the consistency
check, the alternatives to the criteria measured in the hierarchy model are specified [10].
The Analytical Network Process (ANP)
The ANP method is a method first introduced by Saaty, which includes all the factors and
criteria that determine the best decision making in the system. The ANP method consists of
two parts. The first consists of a control hierarchy or a network of criteria and measures that
address the interactions in the system. The second is the interaction network between items
and sets. This network varies from criteria to criteria and a super matrix is calculated for each
criterion [13]. The steps of the ANP method are as follows [14]:
Establishing control hierarchy and network, identifying the interaction between items and
sets,
91
Creation of binary matrices related to elements and sets,
Derivation of priorities and creating a weightless super matrix with priorities,
Adjustment of weightless super matrix to weighted super matrix,
Limiting the weighted super matrix raising it to any major power by calculating the boundary
priorities,
Derivation of the ultimate priorities of the alternatives.
Figure 6. The Structure of the ANP and AHP methods [15]
Preferred Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE)
PROMETHEE method, proposed by Brans and Vincle [16], is simpler than the other multi-
criteria analysis methods used. This method requires the importance of the criteria and
decision-makers' preferences. The PROMETHEE method consists of six steps. These steps
are explained as follows [17]:
As shown in Figure 7, a function is defined for the general preference of each criterion.
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Figure 7. Extended selection functions of the PROMETHEE method [18]
The relative importance of each criterion should be measured with a predetermined weighted
vector. If the decision makers in the analysis consider them to be equally important criteria,
all weights are assumed to be equal. In this case, they do not need to be normalized using
weights, but may be at the discretion of the user.
93
Relationships that are more important for each alternative should be decided.
The preferred axes are used to evaluate the preference of the decision maker for an alternative
simultaneously. As a result, the preferred axis uses a weighted average function and a
function is generated as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Outranking Chart [19]
Calculation should be made to evaluate the strength of the alternative.
To evaluate the weakness of the alternative, the calculation is made using the superior
character.
High output flow and low input flow show the best alternative performance.
Multi Criteria Optimization and Compromise Method (VIKOR)
This method determines the compromise list and the solution obtained with the first (input)
values for multi-criteria optimization. This method focuses on sorting and selecting from a
range of alternatives in the presence of contradictory criteria. It introduces the multi-criteria
ranking index based on the measure of "proximity" to the ideal solution [20].
MCDM methods have been integrated into many other tools and techniques in the last year.
These integrations are mainly made with the aim of strengthening the MCDM methods to
more effectively address various decision problems [2]. MCDM methods such as ELECTRE,
BWM, TOPSIS and DEMATEL are also available.
References
1. Ashby, M. F., 2011. Materialsselection in mechanicaldesign. Cambridge: Butterworth-Heinemann.
94
2. M.H. Abolbashari., 2018. Thestratifiedmulti-criteriadecision-makingmethod.Knowledge-BasedSystems, 142: 127-148
3. Jahana, A.,Ismail, M.Y., 2009, Sapuanb, S.M., Mustapha, F.,Materialscreeningandchoosingmethods, Materialsand Design, 31: 696-705.
4. Al-Oqla, F. M.,Salit, M. S., 2017. MaterialsSelectionfor Natural Fiber Composites.Woodhead Publishing.
5. Kutz, M., 2002. Handbook of materialsselection. John Wiley&Sons6. Edwards, K., 2005 ,Selectingmaterialsfor optimum use in engineeringcomponents.
Materialsand Design, 26: 469–473.7. Dağdeviren, M., Yavuz, S., Kılınç, N., 2009, Weaponselectionusingthe AHP and
TOPSIS methodsunderfuzzyenvironment, ExpertSystemswith Applications, 36:8143-8151.
8. Van Kesteren, I.,Kandachar, P., Stappers, P. 2007, Activities in selectingmaterialsfromtheperspective of productdesigners, 1:83-103
9. D’Errico, F., 2015, MaterialSelectionsby a Hybrid Multi-CriteriaApproach. Springer.10. Al-Ogla, F.,Sapuan, S.M., Materialselection of natural fiber
compositesusingtheanalyticalhierarchyprocess, pp. 169-234, In: MaterialsSelectionforNatural Fiber Composites. ElsevierSciencePublishers
11. Dweiri, F., AL-Oqla, F. M., 2006. Materialselectionusinganalyticalhierarchyprocess.International Journal of Computer Applications in Technology, 26: 182-189.
12. Wang, J.,Yang, D., 2007, Using a hybridmulti-criteriadecisionaidmethodforinformationsystemsoutsourcing, ComputersandOperations Research, 34:3691-3700.
13. Gass, S.I., Fu, M. C., 2013, Encyclopedia ofoperationsresearchandmanagementscience, Springer.
14. Liao, H., Mi, X., Xu, Z., Xu, J., Herrera, F., 2018, Intuitionisticfuzzyanalytic networkprocess, IEEE Transactions on FuzzySystems, 26 (5) : 2578 – 2590.
15. Büyüközkan, G.,Çifçi, G., 2012, A novelhybrid MCDM approachbased on fuzzy DEMATEL, fuzzy ANP andfuzzy TOPSIS toevaluategreensuppliers,ExpertSystemswith Applications, 39(3): 3000-3011.
16. Brans, J. P.,Vincke, P., 1985, A preferencerankingorganisationmethod (theprometheemethodformultiplecriteriadecision-making), Informs, 31 (6): 647-656.
17. Tuzkaya, G., Gülsün, B., Kahraman, C, Özgen, D., 2010, An integratedfuzzymulti-criteriadecisionmakingmethodologyformaterialhandlingequipmentselection problemand an application, ExpertSystemswith Applications, 37(4): 2853-2863.
18. Gul, M.,Celik, E., Gumus, A. T., 2018, Guneri, A. F., A fuzzylogicbasedPROMETHEE methodformaterialselectionproblems, Beni-SuefUniversityJournal ofBasic andAppliedSciences, 7 (1): 68-79.
19. Geldermann, J.,Spengler, T., Rentz, O., 1998,Fuzzyoutrankingforenvironmentalassessment.Casestudy: ironandsteelmakingindustry,FuzzySetsandSystem, 115: 45-65
20. Sayadi, M. K.,Heydari, M., Shahanaghi, K., 2009, Extension of VIKOR
methodfordecisionmaking problem withintervalnumbers, Applied Mathematical
Modelling, 33(5): 2257-2262.
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CHAPTER VIII
ERGONOMIC PRODUCT DESIGN WITH QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT
APPROACH
1. Introduction
Competitive reactions and changing customer needs are applying an ever-increasing pressure
on firms to offer new superior products to the market and to reduce product development
cycle times. Firms need to increase the quality of the products and the efficiency of the new
product development process in order to offer new products to the market that will meet the
demands of customers in a quick way (Hjort, Hananel, & Lucas, 1992).
Ergonomics/human factors (used interchangeably) are based on a study of the Italian doctor
Ramazzini's bad posture and the negative effects of design on worker health in 1700s (Tayyari
& Smith, 1997). The term ergonomics was first used in an article by Polish scientist Wojciech
Jastrzebowski in 1857 (Seminara, 1979). This term is derived from the words ergon (business)
and nomos (principle or law), which means the science of business (Jastrzebouski, 2000).
Ergonomics is a scientific discipline that focuses on the health and performance of human
beings, in order to adapt more work to human beings, and aims to maximize the harmony
between human beings, the environment in which they are doing their work and the objects
they use (Tayyari & Smith, 1997; Dul et al., 2012; Pheasant, 2014). Thus, the instrument,
system, or work space design with which a person interacts is within the scope of ergonomics
(Pheasant, 2014).
In general, ergonomics is divided into three categories as physical, cognitive, and
organizational. Physical ergonomics covers anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical
properties of human being; cognitive ergonomics covers memory, perception, information
processing, logical thinking, and decision-making phenomenon between people and systems;
organizational ergonomics covers socio-technical system optimization including
organizational structures, policies and processes (Karwowski, 2012; Sun, Houssin, Renaud, &
Gardoni, 2018).
Efforts to integrate ergonomic principles into engineering design with the help of various
design methodologies have been carried out for many years (Sun et al., 2018). Of these
methodologies, Quality Function Deployment (QFD), whose final output is customer
satisfaction, emerges as an important approach (Zhang, Yang, & Liu, 2014).
QFD was first introduced to design new products by Yoji Akao in Japan in 1966 (Y.Akao,
1990). The initial costs of new products in Toyota, the Japanese automotive company, fell
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by 61% in 1984 compared to 1977 thanks to QFD; new product development delivery time
decreased by 1/3; and product quality has improved significantly (Sullivan, 1986; Herrmann,
Huber, Algesheime, & Tomczak, 2006). After Toyota's success, QFD has rapidly spread to
the rest of the world since the late 1980s (Akao & Mazur, 2003). QFD is now widely used in
Japan, Europe, and America by various industries including electronics, manufacturing,
services, and software.
2. Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
QFD can be defined as a method that assures quality at every stage of the new product
development process and transforms customer needs into product characteristics (Sullivan,
1986; Lockamy & Khurana, 1995). Although QFD can be used in different stages of the new
product development process, it is generally integrated into the design stage of the system
(Sullivan, 1986; Lockamy & Khurana, 1995). Urban & Hauser, 1993; Nijssen & Frambach,
2000).
The first generation of the QFD model is the "Matrix of Matrices", with thirty matrixes and
created by Dr.Akao (Cohen, 1995; Jiang, Shui, & Tu, 2008). Second generation of the QFD
model is the Comprehensive QFD that starts with Akao and consists of seventeen matrixes,
and provides technology, cost, and reliability as well as quality deployment. This model is
less complicated than the first generation model and is generally used by Japanese companies
(Cristiano, Liker, & White, 2000). The "four-phase model", was first developed by
Dr.Makabe, a Japanese reliability engineer; it is also known as the Clausing model (Daetz,
1990; Bickness & Bicknell, 1995). This model was popular with the American Supplier
Institute (ASI), and includes four matrices (Daetz, 1990; Bickness & Bicknell, 1995).
Therefore, it takes less time to understand and apply than the first generation model (Bickness
& Bicknell, 1995). American firms generally implement this model (Cristiano et al., 2000;
Jiang et al., 2008). The first phase connects customer needs (Whats) to the engineering
characteristics (Hows); the second phase connects engineering characteristics to the
component characteristics; third phase connects component characteristics to key process
operations; the fourth phase connects key process operations to production requirements
(Urban & Hauser, 1993; Cohen, 1995). The ’Hows‘ part of a phase is the ’Whats‘ part of the
next phase; thus, the customer's voice is deployed throughout the production and is reflected
in the design (Urban & Hauser, 1993). The first phase is often referred to as the "House of
Quality (HOQ)", and is the most commonly used matrix in both Japan and America (Cohen,
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1995; Cristiano et al., 2000). This phase is critical and difficult as it requires identifying root
customer requests (Sullivan, 1986).
2.1.House of Quality (HOQ)
Sources show that a typical HOQ covers six main sections, as shown in Figure 1 (Sullivan,
1986; Hauser & Clausing, 1988; Cohen, 1995).
E. Technical CorrelationMatrix
Figure 1. House of Quality (HOQ) (Hauser & Clausing, 1988; Cohen, 1995)
A. Customer needs. The data on customer needs are collected through focus groups,
interviews, surveys and internet reviews and interpreted by the new product development
team (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015). As a result, approximately 200-400 customer needs can be
obtained (Urban & Hauser, 1993). In the next step, since it will be difficult to work with a list
containing about 400 customer needs, customer requirements are categorized into primary,
secondary, and tertiary requirements, mostly by affinity diagrams, tree diagrams, and
hierarchical cluster analysis tools (Griffin & Hauser, 1993; Eppinger & Ulrich, 2015).
Tertiary customer needs are normally used in the house of quality (Urban & Hauser, 1993).
C. Engineering Characteristics (Hows)
B. Planning Matrix• Customer Level of Importance (Ranking
the customer needs according to priority)• Competitive Analysis• Purpose• Progress Rate• Sales Point• Raw Weight• Normalized Raw Weight
D. Relationship Matrix
F. Technical Matrix¸Ranking according to technical priority¸Technical Evaluation¸PurposesA. Customer Needs
(Whats)
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B. Planning Matrix. The planning matrix consists of the subsections of ranking
customer needs by level of importance, competitive analysis, objective, progress rate, point of
sale, raw weight, and normalized raw weight (Akao, 1990; Chan & Wu, 2002).
In order to rank customer needs by level of importance, customers are generally asked to rank
customer needs according to specific scale (1 to 5, 1 to 7, 1 to 9, or 1 to 10; 5, 7, 9, and 10
being the most important) through electronic mail surveys (Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002).
In recent years, quantitative techniques such as Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) , fuzzy
logic theory, Analytic Network Process (ANP) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) had a
growing trend in QFD applications (Carnevalli & Miguel, 2008).
The competitive analysis section includes the rating of both the existing firm and its
competitors in terms of customer satisfaction (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995). The existing firm's
rating determines the performance of that firm, and reveals whether the existing product or
service meets customer needs (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). The customer is
asked a questionnaire with a four-, five-, six-, or ten-point scale as to whether he is satisfied
with the product or service of the firm (Cohen, 1995). The weighted average performance
score for each customer is calculated and used in the HOQ (Cohen, 1995). However, the
distribution of customers' answers is important for using the correct value in the matrix
(Cohen, 1995). If distribution is unimodal, the weighted average performance score can be
used (Cohen, 1995). If the distribution is not unimodal, the weighted average performance
score may not represent all customers and the distribution may indicate a different customer
segment (Cohen, 1995).
• Weighted Average Performance =
Although difficult to determine, the new-product development team must understand how
well competitors meet customer needs (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995). If the team knows the
firm's strengths and weaknesses against its competitors, the firm's strategic goals can be better
determined and the firm becomes more competitive (Chan & Wu, 2002). The data can be
obtained through mail, telephone, electronic mail, and web-based surveys. The performance
can be rated using a numerical scale; however, both the customer and the competitive
performance data need to be seen in the same way in QFD to be able to make a comparison
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(Cohen, 1995). The performance values can be seen in the planning matrix either numerically
such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or graphically (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). Graphical
presentation provides a rapid visual assessment (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995).
On the basis of the values obtained in the competitive analysis in the section Objective and
Progress Rate, the team decides to which customer needs more attention should be paid and
determines the strategic objectives accordingly, which is very important in QFD
(Franceschini, 2002). The company's resources, costs, and time targets, and the current
technology should be taken into account when determining objectives (Chan & Wu, 2002).
The rating scale to be used for strategic objectives should be compatible with the competitive
analysis (Franceschini, 2002). The rate of progress is achieved by dividing the objective by
the existing firm rating, and this rearranges the importance of customer needs (Franceschini,
2002).
Progress Rate = Objective / Current Company Ranking (2)
However, there are some contradictions associated with this formula (Cohen, 1995). When the
current rating of the firm is too low, the progress rate will be quite high, which will make the
final significance higher (Cohen, 1995). In other words, bringing the firm rating from 4 to 5 is
more difficult than bringing it from 1 to 2, but it increases arithmetically with ratings of 1, 2,
or 3 (Cohen, 1995). Thus, from an alternative point of view, some QFD teams skips the step
of objectives and enters three values into the Progress Rate (1-no change, 1.2-medium
difficulty progress, 1.5-hard progress) (Cohen, 1995).
The point of sale identifies the best opportunities to improve sales and demonstrates that if
certain customer needs are met, the firm will gain a competitive advantage (Bickness &
Bicknell, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002). Usually, three values are used for points of sale: 1: no
competitive advantage or no sales; 1.2: little competitive advantage or moderate sales; 1.5:
strong competitive advantage or strong sales (Akao, 1990; Chan & Wu, 2002). No
competitive advantage means no selling opportunity; little competitive advantage means no
big sale opportunity (Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002). A strong competitive advantage
suggests big sales opportunities; which means the company and its competitors are poorly
rated in terms of performance levels (Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002).
In the raw weight section, the raw weight for each customer need can be calculated with the
following formula (Akao, 1990):
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RawWeight = (Customer Level of Importance) * (Progress Rate) * (Point of Sale) (3)
Raw weight helps the new-product development team sort their customer needs by their
importance and allocate resources to customer needs that will bring high profits to the firm
(Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002).
In the normalized raw weight part, the calculated value varies from 0 to 1 or can be explained
in percentage (Cohen, 1995).
Normalized Raw Weight = Raw Weight / Total Raw Weight (4)
C. Engineering Characteristics. In this step, each customer need (What) is turned
into one or more engineering characteristics (Hows) (Day, 1993; Urban & Hauser, 1993). If
time is a critical factor, this process can be initiated without waiting for the completion of the
planning matrix (Day, 1993).
First, the team determines the possible characteristics that respond to the customer's voice
using a fishbone diagram by brainstorming; the aim here is not to find the possible reasons for
solving the problem but to record the characteristics (Day, 1993; Cohen, 1995). There may be
too many engineering characteristics, which can increase the number of columns and the
complexity of the matrix (Day, 1993). Furthermore, the competitive technical evaluation data
will require many tests and relationship matrices will require a lot of effort (Day, 1993). As a
rule of thumb, the ratio of engineering characteristics to customer needs must be between 1
and 1.5 (Day, 1993). Thus, the team can utilize affinity or tree diagrams to create a
hierarchical structure with various levels in organizing engineering characteristics (Cohen,
1995; Chan & Wu, 2002). The affinity diagram organizes functions in ascending order while
the tree diagram organizes them in descending order (Cohen, 1995). Accordingly, the team
can select the appropriate level of functional detail that they want to work with (Cohen, 1995).
Higher levels lead to a less detailed, faster analysis, which could be an advantage in the
strategic analysis (Cohen, 1995).
The engineering characteristics must be measurable and entered into the matrix with
measurable units such as gr/m2, seconds, volts, miles/gallons (Day, 1993; Chan & Wu, 2002).
Thus, many design concept alternatives can be analyzed simultaneously without making
prototypes, which accelerates the decision making process (Day, 1993).
Additionally, the aspects of goodness such as "More is Better’, "Less is Better",’ "We target
the best" must be determined (Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002). The team can target infinity
in the case of "More is Better" (Cohen, 1995). However, it is not possible to reach high
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numerical goals like eternity in practice (Cohen, 1995). Thus, the team must determine both
achievable and competitive target values (Cohen, 1995). In the case of "Less is better", the
target is zero; rarely minus infinite (Cohen, 1995). "We target the best" means reaching
exactly the closest possible value to the nominal value (Cohen, 1995).
D. The Relationship Matrix. The relationship matrix provides a link between
customer needs and engineering characteristics; wherein each cell represents the strength of
the relationship (Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002). The first adapters of QFD used the scale of
0, 1, 3, 5, or 0, 1, 2, 4, from zero to stronger (Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002). However, this
scale did not sufficiently emphasize a strong relationship with others, and the final order of
importance was crucial in this new-product development process (Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu,
2002). Therefore, the "0, 1, 3, 9" measurement scale has been developed, and commonly used
(Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002). In the scale; 9, represents a strong; 3, a moderate; 2, a
weak relationship, and 0, indicates that no relationship exists (Day, 1993; Cohen, 1995; Chan
& Wu, 2002). The Japanese prefer the numerical values of 0, 1, 3, 5, or 0, 1, 2, 4 (Bickness &
Bicknell, 1995). Symbols can also be used to represent the impact of each engineering
characteristic on each customer's need (Day, 1993; Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002).
Symbols that can be used for a four-degree relationship are; <space> - no relationship, D-
weak relationship, O- moderate relationship, and ù- strong relationship (Chan & Wu, 2002).
An engineering characteristic may positively affect a need, but have a negative impact on
another, which could contribute to the complication of that characteristic (Cohen, 1995).
Cohen (1995), proposed to use the scale "-9, -3, -1, 0" to demonstrate negative effects on the
relationship matrix; here -9: strong negative, -3: medium negative, -1: weak negative, and 0:
no relationship. The total value is entered both in algebraical and absolute value for each
column in the matrix (Cohen, 1995). If the difference between these two values is large, the
team cannot ignore the negative effects; may neglect negative effects if small (Cohen, 1995).
However, the best solution is to find the potential characteristics that have a positive effect
rather than negative characteristics (Cohen, 1995).
E. The Technical Correlation Matrix. The technical correlation matrix shows how
and to what extent the HOQ's roof, and engineering characteristics (Hows) influence each
other, and the direction of this interaction (Day, 1993; Cohen, 1995). This effect can result in
serious effects on the development effort (Cohen, 1995). The negative effect of a
characteristic on others leads to a barrier in the design process; which can be overcome by
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findings (Cohen, 1995). Symbols used to determine the correlations in general are: √√- strong
positive effect, √- medium positive effect, <space> - no effect, X - medium negative effect,
XX - strong negative effect (Day, 1993; Cohen, 1995; Chan & Wu, 2002 ). The symbols can
be shown with an arrow indicating the direction of the effect (Cohen, 1995). Related arrows:
Æ- left to right, ¨- right to left,1 - bidirectional effect (Cohen, 1995).
In the new-product development process; the team will discuss, in this part of the matrix in
the design, the trade-offs and potential barriers that may go undetected later (Bickness &
Bicknell, 1995). Moreover, in the later stages of the new-product development process, design
changes could cause rework, and double the costs in terms of money, resources, and time
(Bickness & Bicknell, 1995).
F. The Technical Matrix. The technical matrix consists of the sub-sections of
technical prioritization, technical evaluation, and objectives.
In the technical prioritization sub-section, after finishing the relationship matrix, the
contribution of each engineering characteristic to total customer satisfaction is determined and
entered into the lower part of the HOQ matrix (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). In
order to calculate the absolute weight, first; the degree of importance of normalized raw
weight or related need for the relevant customer need is multiplied by the impact value of the
related engineering characteristic corresponding to the relevant need; which gives the value of
the relationship of that cell (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). The same logic is used
to calculate all relationship values (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). Then, all
relationship values are added up for each characteristic (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen,
1995). Thus, the team can determine the key engineering characteristics and make better
decisions on resource allocation by considering these values (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995;
Cohen, 1995). It would be best to normalize the resulting contribution so that they can be
more workable in the next matrix (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995).
In the technical assessments section, before setting goals, the team should determine how well
the competitors meet their engineering requirements and compare the performance of their
products with those of their competitors for each engineering characteristic (Bickness &
Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). Thus, the team can recognize any potential technical deficiency
or superiority and decide on the strategy they need to follow (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995;
Cohen, 1995). Usually, the five-point scale is used and the resulting values are placed after
the technical prioritization under HOQ (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). Since the
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data is normally kept confidential by competitors, firms can purchase and review competitors'
products to obtain technical performance data in the assessment (Chan & Wu, 2002).
The objectives section follows the technical prioritization and assessment (Bickness &
Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). The team can set goals to better allot the company's resources,
to be better at competition, to follow the competition, or to allow competition leadership
(Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). It is better not to continue the project for the team
when they realize that the target values for key engineering characteristics that direct a design
or service cannot be achieved (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995; Cohen, 1995). Each target should
have a range or a specific value, and be measurable (Bickness & Bicknell, 1995). The
experimental design can be used to validate the target value and the methodology behind it
(Bickness & Bicknell, 1995).
3. Integrating Ergonomics to the New-Product Design through the Quality Function
Deployment Approach
The ultimate goal of QFD is to design customer-oriented products with a cross-functional
team perspective by reducing product development cycle time and cost and improving quality
(Clausing, 1992; Cristiano et al., 2000). The QFD helps to prevent the redesign of products
and production systems, waste effort and time until the needs are met with the full
understanding of customer needs at the first time (Clausing, 1992). The QFD also causes a
common language between units of an organization thus increasing communication between
units (Terninko, 1997; Herrmann et al., 2006).
Zhang et al. (2014) used QFD's house of quality to reveal critical design problems by
integrating ergonomics into the design of a ceiling hood and hob. Zhang et al. (2014)
identified fifteen ergonomics-oriented customer needs, including criteria such as safety,
comfort, ease of use, appearance, form, adequacy, effectiveness and functionality, and
developed four ergonomic design alternatives at the end of their work.
Marsot (2005) developed five different kitchen knife designs using QFD's house of quality. In
this study, house of quality has allowed the ergonomics-related customer expectations (no
harm to the person, no pain, suitable for use with food, etc.) and ergonomic characteristics
(shape of the knife, etc.), as well as other engineering characteristics to be integrated into the
design, and enabled ergonomics to be considered more in product designs.
Prasad, Prasad, Gireesh, & Chaitanya (2018) designed an ergonomic drawing table for
students suffering from musculoskeletal disorders while using the existing desks by using
their anthropometric data, with the help of QFD's house of quality. In this study, the Nordic
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Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ) and Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA)
questionnaire were used to determine user needs and design requirements (engineering
characteristics) (Prasad et al., 2018). NMQ and RULA are commonly used in ergonomic
studies to analyze musculoskeletal disorders in humans and to determine the level of disorder
(Prasad et al., 2018). As a result of the study, the RULA assessment for the newly designed
drawing table was found to be better than the previous one (Prasad et al., 2018). Demirbilek &
Demirkan (2004) has designed an ergonomic inner door knocker by using QFD's house of
quality, forming a team of designers and engineers as well as ergonomists.
However, Sun et al. (2018) reported that the integration of ergonomics at the early design
stage can result in a satisfying product, but that too much time could be lost in terms of data
collection and analysis. Additionally, they explained that the later ergonomics is integrated
into the design, the more design repetitions it causes, and that design changes can become
more complex over time (Sun et al., 2018).
The main difficulties with the QFD are too large matrices contained in the QFD, the lack of
QFD experience, lack of understanding of key customer needs and the lack of necessary
support for the QFD by the top management since they consider the QFD as a cost (Griffin &
Hauser, 1993; et al., 2000; Augusto & amp; Miguel, 2003).
According to a 1986 study by the Japan Quality Control Association, companies in Japan
need about 6 years to spread the QFD to the whole organization and 2 years to systematize it
(Cristiano et al., 2000; Augusto, Cauchick, & Carnevalli, 2008). This means a long time
(Cristiano et al., 2000; Augusto, Cauchick, & Carnevalli, 2008).
4. Result
Studies show that QFD increases communication between team members by allowing a
common language between ergonomists and other members of the new-product development
team (designer, engineer, etc.) (Demirbilek & Demirkan, 2004; Marsot, 2005; Zhang et al. ,
2014; Prasad et al., 2018). In addition, it is reported that ergonomic principles are considered
more in product design thanks to the QFD (Demirbilek & Demirkan, 2004; Marsot, 2005;
Zhang et al., 2014; Prasad et al., 2018). However, the QFD applications in the literature end
with the completion of the first phase HOQ (Cristiano et al., 2000; Demirbilek & Demirkan,
2004; Marsot, 2005; Prasad et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2014). This causes to gain less benefit
from the QFD (Cohen, 1995; Cristiano et al., 2000). Too large matrices, failure to understand
key customer needs and spending too much time are the main downsides of the QFD
(Cristiano et al., 2000).
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As a result, QFD has emerged as a methodology to assist the new-product development team
in integrating ergonomic knowledge into product design with the positive and negative sides it
presents.
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Hauser, J. R., & Clausing, D. (1988). The house of quality. Harvard Business Review, 66(3).
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CHAPTER IX
SMART DESIGN AND SMART SYSTEMS
Smart designs and smart systems are as old as humanity. The Millennia before the invention
of writing, the first producers benefited from the characteristics of locally available materials
to make things that make their lives better. The oldest known arrowhead is more than 60,000
years old, and was found in the territory of Armenia today; it was made cutting off flint and
sticking it to a wooden shaft with marrow glue. To make this object, the human designer took
several steps: to anticipate an object to serve a purpose; to plan a series of actions to do this;
to collect and operate raw materials; to gather, test and reprocess these materials until they
serve they purpose; and, finally, to put them together for good use. These fundamental
actions, which turn an intangible idea into something concrete, are the essence of making and
the design-product cycle. Designs and the science related to it has gradually evolved to the
present day. The first instrument was made about 42,000 years ago; ceremonial masks, 9,000
years ago; and leather shoes, 5,500 years ago. The designers have developed more functional
inventions, and used more sophisticated tools and materials, and they created things that met a
range of human needs such as warmth, protection, shelter, comfort, luxury and joy when they
coordinated with others. Today, production has become transformed into a network of
materials impossibly connected to each other, and a network of designers' predictions for
architects, engineers, manufacturers, builders, installers, distributors and retailers.
Collectively, global production and construction sectors use one fourth of the world's
population and produce more than $ 30 trillion each year. From where and how does
everything come? When you look around; each object you see - the table, the chair, the floor,
the window, the lanterns, the physical book or the electronic device you hold - is designed,
produced, assembled, and now have reached the place where it is located. Human beings have
a remarkable ability to make the best decisions about broad environmental knowledge. The
research is concerned with creating computational models that simulate abstraction, reasoning
and creation skills of humans during architectural design, and this is important for two
reasons; the first point is that the computational models allow better understanding of the
processes occurring in the human mind, enabling a better understanding of each design's
functionality. The second point is that it supports a human decision maker with strong and
”smart” assistance during difficult tasks that are beyond the decision of human. Decisions in
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design and engineering, in particular, are difficult to make because of the increasing
complexity of the following three problems [1]:
The softness results from the need to represent a number of detailed features of an
environment through a few quantities, so the models include many nonlinear relationships
between variables. Some objects take relatively short journeys made of one or two simple
items. Carved wooden parquet or glass vases have passed through a narrow course along the
supply chain, handled by only a few people. These objects, which are considered simple and
original, are very useful for crafting. Other objects emerge from supply chains that resemble
complex spider webs. A refrigerator needs hundreds of components from dozens of
manufacturers. Modern cars can have more than 30,000 individual components, with each of
which hundreds or thousands of miles are produced. Figure 1 shows the design factors of a
clock within the scope of smart design. It contains the factory floor, mobile phones and more
than half of the periodic table including unimaginable elements such as yttrium, lanthanum,
praseodymium, and neodymium from remote locations.
Figure 1. An Example of "Smart “Approach in the Smart Watch Concept [2]
The inclusion of several independent variables that make up a solution means an excess of
possible solutions to be investigated within a limited period of time. These issues make it very
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difficult to reach the most appropriate solutions. When advanced computational methods are
used to address the complexity that is the subject of computational intelligence-based study
presented here, it is emphasized that this difficulty is reduced. In particular, the methods in
computational intelligence field, such as evolutionary, neural, and fuzzy computing, are used
to deal with soft and contradictory targets, rigid constraints, and vast areas of solution. As a
result, the solutions are guaranteed to achieve the goals while eliminating the restrictions. This
quality assurance is highly desirable in the face of resource depletion and increased demand
for engineering and design products, and will become more important in the future, in
proportion to the increase in the complexity of real-world designs and decisions. Figure 2
shows the historical development of key in terms of smart design.
Figure 2. Rationalism and Development in Design Approach [1,2]
Smart design means a community of scientists, philosophers and other scholars who seek a
scientific research program as well as evidence of design in nature. The theory of smart
design shows that certain features of the universe and living things are best explained through
a smart reason, but not through an unguided process such as natural selection. Through the
study and analysis of the components of a system, a design theorist can determine whether
various natural structures are coincidental products, naturally-made, smart design or a
combination of these. Such research is carried out by observing the types of information
generated when smart agents act. Scientists then try to find objects of the same kind of
knowledge that we know. The smart design has been applied to determine these scientific
methods, the design in irreducibly complex biological structures, the complex and determined
information content in DNA, the life-sustaining physical architecture of the universe, and the
origin of geologically fast biological diversity in the fossil records in the Cambrian period.
Figure 3 presents the design-centric products, smart system development stakeholders.
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Figure 3. "Smart" in Design-Centered Product Development [3]
The smart design theory, empirically and in random variations, tries to determine whether
"the visible design" (the product of a smart reason) in nature, accepted by almost all
biologists, is real design or it is only a product of a non-oriented process such as natural
selection. Creationism typically begins with a religious text and tries to see how scientific
findings can be compatible with it. Smart design begins with the empirical evidence of nature
and tries to determine what implications can be drawn from this evidence. Contrary to
creationism, the scientific theory of smart design does not argue that modern biology can
define whether the smart reason determined by science is supernatural or not [3].
The honest critics of smart design recognize the difference between smart design and
creationism. Ronald Numbers, the historian of science at the University of Wisconsin,
acknowledges that smart design is of critical importance, but "the creationist tag is wrong
when it comes to the ID [Intelligent Design] movement" according to the Associated Press.
"Why are some Darwinists holding them? Are you trying to combine smart design with
creationism? According to Dr. Numbers, these claims are “the easiest way to underestimate
the reputation of smart design". In other words, the claim that smart design is "creationism" is
a rhetorical strategy of Darwinists who want to authorize [1].
The scientific method is generally defined as a four-stage process that includes observations,
hypotheses, experiments and results. Smart design begins with the observation that smart
agents produce complex and specific information (CSI). Design theorists assume that, if a
natural object is designed, it will contain a high level of CSI. Scientists then conduct
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experimental tests on natural objects to determine whether they contain complex and defined
information. An easily testable CSI type is the irreducible complexity that can be
experimentally explored by reverse engineering biological structures to see whether it requires
the operation of all of the parts. When identity researchers find irreducible complexity in
biology, they conclude that such structures are designed [2].
SMART SYSTEMS
In order to be effective, smart systems must be instrumental, interconnected and intelligent.
Instrumentation enables timely, high-quality data collection through built-in sensors that
communicate over wireless or wired networks. Instrumented devices such as smart meters for
gas, electricity and water continuously monitor the supply and demand of these plants and can
mobilize strategies developed by smart components. Interconnection creates links between
data, systems, and people. A high degree of interconnectivity makes smart systems a reality.
The links between people, objects and systems provide new ways of gathering, sharing and
acquiring information. New computing models, algorithms, and intelligence in advanced
analytics format will provide better decisions and results for intelligence, businesses,
governments, non-profit organizations and individual users and allow complex systems to
respond to emerging demands. Connected smart objects will produce tremendous amount of
useful data to enable the development, implementation and use of intelligent products and
services, whether they are embedded, mobile, or wearable. These data must be combined with
analytical models in order for them to be useful. Public safety, e-commerce, transportation,
production, energy and water management, environmental sustainability, medical diagnostics
and treatments, and models that can boost education and training provide better results and
lower costs. Indeed, the Internet of Things and smart cities are becoming the main areas of IT-
assisted innovation, with destructive capabilities for innovation and competitive advantage. IT
Professional focuses on intelligent systems by applying it to four areas related to systems. It
can provide a type of intelligence that can obtain, model and use data from real-time or near
real-time data. It covers an intelligent content-conscious suggestion system for e-commerce,
intelligent expert-based systems powered by semantic technologies, intelligent systems for
information modeling and energy management in a smart city context, and ultimately the
smart poliglot health information system. Figure 4 illustrates the development and interaction
of smart systems in design branding.
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Figure 4. Branding Process with Smart Design Approach [3]
SMART RECOMMENDER SYSTEM
E-commerce recommender systems (RSs) are widely used by online vendors to facilitate
purchasing decisions. The user's real-time state-of-mind and budget considerations are
contextually relevant to the decision-making process for consumers with purchasing
experience. In their article "Context Adaptation for Smart Recommender Systems", Fanjuan
Shi, Chirine Ghedira and Jean-Luc Marini propose a smart suggestion model that can
determine the state of mind and budget targets of users based on their click-status data. Their
models have been distributed on a French e-commerce site for comparative A/B testing.
Modern SCs can offer personalized suggestions based on past searches and shopping
behavior. Such suggestions can increase the sales of design-related websites and improve
customer satisfaction. However, efforts to improve RS-driven click-through rates (CTRs) and
purchasing rates for suggested products are typically lower than expected. Researchers
explain that RS's effectiveness is not only related to recommendation algorithms and user
interfaces, but also to contextual factors that mediate purchasing decisions of users. In a
marketing context, content is the relevant information that characterizes the state of the
person, place, or object in relation to the interaction between the user and the application. This
study defines the context as users' real-time state of mind (RSOM) and current budget. An
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approach to RSOM and budgeting using click data constitutes the main focus of this research.
Click-through data is a record of the online behavior of the users, which uses other measures
to evaluate the times, browsing methods, previous website visits, page requests, mouse
actions, keystrokes and intentions and decision-making process of the users, and which is
collected without notice during web browsing. The e-commerce site in question sells a wide
range of consumer products. The study includes CAMARS, a content-sensitive version of the
MARS RS. CAMARS adds a real-time state-of-mind detector (RSOMD) and a user's budget
estimator (UBE) to the current recommender system (RS). To validate their models, the
researchers conducted a live A / B experiment to measure the performance of MARS and
CAMARS. In any case, the trial confirmed that integrating users' state-of-mind and budget
contexts into RS could significantly increase the use of RS. Additionally, the users looked
through more actively proposed items, and the CTR of MARS fluctuated while the CTR of
CAMARS continued to improve. The context-sensitive smart recommender system approach
should be considered by online marketers who want to improve customer satisfaction, loyalty
and sales performance. Figure 5 shows the design-related smart system relationship.
Figure 5. The Big Picture In Smart Design [3]
INFORMATION MODELING AND MANAGEMENT
The study on Smart Design, conducted by Edoardo Patti, Amos Ronzino, Anna Osello,
Vittorio Verda, Andrea Acquaviva and Enrico Macii, highlights the smart system example of
a real-time District Information Modeling and Management (DIMMER) framework for
Energy Reduction in the chapter "Regional Information Modeling and Energy Management ".
It covers the heterogeneous use of energy for buildings in the district, the distribution of
heating and the use of the electricity grid, data processing and remote visualization. The data
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is accessed through common devices and sensor networks used in every building that
monitors and manages energy use. Middleware, considering the integration of information
one of the main obstacles in energy management systems, provides interoperability for
information exchange between various data sources. Information is collected, analyzed and
stored in a distributed smart digital archive that provides intelligence for energy management
across the district. In this way, regional energy production and consumption data are
generated to inform about the control policies that may benefit from local building features
and usage patterns to increase the awareness of energy using behavior in users and to reduce
energy use and carbon emissions. In a smart city context, this information supports the
development of innovative business models for sustainable energy production and use. A
similar approach can be applied to the district-level water resources. The application of such
smart systems requires a distributed architecture that enables a combined use of regional
energy sources and that generates data on environmental conditions and user feedback data.
The integration of these real-time data provides widespread and real-time feedback that could
have an impact on new policies and business models in terms of energy use behaviors. In
order to achieve the relevant objectives, the study presents the DIMMER platform from the
perspective of architectural infrastructure. DIMMER, requires real-time data collection,
advanced middleware software for data integration, synchronized communication, user social
behavior profile, energy efficiency and cost analysis engine and a web interface that includes
sustainable user services and sustainable energy. Researchers report that a successful
implementation of the DIMMER model reduces energy use for heating by 80 MWh/day.
SMART PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The production environment is rapidly changing with the increase in real-time information
from smart production management systems. The advantage of such systems is the dynamic
resolution of unexpected destructive events that can greatly affect production efficiency.
Interruption can be caused by industrial accidents, earthquakes, tsunamis, massive storms and
other weather events. However, over a longer period of time, it is competitive dynamics and
technological change that can have a greater impact on production, more precisely, the
viability of the company that can ruin the market. Figure 6 presents the development of smart
data collection devices from past to present.
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Figure 6. Development of Smart Information Sensors [2]
Despina Meridou, Andreas Kapsalis, Maria Eleftheria Papadopoulou, Emmanouil Karamanis,
Charalampos Patrikakis, Iakovos Venieris and Dimitra-Theodora Kaklamani are discussing
the ARUM project for tactical and operational planning, scheduling and real-time
optimization systems in their study "Smart Production Management Systems Based on
Ontology". The aim is to support efficient, real-time event management that can affect
production, including availability of employees, high priority or large orders, accidents and
failures. The ARUM project uses a multi-component technology to develop a complex system
(SoS) that serves as a mass of programmers. The principles of mass simplify the system
design by organizing multi-factor planning tools in a holonic way to coordinate
interconnected programs across a factory or company. A holonic production system is a
paradigm emerged for the agile production. 2 In general, these multi-component systems
consist of a number of individual agents that contribute to the system through autonomous
calculation within each agent and through communication between agents. The resulting joint
functionality aims to exceed the independent movement capacity of each factor. The
intelligence of the system is a function of trusting a common dictionary shared by all tools
and services distributed on the ARUM platform. the ARUM is an smart production
management system that aims to fill the gap in real-time decision-making capacity for
resource allocation.
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It provides programming and optimization in existing enterprise resource planning solutions
that cannot handle highly complex customized products and variable production
environments. The ARUM platform is directed to address three using scenarios: new product
growth in Infineon Technologies, production in small lots and timing of wafer production.
The performance of ARUM is analyzed in comparison with the existing old systems [2].
POLICLOT HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEMS, AN EXAMPLE OF SMART
SYSTEMS;
In "A Smart Polyglot Solution for Big Data in Health", an important study on smart systems,
Karamjit Kaur and Rinkle Rani argue that the health sector cannot rely entirely on traditional
data storage methods. It is clear that the diversity and high volume of data, usually part-time
or unstructured, requires a new approach, when coupled with trust that is critical to real-time
information. Database solutions that support scalability, schema-free storage, and analytical
processing should be designed to improve the capacity of relational databases. Non-relational
databases are more suitable for modeling and storing clinical data in electronic medical
records (EMRs). Non-relational (NoSQL) or cloud databases are ideal for storing large
amounts of semi-structured data in nested structures with high amounts of detail, scalability,
and real-time properties. Relational databases, with ACID properties, are reported to be more
suitable for financial transactions such as patient billing, payroll, pharmacy records, and other
business-related data [2]. Researchers propose a multi-platform system that can integrate data
from various formats and query modes. A software that can use multiple types of data stores
is called multi-group persistent software. It provides a detailed view of the PolyglotHIS
architecture as well as SQL and NoSQL databases and applications. Researchers comment on
disadvantages of the design and application of the complex PolyglotHIS system as well as its
advantages to sustain the consistency across many basic performance data analytics on data
stored in multiple data stores, and to review other use cases where polyglot persistence may
exist. Michael Porter emphasizes that smart systems serve the third wave of emergence of
products and IT-driven products. The first wave in 1960s and 1970s was characterized by the
automation of individual activities in the value chain. The power of the second wave was
derived from the Internet, which is immanent and provides the integration of each activity
with its inexpensive connection. In the third wave developing, Porter argues that embedded
sensors, processors, software, storage, cloud connectivity, IT with mobile and wearable
features are a part of the product itself. However, it should be noted that smart systems are
more related to service innovation.
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REFERENCES
1. Sendpoints, SMART PRODUCT DESIGN, ISBN 9789887757283, 2017.
2. WUJEC T., THE FUTURE OF MAKING, Melcher Media, 978-1-59591-019-6, 2017.
3. Harmon, R.R., Corno, F., Castro-Leon, E.G., Smart Systems, IEEE Computer Society,2015.
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CHAPTER X
DESIGN WITH REVERSE ENGINEERING SYSTEMS
In terms of design, the scope of engineering can be divided into two: "forward engineering"
and "reverse engineering (RE)". The process in forward engineering is matured by the
development of the solution from the definition of the problem, and testing and optimization
of the solution. The process of RE, which is the subject of this chapter, consists of the stages
of studying and analyzing an existing solution and redesign, development and production of
this solution. From the viewpoint of RE , it includes the systematic redesign, development or
manufacturing of the product after the analysis of design and engineering knowledge for the
current product or model. The need for RE begins in the product development and design
process and continues throughout the entire life cycle of the product. RE addresses a wide
range of designs, different interdisciplinary design approaches and can be used directly as a
design development tool. In the RE process, the designer digitizes/examines the existing
product, or improves the design by redesigning it to have better features. To this end, it is
important to use knowledge management systems in a good way and to benefit from
engineering knowledge effectively. This section presents the information in line with the
target needs.
REVERSE ENGINEERING SYSTEMS
The most important phase of the reverse engineering process is to ensure that the current
object is transferred to the computer environment by taking reference dimensions from an
existing physical model. Therefore, in order to create a CAD model from the physical model
for reverse engineering activities, 3D scanners are needed in order to digitize and quantify
primitive reference elements such as dots or lines. Nowadays, in reverse engineering systems,
3D scanners are classified into two groups as contact-based and contactless. Coordinate
Measurement Machines are the oldest and most common contact-based measuring devices.
CMMs are precision CNC machines that move at multiple axis and have a touch-sensitive
probe on them. The CMMs produce a point output at each touch on the model by means of the
probe. Lines, circles, arcs, or curves that cross two or more points must be defined by the
user. CMMs, which are the most sensitive of contact-based measuring devices, have the
following disadvantages despite their advantage at precision in single point scanning [1-4]:
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a. CMMs are not effective and efficient measuring devices if the reverse
engineering component has complex surfaces or combined curves on different
planes.
b. Costs are high since long periods are needed for the installation and
measurement processes.
c. Even when used for quality control purposes, it is still not effective when the
entire surface area of the component is desired to be controlled.
d. It cannot be used in the case that the component is not rigid enough for contact
control (such as sponges, ceramic doughs, clay models).
e. The component needs to be secured in the CMM workbench.
f. Most of the time, it requires the use of precision fixtures to fix the component
on the CMM workbench.
g. Long-term training for the effective operation of complex CMMs - including
basic CAD software training - is required.
Figure 1. The Reverse Engineering Model
Contactless optical scanners offer the following advantages over contact-based ones:
a. They can be easily used for scanning the parts that have very complex
geometries or that are too large to be placed on the workbench of a CMM
machine (such as the reverse engineering of an aircraft wing).
b. In cases where it is impossible or too difficult to fix a part with any fixture,
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c. They provide an undisputed advantage over CMMs when the component must
be measured on-site in environmental conditions.
Figure 2. General flow chart of reverse engineering operations [1-4]
In addition, contactless optical 3D scanners allow the entire part surface to be defined by a
high density dot cloud (16 Megapixels = approximately 16 million dots) regardless of the part
complexity of the part surface within a very short period of time (e.g. 100,000 dots per
second). Additionally, measurements can be carried out independently of the density or
rigidity of the part and even under dynamic conditions. The software that is integrated into
these devices is very easy to use since it focuses more on the form of dot cloud than on the
control of the device. Contactless optical 3D scanners are classified under two separate
technologies as laser and structure light. They have several advantages and disadvantages
compared to each other.
Figure 3. The CAD model process of the product [http://www.hamitarslan.com/tersine-
muhendislik.html].
CurrentObject
Data Collection
Pre-process(Elimination ofnegative sides)
PointCloud/STL
Data
ElementRemoval
Comparting/surface
formation
CAD Model CAD/CAID/CAEApplications
Production FinalProduct
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The biggest drawback of optical scanners compared to CMM is that their dot sensitivities are
dependent on environmental factors and operator capabilities. This sensitivity is much higher
for devices using white light (structural light) and lower for devices using laser. Laser-based
scanners are unaffected by environmental light interference and are more suitable for modular
(portable) use (http://lmi3d.com/blog/structured-light-vs-laser-triangulation-3d-scanning-and-
inspection). The CMM accuracy values is at the range of 0.1 (www.nextengine.com) to
0.05mm (http://www.creaform3d.com/), for workbenches using laser scanners, and at the
range of 0.018 to 0.008 mm (in form measurement support with probe) for machines using
high-level white or blue light technology.
Figure 4. Trigonometric interaction between the projector, the camera and the object [10].
DESIGN IN REVERSE ENGINEERING APPROACH
The design method is to develop new product ideas in line with the needs of the society and to
link the formed ideas with the product to be produced. A systematic approach is generally
preferred in order to build this connection on sound foundations. This design process starts
with the conceptual design stage, continues with the formalizing design stage and ends with
the detailed design stage. In these stages, although engineering design plays an active role, the
same terminology may not be used to express the stages of the industrial design process.
Almost everyone agrees with the idea that the first step in design is the problem definition or
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the need analysis. Some consider the problem definition as the first stage of the design
process, while others consider the stage of conceptual design as the first step of the design
process.
The most common causes for the reverse engineering to emergence, an important subject of
design, can be listed as follows:
a. The fact that a manufacturer does not produce a part for a long time and wants to
produce it again,
b. Inadequate documentation of the original design,
c. The fact that the original manufacturer of a product is no longer available, but customers
need this product,
d. The fact that the original documentation of the product has been lost or has never
existed,
e. The need to redesign some of the product's bad features,
f. Strengthening the good features of the product based on long-term use of the product,
g. Analyzing the good and bad features of the competing product,
h. Exploring new ways to improve the performance and features of the product,
i. Obtaining competitive benchmarking methods for understanding competitive products
and developing better products,
j. The inadequacy of the original CAD model for changes or current production methods,
k. The inadequacy or unwillingness of the original manufacturer to provide
additional/spare parts,
l. High costs demanded by the original manufacturer for providing parts,
m. Updating outdated parts or old manufacturing processes with current and cheaper
technologies.
Due to these common reasons mentioned above, Reverse Engineering activities are an
indispensable element of the industry. Reverse engineering activities allow the modeling of
any model (target part) in the computer environment, i.e. the creation of a CAD model. Thus,
the model digitalized in computer environment (the CAD model) can now be subjected to
various analyzes in the computer environment (e.g. Finite Element Method) . Thus, the
product will be digitalized throughout the process from design to analysis and to computer-
aided production, covering all the phases in the life cycle process through Reverse
Engineering [10].
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As a result of the research conducted within the scope of RE, a new product design method
called Reverse Innovative Design (RID) has been developed. For this purpose, an additional
software tool called ScanTo3D, which is connected to the SolidWorks CAD system, has been
developed. RID is defined as an integrated digital design method which includes 3D
digitalization, 3D CAD, Computer Aided Industrial Design (CAID), RE, Computer Aided
Engineering analysis and rapid prototyping (RP) methods [6]. All 3D CAD systems utilize the
element-based design approach. This system has an element-based and parametric structure,
which record the history and store the changes in design under the product tree. Compared
with 3D CAD systems, CAID systems can perform direct surface modeling has forming
flexibility, can visualize adaptive material, and yield more realistic graphics. RE and RID
Modeling strategies are described as follows:
1. Automatic creation of free-form surfaces
2. Creation of solid models based on elements and parametric features
3. Curve-based surface modeling
RID aims to implement the modeling process more effectively by performing different
operations in RE based on the geometric shape of the product. RID includes 3 different
modeling strategies:
1. Tangent or curve matching solid models are automatically generated from the network
model for organic shapes. They can be used in application scenarios such as solid models,
model references, data transfers, realistic graphic presentations and rapid prototyping.
2. For analytical forms, the network model is divided into pieces and divided into functional
parts called sub-networks. The feature identification technique is used to create the form
elements in the 3D CAD package; and high-quality shape properties (cylinder, sphere, cone,
stretching/rotating surface) and natural shape parameters (radius, length, height and angle) are
obtained. Non-analytical subnets are formed as B-spline surfaces. All these surfaces are
stretched, trimmed or stitched and converted into solid models in 3D CAD software.
3. If a more precise model is required, the curve-based modeling strategy is used. After the
2D/3D drafts are created in the network model, the boundary curves and element lines are
formed. Then, using these curves, intersection transition surfaces are created directly in 3D
CAD software. In addition, the basic steps of RID are explained in detail as follows:
1. A clear network model is obtained by performing 3D data transfer from a physical or clay
model, point cloud processing, networking and network operations.
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2. By obtaining the quality natural shape or product definition parameters, a 3D solid model is
created using the existing network, even from objects with free geometry. As a result, an
element-based parametric model including the design purpose and function of the original
physical object or clay model is formed in the CAD software.
3. Quality shapes and product definition parameters, the network structure and surfaces are
formed, and corrected and a new product model is created. The forms can be regional or at a
broader scale. On some surfaces, the forming process can be at high levels and while at low
levels in others. Additional features can be added to the new product model in 3D CAD
software. As a result, a new digital product model is created for a new design.
Step 4 CAE analysis is applied and the desired design changes can be made in the previously
obtained model according to the analysis result. This is a repetitive process and small changes
are made at each step.
At the end of the repeated process, the most appropriate digital model that can be used for
rapid prototyping of the new design is obtained. Then, Numerical Control (NC) software
codes and technical drawings can be developed. Traditional RE and RID processes are
presented comparatively in Figure 3. Although the process of digitalizing the physical object
or model of both methods is similar, the main difference emerges after the start of modeling
from the numerical data of the parts. RID contains different modeling strategies and uses
different methods according to the geometry and complexity of the part. The choice of
different modeling strategies according to the part geometry is made because the methods that
give good results in the parts with organic shapes do not give accurate results in the smooth
geometric parts. After being formed, the solid model can be modified according to design
improvement and computer aided engineering analysis process. The parametric model
facilitates the parameter controls, allowing the changes in the model to be made in a better
way. The analysis and solid model development process continues until the best solution is
found. When the best solution is found, this cycle is completed and the new design is created.
Thus, the production of the new product can be started.
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Figure 5. Comparison of RE and RID processes [5].
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT MODEL IN REVERSE ENGINEERING APPROACH
Since RE Designer does not always aim to manufacture the same product, the designer can
also develop a different design that can operate under the same conditions and perform the
same functions in the same degree or more functionally. He can design a more economical
product that can be manufactured with lighter, more durable, more different materials and
through different processes. The design process model for manufacturing presented in Figure
4 is intended to provide the tools the designer needs to achieve this goal. This design process
model consists of five main stages: information collection, data processing, design, analysis
and solution. These stages partially function as parallel or backward processes, as well.
Information collection begins with the information from the existing product or product
documentation, if any. Some information such as operating conditions and function of the
product can be taken from the existing product and this information is also transferred to the
product documentation. The information in the product documentation can be used directly or
modified and transferred to the designer inputs. Information such as operation conditions,
function of the part, surface quality, production quantity, material is entered by the designer.
The designer also updates the product documentation when he enters new information.
Additionally, the information on manufacturing processes is stored in the design system
database for use in all studies.
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In the second stage, the process of transferring the existing product, for which RE is desired,
to the digital environment in 3D is performed. For this, contact-based or contactless methods
are used. With the developments in contactless methods, these methods have been
indispensable especially for complex shaped geometries. The data obtained from the product
during the 3D digitalization are filtered and the combined point clouds are used to obtain a 3D
solid model containing the surface and elements. These operations are performed in the sub-
process of reversed geometric modeling. The 3D solid model includes geometric data and
manufacturing data. Since the elements of the 3D solid model are geometric data, they are
converted into manufacturing elements for later use. The shape complexity of the geometry is
analyzed and the width, depth, height and volume data are saved in separate parameters. The
unprocessed, full volume of the part is calculated using this data. In the third stage, the data
obtained from the 3D solid model in the second stage and the designer inputs in the first stage
are transferred to the design criteria database and the 3D solid model of the part is created. If
there are deficiencies in the 3D solid model, they are eliminated at this stage. In the fourth
stage, engineering calculations and analyzes such as function, strength, stress, deformation,
deflection, stiffness, weight, friction, thermal features, abrasion, corrosion are performed by
using the design criteria and the 3D solid model. For this reason, the operating conditions and
function of the product must be well understood. Manufacturing elements such as material,
manufacturing tolerances and surface quality can only be determined this way. In the fifth and
final stage, the design is reviewed and solutions are produced based on the results obtained
from the calculations and analyzes. In order to determine the material, tests can be carried out
on the existing product, and the operating conditions and function of the part can be examined
and engineering calculations and analyzes can be used, as well. In other words, the initially
determined material can be changed as a result of the analysis. All the designer inputs and the
design criteria obtained from the geometry can also be modified by evaluating the design at
the review stage. If the solution is found to be sufficient, the determination of the
manufacturing process can be started but if the solution is not sufficient, corrections are made
in the 3D solid model or the design criteria. These corrections require the process to be started
over and the creation of a new design. The design criteria are updated again until the best
result is obtained, the calculations and analyzes are repeated. The design review is performed
by the simultaneous improvement of designer inputs and the 3D solid model. After deciding
on the best design, the manufacturing process is determined. At this stage, raw material
shapes and dimensions, process tolerances, process surface qualities, tool costs, unit costs and
unit time data are recorded in the manufacturing operations database. Measures of the
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unprocessed full volume of the part and the shares of the production are taken into
consideration and a study is conducted in order to determine what dimensions of raw
materials are suitable for the production of the part. Thus, the raw material usage status
having a log, llama or existing standard profile is determined. In order to achieve this,
manufacturing processes database should include standard raw material measures according
to the materials and this information should be up-to-date and available for use. Once the
appropriate manufacturing operations, processing costs, processing times and waste rates are
calculated, the single and combined manufacturing processes are reported comparatively.
Even after the production process reports are obtained, the design can be reviewed and the
designer inputs and 3D solid model can be modified. To this end, the reformatory questions of
design should be reviewed:
• Can the mechanical properties of the part be reduced?
• Should the part tolerances be so sensitive?
• Can more rough surfaces perform the same function?
• Can the dimensions be reduced?
• Can the dimensions be increased?
Data Collection Data Processing Design Analysis Solution
Current Product Reverse Geometric Modelling 3D Solid Model
Product Documentation Geometry Analysis
Formation of Production Elements
Design Criteria Engineering Calculations and analysis Review of Design
Designer Inputs
Rejected
Rejected Accepted/RejectedProduction processes database Production process data calculation Production process determination Accepted
Reporting production processes Accepted/Rejected
Selection of Production Process Accepted Rejected
Figure 6. Design process model for reproduction in Reverse Engineering process [4, 6-9].
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With these questions, the design is reviewed again and the design inputs and the 3D solid
model are modified and this time, the design is optimized for production. The comparative
reports are then updated and the differences between the current and previous situations are
illustrated comparatively. The designer reviews the updated reports and selects the most
appropriate manufacturing process, taking into account the existing opportunities.
Manufacturing outputs are generated for these selected manufacturing processes and the
product is manufactured. The product documentation is updated after selection of the
manufacturing process. Manufacturing process data is processed and if necessary, the
manufacturing operations database is updated. Thus, in every study, the manufacturing
process database is developed and it is possible to reach the design results with higher
performance.
REFERENCES:
1. P. M. KUMAR A.; JAIN, P. K. & PATHAK, “Reverse Engineering in Product
Manufacturing: An overview”, Daaam Int. Sci. B. 2013, pp. 665–678, 2013.
2. S. Batni and M. L. J. A. Tiwari, “Reverse engineering: a brief review”, Int. J. Emerg.
Technol., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 73–76, 2010.
3. W. B. Thompson, J. C. Owen, H. J. De St. Germain, S. R. Stark, and T. C. Henderson,
“Featurebased reverse engineering of mechanical parts”, IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom., vol. 15,
no. 1, pp. 57–66, 1999.
4. T. Türkücü, H. R. Börklü, "Tersine Mühendislik Yaklaşımına Dayalı Yeni Bir İmalat İçin
Tasarım İşlem Modeli", GU J Sci, Part C, 6(1):91-104, 2018.
5. X. Ye, H. Liu, L. Chen, Z. Chen, X. Pan, and S. Zhang, “Reverse innovative design — an
integrated product design methodology”, Comput. Des., vol. 40, pp. 812–827, 2008.
6. Kalpakjian S, Schmid SR, "Manufacturing engineering and technology", New York;
Toronto: Prentice Hall; 2010.
7. A. C. Telea, "Reverse Engineering – Recent Advances and Applications", InTech, 2012
8. R. Messler, "Reverse Engineering: Mechanisms, Structures, Systems & Materials", 1st ed.
Mc Graw Hill, 2014.
9. G. Boothroyd, P. Dewhurst, W. A. Knight, "Product Design for Manufacture and
Assembly", 2002.
10. B. Kaya, "TR72/16/GS2/0004 Kodlu Kayseri Sanayisinde Tersine Mühendislik Uygulama
Kapasitesinin Geliştirilmesi (Alt Yapı Güçlendirme) Projesi", nihai raporu, 2018.
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CHAPTER XI
PILOT PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT WITH RAPID PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS
Prototyping is used to quickly identify end-user opinions about any design. Prototyping
initially allows answering to the following basic questions about design and gives an idea to
the designer:1
❖ How does the design look (Physical properties, dimensions, texture, Material
changes...)?
❖ How does the design feel?
❖ Is the design functional (Does it function properly)?
❖ How can I produce the design (What are the cheapest and most effective
manufacturing methods)?
Although the technologies in today's digital age offer extremely useful advantages for
prototyping, many prototyping processes can develop as a long, tedious and costly process.
Again, this process can be virtual or physical. As a tool used by an architect or industrial
product designer at the starting point, sketch is actually a simple virtual prototype including the
transfer of ideas about the design. Today, virtual prototyping is carried out by digital
technologies such as computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE) and
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software and Product Lifecycle Management-(PLM).
Even though prototypes in a certain physical form, that is, physical prototypes are produced for
some very large design projects, which are produced singly or in limited bulk numbers such as
ships, planes, stadiums, buildings, rockets, etc., prototyping for such projects are prepared
digitally on a virtual environment, i.e. on computers, in a very detailed fashion. However, for
many design projects today, physical prototyping is performed in an integrated way with
virtual prototyping and can be realized quickly in parallel to them. These physical prototyping
processes, called rapid prototyping or 3D printing, involve highly complex design process and
allow us to quickly and easily manufacture the physical prototype in a way that cannot be
compared with traditional methods.
1 "RapidPrototypingandEngineering Applications: A Toolboxfor ...." Access date: Feb 27, 2019.https://www.crcpress.com/Rapid-Prototyping-and-Engineering-Applications-A-Toolbox-for-Prototype/Liou/p/book/9780849334092.
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1. RAPID PROTOTYPING / WHAT IS 3D PRINTING?
The rapid prototyping adventure, which began 30 years ago, has changed the production
process, especially prototype production, in an incredible way. Unlike traditional
manufacturing methods, 3D printing technology has revolutionized the way physical objects
and parts are produced in the last few years, and this is why it was described in April 2012
issue of the Economist magazine as 3D printing, the 3rd Industrial Revolution. Today, it is
possible to manufacture prototypes or final products of the parts that are designed with 3D
printers - in a relatively fast and efficient manner. Additionally, the rapid prototype printing
process is as simple and easy as printing out a text document with a single click. Designer can
send the rigid model in the CAD (computer-aided design) software with little or no pre-
processes or directly to the 3D printer and immediately start prototyping.2
Figure 1.
3D printing is can be performed within the snap of a finger!3
The main advantages of rapid prototyping, along with many others, are:
❖ Ensuring fast and easy production of solid, concrete and functional prototypes.
❖ Allowing for the concurrent design and providing design-related feedback while
design activities are in progress.
2Mazumder J., Song L. (2010) “Advances in Direct Metal Deposition”. In: Hinduja S., Li L. (eds) Proceedings of the 36th InternationalMATADOR Conference. Springer, London.
3 "Printer 3D Technology -Freeimage on Pixabay." https://pixabay.com/illustrations/printer-3d-technology-design-3956972/. Access date: Mar 5. 2019.
131
❖ Utilization of rapid prototyping methods in the production of the final product
depending on the demands and expectations.
❖ The fact that it positively affects the design process and sets the designer free as it
allows for the production of organic designs developed with topology optimization
and highly complex geometries .
According to the definition in ISO/ASTM 52900:2015, 3D printing is the activity of producing
an object by stacking any material through a print-head, nozzle or other printing technology.
This manufacturing method, which started in the 1980s and is called rapid prototyping (RP),
now defines a new production method called Additive Manufacturing (AM) because of the
developments that have been achieved as a result of improving the printing time and
functionality of the final product output. Therefore, these technologies work with the same
logic whatever we call them either additive manufacturing, direct digital production, rapid
prototyping or 3D printing. Accordingly; 3D printers print 3D physical objects layer by layer
using a variety of materials from thermoplastics to metals, from glass to ceramics, paper, and
even to composite, just like using ink on paper. The printing materials used vary according to
the applied AM printing methods. Accordingly, the materials used for the additive
manufacturing are in the form of liquid, powder and solid (filament or plate) and classify the
additive manufacturing processes according to the material used. Prototypes are generally not
expected to be as durable as final products. Therefore, polymer materials in liquid resin or solid
filament are commonly used. In addition, polymers offer the advantage of recycling. Some
rapid prototyping systems allow the printing of products which can also be used as final
products through various engineering polymers (such as Nylon11, Nylon6) and various alloy
metals. Such 3D printers use laser in various powers. Rapid prototyping or 3D printers allow
for a wide variety of prints to meet prototype expectations. Accordingly, although each 3D
printing technology has its own set of variations, the general workflow for the production of
prototypes is as follows for all these technologies:[4]
❖ Converting 3D modeling-digital CAD data into STL (Stereolithography) data
❖ Verifying the STL file and planning the printing paths by separating it into segments
❖ Printing of the part on the buildplate
❖ Cleaning the prototype product and final operations
4 "ISO/ASTM 52900:2015 -Additivemanufacturing -- General principles ...." https://www.iso.org/standard/69669.html.Access date: Feb 18. 2019.
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With the advances in the prototyping process over time, specialized staff or technicians are no
longer needed for most 3D printing technologies. With the improvements in software and
hardware, except for the cleaning of the prototype product, the other stages are automatically
carried out independently of the user. The construction phase of a prototype product on the
build plate is a long process lasting a few minutes to a few days. The duration of this process
varies in proportion to the size of the geometry.
2. RAPID PROTOTYPING / 3D PRINTING METHODS (TECHNOLOGIES /
PROCESSES)
Since invented by Hull Charles W. and Deckard C. and others in the late 1980s, the first rapid
prototyping or a derived term, the 3D printing techniques have been played a vital role in
countless commercial RP (rapid prototyping) technologies in the market today, such as
aviation, marine, automotive, medicine, dentistry, architecture and art. Commercial RP
technologies enable fast production of products through similar but different approaches.
Therefore, it is important to select the appropriate RP technology according to the specific
industrial need and the product range in the terms of the materials used. According to
December 2015 ISO/ASTM 52900 standards; rapid prototyping processes are classified into 7
categories under heading 2.1.[5-6]
In rapid prototyping methods, prototyping materials may be in the form of liquid, solid (wire or
sheet) or powder, depending on the techniques of stratification of the material used. Although
ISO 52900 additive manufacturing standards are divided into 7 categories, two classifications
have been made in this document depending on whether the rapid prototyping devices and
consumables are accessible and inexpensive, and accordingly the widely-available office-type
materials are given more place here. Accordingly, the rapid prototyping methods are examined
under two categories: office type and industrial.
5Hull Charles W, `Methodforproduction of three-dimensionalobjectsbystereolithography`, Patent No:US 51749436Deckard; Carl R., Beaman; Joseph J., Darrah; James F.,`Methodforselectivelasersinteringwithlayerwisecross-scanning`, Patent No: US 5155324
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Figure 2. Rapid prototyping processes according to ISO 52900 standards 7
Figure 3. Classification of rapid prototyping technologies for this resource
7 "ISO/ASTM 52900:2015 -Additivemanufacturing -- General principles ...."https://www.iso.org/standard/69669.html. Access date: Mar 30 2019.
Desktop Printers
3D PRINTING
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1. PROTOTYPING SYSTEMS FOR DESKTOP APPLICATIONS
For desktop applications, it is important that rapid prototyping devices or consumables are
widespread and accessible. Therefore, the filament extrusion method, liquid resin
polymerization and laminated object stacking techniques were investigated under this category.
In the filament extrusion method, the prototyping process is performed by using solid filaments
or cartridges which are turned into wires. The methods in which filaments are used are known
as Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). The prototyping process in which a foil or sheet is cut
and stacked up is called Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM). In Liquid Resin
Polymerization, an ultraviolet light-sensitive photopolymer resin in a resin tank is cured layer
by layer through projecting the light onto certain areas in a controlled way, and the prototype
printing is performed.
FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)
Figure 4. Filament Driver diagram of a 3D printer (FDM) . 1 Filament. 2 Filament Driver(Extruder). 3 Heated Nozzle. 4 Print. 5 Build Platform.8
According to Figure 4, in the FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) method, a thermoplastic
material (1) wrapped in a reel called a filament is pushed into a movable nozzle (3) which is
8 "File:Filament Driver diagram.svg - WikimediaCommons." Jan 9. 2017,https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Filament_Driver_diagram.svg. Access date: Mar 13. 2019.
135
heated by an extruder (2) in a controlled manner. This molten plastic is again cooled in a
controlled manner, and is stacked layer by layer along a path determined on the printing plate
or tray (5). The 3D printer nozzle usually does most of the work by moving only in the X and
Y plane. However, to adjust the layer thickness, i.e. to go up to the next level in the geometry
(4), it is again positioned by the layer thickness in the Z axis. Dimensions of 1.75 and 3mm are
accepted for the filament diameter used for FDM printers.
Figure 5. Filament used in FDM technology
Nowadays, filaments are produced by many commercial companies for a variety of purposes.
The most commonly used thermoplastic material is PLA which provides biodegradability and
easy printing properties, however, plastics such as ABS, PETG, Nylon, TPE, TPU, HIPS can
also be used. Filaments are offered with a wide range of color options, such that even metal-
and wood-filled, carbon fiber attached and even glowing filaments are available. Detailed
information and comparison can be accessed from the reference.9
FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) is a method patented by S. Scott Crump in 1989 and has
been commercialized under Stratasys company since 1990. Today, FDM is perhaps the most
recognized rapid prototype production form for modeling, prototyping and manufacturing
applications. The reason for this is that the FDM patent owned by Stratasys was no longer valid
9 "17 Type of 3D Printer Filament | Buyer's Guide &Review (Mar. 2019)." https://www.allthat3d.com/3d-printer-filament/. Access date: Mar 29. 2019.
136
in 2009 and the emergence of low-cost 3D printers that use FDM technology shortly
afterwards. The most popular of these is the Makerbot startup that has reached stunning sales
figures in the 3D printer market. However, it was purchased by Stratasy in 2013.[101112]
Figure 6. Stratasys - DimensionuPrint with a professional dual extruder at $ 14 900, and
MakerBot FDM 3D Printer, on the right
Today, a large number of young companies produce and sell their own 3D printers, and even
students produce such FDM printers at various levels. The fashion here has been set by The
RepRap project that provides open hardware and open software. This project is growing and
spreading every day with its supporters. Today, if you want to build an FDM-based 3D printer
with different constructions (and even without a distinct construction), you can obtain all
construction details from this project page. To make a 3D printer in the Reprap project, parts
printed from a 3D printer are used.[1314]
10 "US5121329A -Apparatusandmethodforcreatingthree-dimensional ...."https://patents.google.com/patent/US5121329A/en. Access date: Mar 11. 2019.
11 "Stratasys." https://www.stratasys.com/. Access date: Mar 11. 2019.
12 "3D Printing CompanyMakerBotAcquiredIn $604 MillionDeal - Forbes." Jun 19. 2013,https://www.forbes.com/sites/kellyclay/2013/06/19/3d-printing-company-makerbot-acquired-in-604-million-deal/. Access date: Mar 11. 2019.
13 "RepRap." https://reprap.org/. Access date: Mar 11. 2019.
14 "Hangprinter -Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangprinter. Access date: Mar 11. 2019.
137
Figure 7. RepRap v2 'Mendel'. Self-replicating fused deposition modeling (FDM) machine15
RepRap project developed: Prusa i3 printed parts16
Prusa i3 assembly, ready for printing!
Figure 8. Prusa i3 printer parts and assembly, (Source/creditby John Abella)[17]
FDM printer construction is plain and simple. The extruder head carrying the nozzle is light.
For this reason, X and Y positions within the build-table limits are provided by a total of 2
small stepper motors (usually NEMA 17) for each axis of the extruder head. Layer thickness is
provided by positive Z-direction motion in the build table.
15 "RepRapproject -Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RepRap_project. Access date: Mar 11. 2019.
16 "File:Prusa i3 Printer parts.jpg - WikimediaCommons."https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prusa_i3_Printer_parts.jpg. Access date: Mar 11. 2019.
17 "Prusa i3 3D Printer -Reprap - Completed | Partsused - Roug… | Flickr." Jun 5. 2013,https://www.flickr.com/photos/jabella/8965235630. Access date: Mar 11. 2019.
138
The filament should be slowly pushed into the nozzle at a certain speed between 180 and 250
C. Again, a controlling stepper motor and a mechanism that holds the filament are used here.
Consequently, low-power stepper motors, basically controlled by open loop, and the slideways
moved by these motors and the construction with ball screws can be produced even from
wood.
Figure 9. Ultimaker filament feeder mechanism
Of course, though not as much as the RepRap, especially the open source Cura and Ultimaker
3D printers, with more than 2 million users worldwide, have made a great contribution to the
widespread use of 3D printing technology.[18]
18 "UltimakerCura." https://ultimaker.com/en/products/ultimaker-cura-software. Access date: Mar 11. 2019.
139
Figure 10. Ultimaker, laser cutting with wooden construction.
RepRap and Ultimaker led the way for the emergence of 3D printers with FDM technology
under $ 200 today thanks to their copied constructions and software. As with all 3D printers,
the filament type FDM printers also require a digital CAD model of the prototype, which is
intended to be printed, first. This digital model in STL format is then sliced layer by layer with
the slicer software of the 3D printer. Nowadays, many software applications perform the
slicing function free of charge. There are proprietary slicer software applications, provided by
3D printer manufacturers just like MakerbotPrint, and slicer software applications like Cura
that allow to set up about 200 parameters, as well. a list and a general comparison of 3D
printing slicer software tools can be found in reference [192021].
19 "MakerBotPrint." https://www.makerbot.com/3d-printers/apps/makerbot-print/. Access date: Mar 18.2019.
20 "UltimakerCura." https://ultimaker.com/en/products/ultimaker-cura-software. Access date: Mar 18. 2019.
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Figure 11. Ender 3, among the top 3D printers under $ 200 (Source Aliexpress) and ABS
plastic parts produced with Ender 3 on the right.
Figure 12. A fan model in STL format appears in the Makerbot Print software [22]
A 3D printing slicer allows for the production of numerical control codes that allow the CAD
model, which is intended to be produced from the 3D printer, to be cut into specified layer
thicknesses and allow to prepare layers in cross-sections and to control the print head.
21 "Best 3D Slicer Software for 3D Printers in 2019 (MostareFree) | All3DP." https://all3dp.com/1/best-3d-slicer-software-3d-printer/. Access date: Mar 18. 2019.
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Figure 13. Layers created for the fan in the MakerbotPrint software. The boundaries of a
section formed within these layers are also indicated with a dark green line (highlighted with
green boldline).
Figure 13 shows the layers created for the fan in the slicer MakerbotPrint software. For
example, the fan model is divided into 1118 layers with a total thickness of 0.3mm. Each layer
forms a section in the geometry. Figure 13 shows such cross-sectional limits. In this area,
within limits of this cross-section; the moving head, on which the extruder nozzle is, moves.
With appropriate algorithms, a G-code tool path file is generated for each layer limit.
For all rapid prototypers, there are several parameters that determine the 3D prototype quality
and that need to be set in the slicer software. The layer thickness, which is a parameter that the
user can adjust, affects part precision, detail or resolution. Low layer thickness means more and
higher detail in the prototype, while also increasing the printing time. Therefore, appropriate
layer thickness should be selected according to expectations.
The use of support geometries for many 3D printer technologies is the most important way to
get successful printing from a 3D printer. As with the fan printing shown in FIG. 14, the
sections varying greatly from the bottom to the top require the use of supports.
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Figure 14. The whole fan model sliced from bottom to top. The bottom part of the marked
layer is empty, so the geometry must be supported from the bottom.
Figure 15. The bottom part of the marked layer is empty, so the geometry must be supported
from the bottom.
Supports are structures that are placed under the layers that are not supported or insufficiently
supported by the constructed model, as in the figures above, and that are not actually part of the
target model. Therefore; although support structures adversely affect material costs and
printing times, it is not possible most of the time to produce prototypes without supports. For
example, as shown in FIG. 16, the bottom of the layer to be made is blank , so these layers
must be supported with a support structure as in the figure below.
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Figure 16. Supporting layers with support geometry.
Figure 17. Fan printing with Makerbot. Support structure printing.
Support structures should be printed after the prototype has been printed. Therefore, in the
slicer software, the support structures are modeled in a minimum volume lattice structure to try
to achieve the optimum balance of printing cost, finishing and support capability. The typically
recommended use condition for 3D printing is to support overhangs over 45 degrees. However,
for the production of an unsupported prototype, the success of the model geometry can be
achieved up to certain limits by reducing the print speed, temperature and layer width
parameters.
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Figure 18. A prototype in the Zortrax edition [23]. On the right, easily removable support
structures; on the left, supporting structures in/behind the main geometry on the same part.
The support structures inside the prototype model cannot be easily removed or such structures
cannot be easily interfered with. Especially for the prototypes with functionality expectation,
the FDM 3D printers that can print with two separate filaments with double extrusion head can
offer an alternative. In this case, a soluble material such as HIPS and PVA can be used as the
support material in one of the extrusion heads.
Figure 19. Dual-extruder UPrint 3D printer. With Support PVA (1) and ABS main material (2).
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Figure 20. The printing of a wrench from a dual-extruder UPrint 3D printer.
Figure 21. The wrench printed by UPrint 3D printer and water soluble support structure.
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Since HIPS, limonene and PVA can be dissolved with water, the prototype is put together with
the support materials in a suitable solvent. According to this simple logic, the solvent solves
the support material, thus leaving the effortlessly-obtained prototype. In this method,
prototypes containing mechanical systems, such as the wrench shown in Figs. 20 and 21, are
operative after the support material has been dissolved. The most important parameter
affecting the strength and weight of a prototype output is the concept of infill. If the
functionality is not a significant expectation for a rapid prototype printing, the prototype infill
rate can be kept to a minimum. The infill parameter can be set as a percentage in the slicer
software. For strength, the infill rate can be set at 60% or more, or at 10% for visual inspection
purposes only. Depending on the prototype requirements, minimum weight and high speed
printing can be achieved with suitable adjustments. Below is the internal structure infill of the
fan model slicer (MakerbotPrint).
Figure 22. The infill of the Fan model calculated in the slicer (MakerbotPrint) software
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Figure 23. Hexagonal infill printing moment of the fan model with Makerbot 3D printer.
The geometry of the infill is also a parameter that affects the strength of the part. The inside of
the part shown in Figure 23 is filled with a hexagonal infill. Slicer software applications offers
a wide variety of filler samples for infill geometry.
Figure 24. Infill type examples for Makerbot Print slicer
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Another parameter affecting the prototype part strength is the shell thickness. The shell forms
the visible face of the prototype geometry. Therefore, there must be at least one shell of each
prototype printing. The thickness and number of the perimeter walls forming the shell
thickness can be adjusted with the slicer software. For most prototype prints, two or three
shells are sufficient.
Figure 25. Shell structure and number. Shell adjustment with 2 pieces on the left and 5 pieces
on the right.
Figure 26. Prototype fan model produced by FDM.
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PROTOTYPE MANUFACTURING WITH LAMINATED OBJECT STACKING
Materials in the form of sheets or foil are used in this rapid prototyping method introduced by
Helisys company in 1991. The foil or sheet of paper, plastic or metal materials with adhesive
coated on is laminated to one another in a successive operation by cutting with a knife or laser
layer by layer and joining with one another. The most common material used for lamination is
paper. The use of roll paper or polymer film materials as material makes the method
advantageous in terms of supply and cheapness of consumables. Moreover, it is faster than
other methods of additive manufacturing, since only the cross-sectional outer frames are
processed. However, complex and hollow parts cannot be produced with this rapid prototyping
method. Furthermore, the geometric accuracy of the prototype model is worse than that of
other methods.
Figure 27. Laminated Object Stacking Method [23]
Figure 27 shows the method of laminated objects. Accordingly, while the rolled material,
indicated with number 1, is being wound around another reel numbered 8, it has suitable
tension for cutting with laser (5) or knife. The hot roller, indicated with number 2, combines
each layer and a sublayer through its pressing and adhesive effect. With the numerically
controlled (NC controlled) galvo reflectors, indicated by number 4, each layer is cut from the
defined cross-sectional limits by means of a laser or a knife. After the layer cutting process is
finished, the platform is lowered so that the layer thickness becomes the thickness of the foil
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material. Reels 1 and 8 move for the new layer. These operations, respectively, continue until
the production of prototypes is realized.
This method, developed and introduced by Helisys, revealed itself in 2012 with a different
point of view proposed by Mcor Technologies. An inkjet printer is included in addition to
lamination in the rapid prototyping devices offered by Mcor Technologies. Thus, full-color
prototypes can be printed on standard roll paper. In addition, the prototypes produced are
similar to wood in terms of mechanical properties. Due to its inherent nature, the paper is
absorbent, the prototype printouts can further be strengthened with various chemicals after
printed [23-24].
Figure 28. Fruits obtained with McorArke [26]
LIQUID RESIN POLYMERIZATION- VAT POLYMERIZATION
This rapid prototyping technique is formed by the photopolymer, i.e. the process of solidifying
the UV light-sensitive liquid resin in a controlled manner in a tank. Basically,
Stereolithography (SLA) and Direct Light Processing (DLP) are two techniques for liquid resin
polymerization. Highly precise, complex prototypes with very fine details are obtained with
the SLA and DLP technologies. Additionally, such rapid prototyping devices are reachable at
very reasonable prices.
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Stereolithography/SLA
The method known as stereolithography or SLA is the first rapid prototyping method
developed by Charles W. Hull. Hull commercialized this technology in 1986 as the founder of
3D Systems, which currently operates. Along with the SLA, Charles Hull also developed the
STL file format as a protocol currently used in all rapid prototyping systems. Any 3D CAD
solid model in the STL file format is represented by thousands of small triangles connected
together in the form of a mesh. In SLA rapid prototyping method, photopolymerization is
applied to specific regions of a special polymer resin. Accordingly, a source of UV laser under
the liquid photopolymer reservoir focuses on the area to be solidified and solidification is
achieved in these regions. Galvoservomotor-integrated mirrors are used to reflect the UV laser
to the areas determined on the liquid photopolymer. By positioning these mirrors in the X and
Y axis to form a series of lines with the laser in the positions specified in the print area,
scanning is completed. In this way, solidification is carried out in the regions over which the
light passes. The areas that the light does not pass over remain in liquid form. After the laser
scanning process is finished in a layer, the printing tray embedded in the liquid tank is lifted up
by the specified layer thickness and this laser scan is performed for the new layer. Thus, this
process continues in a loop until a prototype is created [22].
Figure 29 shows the Form2 SLA printer of Formlabs. The liquid resin (3) filled into the
chamber 1 is exposed to laser light by means of the galvonometer mirrors located in the control
unit under the printer. The laser scanning process is performed by the slicer software for each
layer in specific regions [23].
22 "Charles W. Hull - 3D Systems." https://www.3dsystems.com/sites/default/files/downloads/3D-Systems-Charles-W-Hull-Executive-Bio.pdf. Access date: Mar 26. 2019.
23 "Form 2: Desktop Stereolithography (SLA) 3D Printer | Formlabs." https://formlabs.com/3d-printers/form-2/.Access date: Mar 27. 2019.
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Figure 29. Formlabs Form2 SLA Printer. 1 tank, 2 printing table, 3 liquid photopolymer resin
(white)
Figure 30. Formlabs Preform [25] Slicer. Two objects in the printing area and their supports.
Figure 30 shows positioning of two objects on the table prepared for printing on the Preform
slicer software. In the SLA method, the prototypes are built by attaching them upside down on
top of the table just like bats. In this case, keeping the parts suspended at a certain angle
increases the printing success. In addition, support structure should be used for almost all
printing jobs.
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Figure 31. Placement of the piece at a marked angle on a pad in order to increase the success of
SLA printing.
Figure 32. Layer 313 and section boundaries in the Preform slicer.
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Figure 33. Printing moment of Layer 313 on Formlabs Form2 printer.
Figure 34. The prototypes suspended in the SLA print table.
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The Preform slicer automatically makes the parts layout and support structure. However, the
supports on the functional surfaces can be located to other points. Some supports may be
erased to reduce print speed and cost. For such cases, Preform has a tool (printability) that
analyzes the printing success of the printing geometry and informs the user.
It is possible to produce high-resolution prototypes of highly complex and highly detailed
geometries by means of the Form2 printer, which is very good in terms of price, performance.
No problem is experienced even with the printing of hollow geometries, which constitutes a
problem for production with other rapid prototyping methods. The dimensional accuracy of
SLA prototype prints is also superior to other prototyping methods. Therefore, the designer can
design with narrower tolerances. With SLA rapid prototypers, it is possible to get high-
accuracy prototype prints with a resolution of 25~200 microns.
Figure 35. Prototype prints produced with Formlabs Form2.
In all technologies that print with SLA or DLP liquid resin, the product should be cleaned with
alcohol after the product is removed from the printing table and be left to cure for a certain
period of time. To this end, it is enough to leave the prototype for a while in the sun, along with
special curing devices. The resolution and detail provided by printers with SLA and DLP
technology have made a revolution in the jewelry and dental sectors, where precision casting is
applied in particular. A special polymer exhibits casting wax property and can be subjected to
direct casting process. There are of course various types of engineering resins suitable for the
purpose [24].
Although the prices of SLA and DLP printers are cheaper compared to their performance, the
price of photopolymer material is 10 ~ 20 times more than that of FDM filament. Additionally,
24"Materials -Formlabs." https://formlabs.com/materials/. Access date: Mar 27. 2019.
156
the resin has a given shelf life. and loses its chemical functionality in a much shorter time after
opening for use. In cases where the prototype does not adhere to the resin printing table, the
residues remaining in the tank may cause a bad construction of the prototype, which will
adhere to the tank bottom. In this case, it may be difficult to clean the bad output that adheres
to the tank bottom. The resin tank base is transparent and smooth. External interventions to be
made here may prevent re-use of the resin tank. As a result, it is very difficult to substitute
printers with SLA and DLP technology.
Figure 36. Transformation of the SLA prototype to metal (silver).
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DLP (Direct Light Processing)
In the SLA (stereolithography) method, the UV (ultraviolet) laser is focused on the
photopolymer liquid resin in the tank with movable mirrors, layer-by-layer solidification is
provided. Similarly, a source of photopolymer UV is used in the DLP method. However, this
source consists of a projector, array LED or an LCD panel, instead of laser.
Figure 37. DLP printing diagram
In DLP technology, an entire layer is projected onto the liquid photopolymer resin as an image
in one go. Thus, faster prototype prints can be taken than when the laser moves in X and Y
coordinates. This is especially advantageous in sectors where more than one product are placed
in the printing table. Although there are comparisons on the internet that the DLP method does
not yield as much detail and high resolution as the SLA, it can be seen that the sample outputs
examined are as good as those of the SLA. Moreover, 3D printers using DLP technology are
partly cheaper.
Figure 38. Novafab DLP 3D printer [25]
25 "VEGA 3D Yazıcı -Novafab." http://novafab.com/tr/anasayfa/. Access date: Mar 30 2019.
158
Figure 39. Digital dentistry application, Dental prototypes taken with NovaFab.
Figure 40. Dentistry applications Upper and lower jaw partial applications
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Figure 41. Dentistry applications, prototypes on the NovaFab printing table.
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Figure 42. Jewelery applications, Lion figured rings printed with Novafab printer
Figure 43. Jewelery applications, the ring waiting to be casted with a Novafab printer
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Figure 44. Jewelery applications, jewellery prototypes on the printing table printed with
Novafab printer
2. INDUSTRIAL PROTOTYPING DEVICES
Printers that require a significant cost of use are categorized under this title because both the
printer and the consumable prices are expensive. Accordingly, there are two types of rapid
prototyping printers under this group. These are rapid prototyping technologies such as
powder bed fusion or material-jetting in which various powders are used.
Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion Technique
In the laser-based powder bed fusion technique, the powdered polymer (e.g. Nylon 11) or
various metals and alloys are used as the printing material. Laser is used as a thermal energy
source in certain regions on the material in a powdered state, in these regions dust is adhered to
each other. Since, in this method, prototypes can be produced with durable engineering
materials consisting of polyamide and various metals, prototypes can be used as final product
after printing.
162
Although there are several different techniques, the most common source of heat is laser in
these systems. The process called selective laser sintering (SLS), is usually performed with low
power lasers on the polymer materials. In the SLS method, the powder does not completely
melt in the regions where the laser passes over, but is only energized to bond with the adjacent
particles. Another technique used in powder bed fusion is to provide a complete melting in a
certain area of the powder with a similar logic but with a stronger laser beam of 100 W or
higher. In this method, called Selective Laser Melting (SLM), the powder material in this
melting pool formed in a local area is fused. Regardless of the method used, as in laser SLA
method, galvo mirrors are used to project the laser onto the marked areas of the powder laid in
the bed. After the laser is projected on certain sections on a layer and the solidification is
achieved on the powder in these regions, another layer of powder is laid on the powder treated
at the determined layer thickness. This process is continued until a layer-by-layer solid
prototype of the digital model is created.
Figure 45. ConceptLaser's SLM metal printer [26]
26 "ConceptLaser - Metal 3D printersforparts." https://www.concept-laser.de/en/home.html. Access date: Apr1. 2019.
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Figure 46. Powder bed on ConceptLaser: 1 powder container, 2 printing table, 3 waste powder
recycling
164
The figure above shows the powder container of ConceptLaser, which has a powder bed
system. The areas 1 and 2 in the powder bed given above are powder chamber. This chamber
is filled with 10 ~ 30 microns of metal powder, as shown below.
Figure 47. Powder bed filled with powder (ConceptLaser)
In the figure, area 1 is reserved for continuous powder supply, while laser is projected on area
2 and fusion is performed in the region where the laser is passed over this area layer by layer.
Figure 48. The operation of the laser on the layer in the printing area and the layer formation
with the smelting effect
FIG. 48 shows the projection of laser onto certain regions on the layer in the model and its
effect on the powder. Accordingly, after the process has been carried out on a layer, it is
necessary to lay the powder on the printing area for another layer. For this, as shown below, a
scraper plate (4) exposes the powder of certain thickness from the powder chamber 1 onto the
printing area 2 and retracts.
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Figure 49. Scraper plate (4) motion.
Thus, a new layer of powder is laid on the printing plate and everything is ready for the laser to
work.
Figure 50. After the scraper movement is completed, the new layer is ready for processing.
When all the layers are completed with a cycle mentioned above, the resulting prototype is
cleaned of the powder on it. In systems that produce with metal powder, because the prototype
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product is produced on the printing table, it is removed from this table. This table is cleaned
and ground, if necessary, and thus reused.
Figure 51. ConceptLaser printing plate
Figure 52. Various prototypes on SLM Solutions Metal 3D printer printing table [27]
27 "SLM Solutions." https://www.slm-solutions.com/. Access date: Apr 1. 2019.
167
Figure 53. Prototype removed from the printing table. Supports should also be cleaned.
Today, metal prototypes from commercialized printers are essentially produced from a few
metals and their alloys such as Inconel 625, titanium and its alloys, aluminum alloys and
stainless steel. However, studies on this subject continue intensively. EOS,
SharebotSnowWhite, FormlabsFuse 1, Sintratec S1, Sinterit Lisa, offering commercialized
products, use polyamide (PA12, PA 11) material fiber or CO2 laser in laser-assisted polymer
powder bed fusion technology. [2829303132]
28 "EOS P Systems –Industrial 3D Printing of plasticparts." https://www.eos.info/systems_solutions/plastic.Access date: Apr 1. 2019.
29 "SharebotSnowWhite." https://www.sharebot.it/en/sharebot-snowwhite-3d-printer/. Access date: Apr 1.2019.
30 "Fuse 1: BenchtopSelectiveLaserSintering (SLS) 3D Printer | Formlabs." https://formlabs.com/3d-printers/fuse-1/. Access date: Apr 1. 2019.
31"Sintratec S1 -Sintratec AG." https://sintratec.com/product/sintratec-s1/. Access date: Apr1. 2019.32 "Lisa SLS 3D Printer -Sinterit - Manufacturer of highqualitydesktop ...." https://www.sinterit.com/sinterit-lisa/. Access date: Apr 1. 2019.
168
Figure 54. Sintered polymer material produced with EOS 3D printer. It can be folded by hinges
thanks to monolithic printing. It is possible to produce working mechanisms.
Prototyping by Jetting Technique
In this method, the material that enables the prototyping process to be performed is sprayed
onto the printing table, just like an inkjet printer spraying ink on the paper. Jetting techniques
can be examined in two categories as Material jetting and Binder Jetting. In the Material
Jetting method, photopolymer resin or wax is jetted from the inkjet heads instead of ink. In a
layer, this resin, which is sprayed only at certain points in the section, is again exposed to
ultraviolet (UV) light for a short time. In this way, the prototype is produced by solidification
in the regions where the resin is sprayed layer by layer and accumulated. In the material jetting
method, the material can be stacked in the designated areas of the section along a line, since the
material can be sprayed simultaneously from the micro-pumps placed in a series. This makes
printing speed much faster than that in other methods. In this prototyping method, all
prototypes are produced with at least two different materials, one of which is soluble support
material. It is also the only method that allows the use of different types and colors of
materials. Prototypes can be produced in full color.
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Figure 55. Model car body manufactured with 3D printing. The organic design of the front set
obtained by topology optimization. (Parts produced with StratasysPolyjet Printing Technology
by Infotron) [3334]
In Binder Jetting method, a binder material is sprayed onto the powder in the powder bed. This
process allows the powder to be bonded together layer by layer, thus producing the prototype.
This is the combination of the material jetting process with the aforementioned SLS method.
The binding jetting method is commercially applied to sand and metal powders. In this method,
which allows full color printouts, very complex metal parts can be produced. For this purpose,
the metal powder is bonded together with a bonding chemical sprayed onto it. The metal
powder that is bonded together layer by layer with the principle of powder bed, is then cured in
a furnace and given the final form by sintering. A special casting sand is used for the metal
casting process in the binder jetting method. In this method, mold halves and cores are formed
for casting by the binder sprayed on the silica sand. The molten metal is poured into this mold
coming out of prototype printing, and the traditional casting work is carried out. In this way,
complex and large metal parts are produced at a relatively low cost.
33 "infoTRON." https://infotron.com.tr/..
34 "What is PolyJetTechnologyfor 3D Printing? | Stratasys." https://www.stratasys.com/polyjet-technology.Access date: Apr 3. 2019.
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CHAPTER XII
BENCHMARKING OF PRODUCT’S METHODOLOGY
IIMPLEMENTATIONOF VIRTUAL ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTSIN INNOVATIVEPRODUCTS DEVELOPMENTPROCESSES
1. INTRODUCTION OF MAIN PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES AND ENABLEDEVELOPMENT METHODSOF PRODUCT BENCHMARKING
There are several risk elements in developing of new design procedures. One of them
is the increasing complexity of the modern design. A large set of new requirements are
assignedto the designers, such as new materials and devices (for example electronics) that
become available, new issues related to security requirements or new customers’ needs. Many
of the products and machines available today did not exist until recently, so previous designer
experience for these tasks cannot be generally applied. Therefore, new, more systematically-
oriented approaches are needed to provide quick and error-free design of increasingly
sophisticated products.
The sophistication of modern design has its advantages, but also its risks – for
example the necessity for teamwork with many specialists who are collaborating and
contributing to the different phases of design. In order to facilitate team coordination, there
must be a clear, organized approach for designing, engineering, and creating test procedures
so that individual specialists are involved in real time in the process. Dividing the general
problem to sub-problems and system procedures also means that the design work itself can be
distributed to the individual team members.
The work of the modern designer is becoming more and more complex and often has
particularly high risks and costs associated with it. For example, many products are intended
for mass production and the costs for equipment manufacturing, the purchase of raw
materials, etc. are very high. Therefore, the designer cannot afford to make mistakes - the
project must be validated and tested before massive investments and before it is put into
production. This means that every new product has to go through a careful design and
validation process. On the other side, there are large, one-off or unique projects such as
complex manufacturing or energy facilities, planes, etc., where a very detailed process is also
needed to ensure that there are no flaws in the design. These are prerequisites that ensure
reliable operation and prevent catastrophic consequences of malfunctions.
And last but not least - there is a great need for improving the efficiency of the design
process. In all cases, it is desirable trying to prevent errors and delays that are often
encountered in conventional design procedures. The introduction of CAD / CAM / CAE and
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PLM technology is offering an efficient way to improve the design process efficiency, as well
as creating a more systematic way of working with fewer errors.
One of the most important aspects for improving the design process is the
development of new design methods that need to meet the new requirements and
implementation capabilities.
Any systematic way of working with content and design procedures can be considered
as a design method. The most commonly used design method isnamed "Design by
Sketching". Most designers rely heavily on sketching as a basic starting tool in conceptual
design.
Although some design methods may be conventional, modern 3D tools make significant
progress in implementing jointly new and non-standard procedures, which are usually
grouped in “design methods”.
A new point in using these methods is that they are trying to implement rational
procedures in the design process. Sometimes it seems that some of them may be quite
formalized. They may seem too systematic to be useful in the delicate, and often very fast,
world of the design activity. For these reasons, many traditional designers still have doubts
about the idea of system design based on formal rules. But the practice develops faster than
the theory and many modern design projects are too complex to be resolved in a satisfactory
way by using the old, conventional methods. Practice also shows that many mistakes are
made with the conventional techniques of working, and that they are not very useful when
teamwork is required. New design methods attempt to overcome these problems, deliver
better results through new design processes, including decision-taking theory, management
methods, formalization of informal techniques and many others. For example, informal
methods of requesting catalogues by manufacturers or requesting counselling from colleagues
can be formalized in the "searching for information" method or an informal cost saving
procedure with the detailed redesign of apart can be formalized in the "value- analysis ".
Since the industry is adapting and changing to global markets, processes in many industries
are transforming mostly through digitalization. The synergy of technological, economic,
geopolitical and demographic aspects will generate new categories of companies, while
othercompanies will be partially or wholly displaced due to inadequate innovation strategies
and business models. The technologies, methods and approaches in the innovation
development in the majority of industries will also be changed. The vision for further
development includes most of the processes to be developed simultaneously. The modern
product development involves multiple various processes executing at the same and taking
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place over several different product development phases, including design, prototype
production, product development economics, project management, and much more.
Fig.1 depicts the main activities of the product development process [1].
Fig.1: Main product development activities and possible development methods
Prototypes are used to aid the communication and integration between designers and
stakeholders. They are also used as training tools during the product development process.
Prototypes are primarily used to demonstrate the physical and functional properties of the
product, allowing the study of various alternative solutions and the validation of technical
solutions.
From point of view regarding integration, prototypes enable different design team
members to coordinate with each in order to work in sync with up-to-date levels of readiness.
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Thus, prototypes are important at different levels and in different activities during the product
development process. Prototyping is not only proceeded during the final stages of the product
development process. The prototype is an evaluation tool for solutions that seek to present one
or more product dimensions that are of interest in the various stages of development.
Prototypes have different purposes throughout the product development process; during the
early stages of development, prototyping helps communicate and share information with
stakeholders involved in the product development process. When the process passes to the
final product development phases,the prototypes help validate product requirements and
identify different aspects of possible problems in the upcoming phases, including the
industrialization and production expansion[2]. Prototyping with a full physical prototype is
usually followed by a 0-series, which aims to tackle the final problems of the upcoming serial
production of the product.
Taking into account the rapid pace of change, the turmoil in existing models and processes of
developing new products and innovations requires systematic efforts, new methods and
adaptation approaches. The professional debate on these transition processes is sharply
polarized between those who envisage significant new opportunities and those who foresee
corporate centralization with multiple fragmented subcontractors. The reality is likely to be
very specific to the industry, region and engineering environment.
Trend analysis shows a development of individual thinking and actions towards a
comprehensive, general and corporate-oriented direction of work, which is an essential
element of this methodology. The pursuit of design guidelines’ validity in different industries
is realized in accordance with the instructions as abstract terminology and formulation of
(technical) logically bound processes. Design research results are performed in accordance
with the guidelines, as the individual designers co-operating with the requirements and their
descriptions, or the entire team is responsible for the entire project, not each for its own part.
2. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
The model of the process of creating the conception (See Fig. 2) is a generalized
approach for describing the process of building a concept, describing and taking into account
the whole process of developing, producing and distributing a new product. The aim is to
make a systematic analysis based on the relationships between the different elements that
form the product model and the environment for its development. Thus, conceptual clarity is
introduced in the study and further methodological steps are clarified. This process is central
to the model and shows the sequence of stages in product development, production and
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distribution. The conceptual model consists of separate elements that interact with each other
and describe the product in its entirety. Generating ideas is a key component of the conceptual
model. In essence, this is the first stage in the process of developing new products and is a key
prerequisite for successful innovation. Ideas arise as a result of creative thought or are
determined by customer requirements. This necessitates the knowledge of the sources of
ideas, their stimulation and effective motivation. There are a variety of classifications, but
here, for the purposes of the study, the following three groups are used: scientific sources,
technology sources, and sources from the market perspective. They also can be divided in
external and internal.
Fig.2: Model of process of creating the conception
The idea as a product of intellectual property is subject to legal protection. This
determines the existence of the "legal environment" component in which the manufacturing
process of the product develops. The rights of the sources offering their ideas, the rights they
provide to their clients' distribution channels and the legal regulation of intellectual property
rights should be considered.
As a separate block, a systematized sequence of steps that illustrates the stages of the
research process is presented.In general, the conceptual model creates a framework that
focuses on various important aspects regarding the individual elements of the product.
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An attempt to seek synergy between the requirements of today's users and the dynamic
environment in the development of new products through virtual engineering and prototyping
can be presented as an interactive matrix for the development of new products (Fig. 3).
Customer requirements
Technological means Hig
hre
liabi
lity
Var
iety
Low
pric
e/
Low
cost
ofow
ners
hip
Inno
vatio
n /
Func
tiona
lity
Safe
ty/S
ecur
ity
Smal
lser
ies
Pers
onal
izat
ion
Fast
Dep
loym
ent/
Shor
t
Life
1. Virtual Prototyping VV VVV VVV VV V VV VVV VVV2. Virtual and augmented reality VV VV VV3. Cloud-based technologies V V4. Multiphysics simulations (FEA) VV VVV V VV VV VV5. Additive technologies (3D print) and
Rapid PrototypingV VV VVV VVV VV
6. Big data and analysis VV VV V V VVV V7. Digital twins and cyber-physical systems VV VV VV V VV V8. Expert Systems and Artificial
IntelligenceVV VV VV VV VV VV
Fig.2:Interactive matrix for the development of new products
The analysis of the technological environment in the development of new products
through the tools of virtual engineering and prototyping unambiguously shows that
prototyping becomes a decisive factor for the success of a project. The virtual prototyping is
particularly important as a tool for validation of conceptual, architectural, functional and
technical solutions as early as possible (Fig. 4). Unlike other authors [3] referring to a
structure of VP with three or more elements, here an additional element of differentiation of
functional study with VP (requiring solid models) from behavioural simulation (eg. external
loads, temperatures, etc.) requiring modelling through susceptible models and FEA
simulations is introduced. According to this vision of the author, the VP has a connection
between its individual elements and a possibility for evaluation of its elements.
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Fig.4: Virtual Prototyping in the development of new products
VP plays an extremely important role in studying the "human-product" relationship. Every
aspect of human involvement in the operation and / or maintenance of an item can be
"verified" by specialized VP technologies. Very often, this analyses lead to the emergence of
new requirements concerning design, ergonomics and functionality of the product: a user-
specific feedback is obtained from the product.
3. BENCHMARKING APPLICATION METHODOLOGY.INNOVATIVE METHODS AND
APPROACHES FOR DEVELOPING PRODUCTS. PROJECT STAGES
The methodology of design does not contradict creativity, imagination and intuition.
On the contrary, applying different methods and techniques is more likely to reach new design
solutions from informal, internal and often underestimated thinking procedures inherent in
conventional design processes.
Some design methods are essentially special techniques to support creative thought.
Design methods can be classified into two major groups: creative methods and rational
methods.
Formalization is a common feature of design methods, as they attempt to prevent
mistakes typical of informal methods. The process of formalizing procedures also attempts to
• Functionalsimulation
• Behaviorsimulations
• Visualisation• 3D geometryand
productivity
Geometricstructure
Virtual realityand product-
userconnection
Functionaland functional
analysisBehavior
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expand the use of appropriate solutions, encourages and allows thinking in a complex and far
ahead of the first solution that comes to the engineer's mind.
This is also related to other basic aspects of the design methods that express design
thinking. They try to present thoughts about the processes of their ideas and put them into the
methods of design, which is a significant help in dealing with complex problems, but it is also
an integral part of the team's work, i.e. resources are provided to help track what all members
of the team are doing and to contribute to the design process.
Presenting system work outside leading engineers' minds to systems of procedures or
rules also means that engagement with repetitive procedures can be substantially reduced to
meet creative tasks with more intuitive attitude and imagination.
In recent years, it has been noticed that the growing variety of products, the reduction
of the volumes produced by each particular model, has led to the emergence of modular
platforms and variant systems, different client configurations, specific performances for
different markets, and many others, making the products multivariate and branched.
On the other hand, the lifecycle of the products over time is getting shorter. This leads
to the need of upgrades of the products after a short period of time due to market requirements
or normative/legal reasons. In this regard, the iterative methods and development approaches
are adequate to highly integrated and accelerated development processes, especially when the
task is creating innovative products.
In sequential-iterative methods and approaches to computer-aided design, the
following stages are usually included [1]:
1. Product Planning
2. Identification of customer needs
3. Product Specifications
4. Creating concepts
5. Validation of the concept
6. Product architecture
7. Design of the product
8. Design for production
9. Prototyping
10. Economic evaluation of product development
11. Industrialization
This process is widely applied in design practice and describes homogeneous product
development. In the author's practice, a family of hammer drills has been developed. This
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approach is valid in a business model of production with a high technological depth (Most
parts of the product are produced with own resources). So, it is essential to identify customer
needs and create product specifications.
The process of creating the product specification can be determined by the following steps:
• Exploring customer needs and attitudes;
• Develop indicators for each need, possibly quantifiable;
• Defining the best and acceptable values;
• Setting a priority level for each indicator;
• Transforming customer needs into technical indicators and technical specification.
3.1. EXAMPLE: DEFINE A FAMILY OF HAMMER DRILLS
The project aims at creating an innovative family of high-performance drilling hand-
held power tools, with an innovative impact system based on the principle of controlled
resonance. This family of hammer-drill machines is designed for drilling and breaking
concrete, brick, stone, etc. by means of drills, cutters, shears, chisels, etc.
In more than 95%, the impact is generated by pneumatic vacuum mechanisms, which
are a major component of this type of machine (ISO 14001, 2004). The propulsion of the
power tools is carried out by an electric motor which, by means of gears and a mechanism for
converting the rotary motion into a reciprocating drive, drives the pneumatic-vacuum impact
mechanism. The construction and methods for calculating this type of mechanism is the
know-how of the companies producing impact and impact drilling machines. For this reason,
it is difficult to find literature or publications on this topic. A large part of the publications are
about the study of harmful vibrations, their impact on the health of the operator and the means
to minimize them. The existing literature describes primarily the principles of action, but not
the methods for calculating and optimizing the parameters of pneumatic vacuum shock
mechanisms [4, 5, 6].
The family takes into account as much as possible of the specifics of the different
types of processes and customer needs profile for different climatic and geographic areas, as
well as application, productivity, ergonomicsand more special requirements.
Definition of the product: Drilling tools
Description of the product:Hand-held power drills
Primary Market:
• Users "do it yourself";
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Secondary Markets:
• Random users;
• Semi-professional;
Possible solutions:
• Low to medium weight machines;
• Wired;
• Wireless - rechargeable battery with lithium-ion technology;
Target groups:
• Users;
• Distributors for individual markets;
•Retail chains;
• Service Centres;
• Manufacturing companies;
•Legal department.
It is important that the process focuses on customer needs and requirements from the
start of the development project; otherwise there is a high risk that the product may not meet
customer needs. Multiple interpretations of the requirements may lead to uncertainties; it is
not possible to check whether the product meets the needs of the customers and the planned
development resources.Money and time could be lost in developing the wrong product. The
definition of requirements requires a lot of resources at the beginning of product development,
but on the other hand, efforts are being recovered in the later stages [7, 8]. Moreover, the
requirements are based on new technologies for future products, management of requirements
may also be a way for companies to focus on innovation.
IDENTIFICATION AND SYSTEMATIZATION OF CLIENTS 'NEEDS
In order to conduct a survey of client attitudes and assessments, it is necessary to
create a systematization of objectives and tasks for the product and its development strategy.
On the basis of surveys and mainly on the basis of internal company practices, the following
steps are proposed for identifying customer needs:
• Determining the functional range of the product
- Definition of product goals
• Collecting raw data from different stakeholder groups
- Interviews
- Discussions
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- Market surveillance
• Interpreting raw data
- Analysis of consumer interests
- Analysis of market statistics
• Organization and structure of customer needs by interested groups
- Hierarchy of Needs in Importance
• Evaluating the importance of each necessity
- Additional studies
- Quantification of needs
• Coverage of the knowledge gained during the product development process
• Continuous improvement of the product specification.
3.2. DEVELOPING OF INDICATORS FOR CUSTOMER NEEDS
In order to conduct a customer needs and assessment study based upon the mentioned
methodology it is necessary to create a system of product indicators in the context of its
market strategy to consumers. Based on a large number of analysed sales data of drilling
machinesof leading manufacturers49 indicators of client needs stand out. The following table
(Table 1) outlines these systematized needs as well:
Table 1: Table of customer needs
No System Designation of customer needsImporta
nce
1. Hammer drill Provides enough energy for impact drilling. 1
2. Hammer drillHas low level of vibrations. The operator does not get tired even after many
hours of work.1
3. Hammer drill Lasts several hours of heavy use. 2
4. Hammer drill Can drill holes in hard materials. 2
5. Hammer drill Has a hanging system. 3
6. Hammer drill Has a tool magazine. 3
7. Hammer drill Can be used for drilling of a pilot hole. 3
8. Hammer drill Fast charging. 1
9. Hammer drill Can be used during recharge. 2
10. Hammer drillCan use different systems such as SDS Plus, SDS Max. hexagonal heads and
other.3
11. Hammer drill Can use different tool lengths and diameters. 1
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12. Hammer drill Can reach narrow angles. 2
13. Hammer drill Has a long life. 2
14. Hammer drill The grip of the tool is heavy. 2
15. Hammer drill Can be used on a ladder without the risk of leakage. 2
16. Hammer drill Tools in poor condition can be used. 3
17. Hammer drill Allows the user to work with painted or rusty tools. 3
18. Hammer drill Can be charged during breaks. 3
19. Hammer drill Resistant to corrosion. 2
20. Hammer drill Keeps charging after long storage periods. 3
21. Hammer drill Keeps its charge and working capacity when it is wet.
22. Hammer drill Prevents damage to the work surface when starting work. 2
23. Hammer drill Prevents damage to the carbide insert when fitting. 1
24. Hammer drill It's warm in touch in cold weather. 3
25. Hammer drill Prevents scratch surfaces from being subtracted. 2
26. Hammer drill Easy to set up and use. 1
27. Hammer drill It's easy to plug into the power supply. 1
28. Hammer drill Prevents accidental shutdown. 2
29. Hammer drill The user can adjust the maximum torque. 1
30. Hammer drill Provides easy access to bits or accessories. 2
31. Hammer drill Facilitates the start of drilling with a smooth start. 1
32. Hammer drill Power is sufficient and comfortable. 1
33. Hammer drill It's easy to charge. 1
34. Hammer drill Works with different tools. 1
35. Hammer drill The batteries are ready for use when new. 3
36. Hammer drill The user can manually apply torque to drive a non-rotating tool when clamped. 2
37. Hammer drill It can be maneuvered in narrow areas. ** 2
38. Hammer drill It's easy to store (does not require orientation). 1
39. Hammer drill Easily fit into the toolbox. 2
40. Hammer drill Feels good in the user's hand. 1
41. Hammer drill Convenient when the user pushes it. 1
42. Hammer drill Convenient when the user is opposed to twisting. 1
43. Hammer drill Good balance. 2
44. Hammer drill Equally easy to use with the right or left hand. 2
45. Hammer drill Weight is well balanced to reduce vibration. 1
46. Hammer drill It remains comfortable when it is in the sun for a long time. 2
47. Hammer drill It's easy to handle when drilling. 1
48. Hammer drill It's easy to handle while hammer drilling. 1
49. Hammer drill Nice sound. 2
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The next important step in the development process is to transform client needs into
technical requirements. They are defined by the technical specifications of the product in
measurable parameters. Here the basic idea of QFD is used, which allows to transform
internal and external needs into product specifications. QFD can be used to prioritize
requirements, find correlations, evaluate solutions and compare the concept with competitors
[9].
In the first phase of the family definition, the most commonly used percussion
mechanisms, patent solutions for such mechanisms, as well as tools used in this class of
machines for rapid tool changingareanalysed. Appropriate electronic systems for controlling
and stabilizing the rotation speeds and increasing the comfort of work with machines of this
class are considered. Data on the growth of sales of hand-held power drills by leading
manufacturers, market shares, price levels and development trends were collected and
analysed. Various variants of systems have been explored to increase the impact energy and
energy efficiency of machines, as well as various vibrating and balancing systems.
The analysis of marketing, patent and sample studies of competing leading companies
outlines the main frameworks of the family of hammer drills.
Almost all tools from this range have vertical motors. In most machines, the tool
change system is SDS, respectively Max or Plus. Some machines use hexagons.
Representatives of the machines in the range of 3 to 5 kg have capacities ranging from
500 to 1050 W and impact energy from 2 to 12 J. For other larger machines the power reaches
1250 W and the impact energyis up to 17 J.
The following graph (Fig. 5) gives an idea of the dependency between the impact energy and
the weight of the machine.
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Fig. 5: Dependency between the impact energy and the weight of the machine
It can be seen from the graph that with the machine's weight increase the impact
energy is greater but the connection is not linear - this is determined by the type of grip used -
SDS Plus up to 3.5 kg and SDS Max above this limit on the one hand, and, on the other hand,
the type of the impact mechanism and its propulsion system. Another interesting dependency
is that between the impact energy and the power of the machine (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6: Dependency between the impact energy and the power
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The observed trend shows that with the increase of power the energy of the impact
also increases, however, for 1000W the energy is from 2.5 to 10 J. In the course of the study,
it was noted that most machines in this class are not equipped with electronic speed control.
Models which have this feature include Makita HM 1100 C and HM 1140 C models and
Metabo MHE 65 models. Other models may also have electronic controls, but no information
is provided. There is no information for presence of controllable resonance frequency.
Some models have an anti-vibration system, for example Makita HM0810 C, DeWalt
D25830 K, Hitachi H45 SR and H45 FRV. The hammer drills between 3 and 4.5 kg will be
examined in detail.
There is a tendency to seek ways to increase the impact energy of machines by
reducing the cost of materials, respectively the mass and cost of machines and increasing the
comfort of the worker. The increase of the impact energyoftenleads to a number of harmful
effects such as high vibrations, the impact of which should be reduced or eliminated. The
industry is searching new vibrating and balancing systems.
DEFINITION OF FAMILY ARCHITECTURE AND MAIN TECHNICAL
SPECIFICATIONS
The family architecture is designed with maximum coverage of customers' needs. At
the same time maximum level of unification of the drives is achieved.
The propulsion of the power tools is carried out by an electric motor which, by means
of gears and a mechanism for converting the rotary motion into a reciprocating drive, drives
the pneumatic-vacuum impact mechanism. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show family of hammer drills.
The hammer drill tools are in a wide range with various parameters and purpose. They include
machines from 2 to 15 kg and larger with energyfrom 1.5 to 40 J generated by impact
mechanisms.
In more than 95% of these, the impact is generated by pneumatic-vacuum impact
mechanisms, which are a major component of this type of machine. To achieve the wide
impact energy range, a large set of impact mechanisms with pneumatic chamber diameters
from 16 mm to 35 mm is needed.
The approach proposed by and further developed by the author with the addition of
non-quantifiable indicators was used [10]. The structure is matrix and horizontally develops
in weight classes 2, 3, 5, 7 and 15 kilograms. This structuring is determined by the market
traditions of drill tools (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8).
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The forecasted techno-economic indicators of the family are prerequisites for very
good market positioning and high competitiveness in both traditional and new markets and
with a view to expanding market shares. It is envisaged to use two types of grip - SDS Plus
and SDS Max. The purpose is to unify both types of grip for use in different machine classes
and to ensure thatthe tool change could be done with one hand. This would improve the ease
of using the machines.
Another important aim is to use spindles of the same diameters if possible. This will
lead to similarity in the mechanics of different machines and to the possibility of their
unification.
Unification is also sought in electronic systems. Machine control is essential for
comfortable and safe operation of machines.
Based on this, it will be possible to use whole nodes in the different types of family
members. For example, the motor group, together with the handle of the BP540, will
eventually be used in the 3 kilogram (II A) machine. In this machine, a gearbox of the
BPR300 (II B) machine will also be used. The handgrip from this machine is also used in a
hammer drill of the same 3 kilos K34 class. In this class can also be developed a cordless
machine from unified elements, which is not currently foreseen as a member of the family.
Fig. 7:Family of hammer drills with Pneumatic Vacuum System
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Fig. 8: Family of hammer drills with Pneumatic Vacuum System - Design
The main advantages of this family are:
• Innovative Resonance Shock Mechanical / Pneumatic Vacuum System –First on the World
Market;
• Optimal range of the family which provides flexibility, maximum satisfaction of consumer
needs and efficient production;
• High performance improved operating comfort (through reduced weight) and improved
ergonomics, especially in terms of reducing harmful vibrations affecting the operator and
overall fatigue reduction;
• High ecology through conditions for full recycling after decommissioning;
• High reliability and reduction running costs during operation, which benefits the client by
reducing the total cost of ownership;
• Economy of energy and raw materialsthrough total weight reduction of machines, with equal
productivity;
The use of controlled resonance frequency, which is a novelty in the world practice, increases
significantly the productivity, which in terms of labour costs will form a noticeable saving of
resources for the clients.
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• On the basis of the marketing researches, it has been found that most manufacturers are
expanding the range of hand-held power drills, so the expanding of Sparky's range is
warranted. This would significantly improve the market position of the company.
• Electronic systems for controlling and stabilizing the speeds and the impact also show
development. The aim is to improve the comfort of these machines and to ensure consistent
performance.
• The lack of patents for the use of resonance in impact drill machines shows that this is an
unexplored area. The use of controlled resonance in the impact system provides a unique
weight / performance ratio and price / quality that will ensure a significantly increased
competitiveness of the export-oriented family, expanding the brand's popularity and imposing
a Bulgarian end product on a leading international market.
• As a final result, the goal is to define the technical specification of a family of high
performance tools with an integrated electronic control and diagnostics system based on an
elementary technology combined with high-tech know-how for realization and control of
resonant mode of operation. The surplus valueis added through an innovative intelligent
product with a new level of performance / own weight / ergonomics and attractive price for
the market.
• The next stages of development of the product family according to (Eppinger, 2004)
mentioned above will be substantially modified by the virtual prototyping methods to the
following:
- Creating concepts and choices by developing a virtual prototype
- Validation of the concept through a virtual prototype
- Product Architecture with Integrated Management System
- Detailed design of the product family
- Production design
- Physical Prototyping using additive and other methods
- Economic assessment of product development
- Industrialization.
• The main difference in this approach is the use of virtual prototypes at the earliest possible
stage. This applies to a very high degree to the development of an innovative resonance shock
system. This is a new concept based on a well-known physical effect, which however is
generally considered harmful in the technique, and here it is proposed to use resonance to
increase the effectiveness of the impact system. The lack of sufficient information and
experimental research necessitates the use of VP as the main tool for the research and
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conceptual development of a resonance shock system as well as for the creation of family
architecture as a function of this system and its associated electronic drive system for
resonance mode.
4. PILOT AND TEST APPLICATION
4.1. CONSOLIDATED MULTIPHYSICS VIRTUAL MODEL (MECHANICAL-FLUID-
THERMAL) OF PROPULSION-SHOCK SYSTEM
A virtual prototype has been built that consolidates various physical processes. It has
incorporated the mechanical processes - the dynamics of the movement of the components of
the compensating system combined with fluid-thermal processes with the opposite in the
pneumatic cylinder.
The basis for the virtual model is a study of task 1 pneumatic-vacuum resonance
mechanism. Subsequent separate components are added to it:
• Gearbox (referred to the scheme as GBOX);
• Electric motor (referred to the scheme as MOTOR);
• Handle (referred to the scheme as H).
Additionally, some relations between the various components are presented:
Elastic connection between the spindle and the gearbox (referred to the scheme as CYL);
Each element is characterized by its mass (if known or roughly determined by expert
judgment) and has been constrained to obtain real degrees of freedom. In this way, the virtual
mathematical model is most closely approximated to the real physical model and the accuracy
degree of the obtained results will be as close as possible to those measured when testing the
test samples.
Schema designations are like indices of the basic parameters involved in the system.
A basic scheme of the built virtual prototype is shown on Fig. 9. It is clearly visible that the
kinematic action of the whole machine, as well as all the basic elements and the
corresponding constraints, joints between them, are clarified. Building on this principle
scheme, a 3D model (Fig. 10) is built into the PTC Creomodeller.
189
Fig. 9:Scheme of the consolidated multi-physical virtual model
Fig, 10: 3D model of hammer drill
Thus, the conception system can be performed simultaneously impact during the
rotation. This is accomplished by the electric motor (pos.1), through a gear the rotary motion
is transmitted to the crank (pos.2) and from there by the rocker (pos.3) is transformed into
reciprocating piston movement (pos.4). On the other hand, through the air gap, the hammer
(pos.5) and the intermediate hammer (pos.6) hit the tool.The rotary motion through the gears
(pos.8 and pos.9) and the safety clutch (pos.10) is transmitted to the spindle of the machine
and through the chuck reaches the tool.
TOOL: mT INT.HAMMER:mB
HAMMERmR
PISTON: ROCKER: mC
kB, cB
kM, cM kCYL,
kAIR,
ω
kV, cV
mGBOX
mSP
MMOTOR
mH
A
gT
10
190
After developing a representative design based on the 3D model and the consolidated
multiphysic virtual model, dedicated CAE software creates a stimulating virtual prototype,
which provides the necessary analyses.
All the necessary requirements regarding degrees of freedom, interconnections and
contacts between the individual elements are taken into account. The body parts are set with
their mass properties to evaluate all the influences on the calculated computational model.
This makes it most realistic and close to the real one to be verified later.
Careful analysis of results has shown that using this computing technology is not a
sufficiently effective way. As a result, some theoretical considerations have been made and
the necessary dependencies for defining the substitution spring parameters are derived.
When operating the mechanism, a process can be considered as isothermal, wherein:
V . (P ) / . = V . (P ) / . ,where:
V1, P1 - initial volume and pressure of air volume;
V2, P2 - volume and pressure of the air volume after time t.
The grade is determined by air properties. Two cases are considered:
Under vacuum:
The resulting force remains relatively constant, in which:
F = −P . π. R , където:RSP – radius of the bore in the spindle.
For the spring constant we obtain:
c = − P∆ . (π. R )
Under compression:
P = P = 101325.2 PaV = L . π. R ,m
P = Fπ. R , Pa
V = (L − ∆ ). π. R ,m ,
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where, LINI = 0.0256, m – initial distance between the front face of the hammer and the
piston.
After conversion for the resulting force, the following result is obtained:
F = π.R .P . LL − ∆
wherein the spring constant is determined by:
c =π. R . .
∆
∆The dependence between the spring constant and the spring deformation is shown on
Fig, 11. The values correspond to the pneumatic-vacuum mechanism of a drilling machine of
medium size and are exemplary. The graph shows that the function is highly non-linear in the
area of compression. This non-linearity has a strong influence on the resonance of the system,
as well as on the amplitudes of oscillations in resonance.
This has been taken into account in further research conducted using virtual models.
Fig. 11:Variation of the stiffness of the substitute spring
The determined spring constant refers to the cylindrical air volume considered. An
option to adjust this constant is to add a radial hole. Its function is, on the one hand, to
compensate for the losses of air through the seals and, on the other, to "soften" the spring,
thus guaranteeing the required characteristic.
When moving the piston forward (towards the intermediate cylinder) the volume of air
is thickened and the pressure rises repeatedly due to the presence of high pressure, the
1,E+00
1,E+01
1,E+02
1,E+03
1,E+04
1,E+05
1,E+06
1,E+07
1,E+08kAIR, N/m kAIR…
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resistance of the passage of air through the radial hole also increases repeatedly, which in turn
prevents the exhaust of large amount of air through it. It reaches a stage where the piston's
forehead closes the radial hole and virtually completely exits the air from there. Upon
reaching the upright position, the piston starts to move in the opposite direction, a low
pressure is created in the cylinder after the plunger head releases the radial hole, through
which air enters. The air compensates for losses resulting from gasket leakages.
4.2. VERIFICATION OF THE PHYSICAL PROTOTYPE. AMENDMENTS AND
CORRECTIONS OF THE PP AFTER RECOMMENDATIONS MADE
The physical prototype is created for the purpose of physical verification, as well as
for determining additional values of some of the model parameters (friction, heat load) from
the mode of operation. The prototype has used available components from an existing,
manufactured machine, as well as produced additional new components. A picture of the
assembled machine is shown on Fig. 12. The physical prototype has been tested in real-life
conditions and the vibro acceleration values in the handle have been measured in order to be
compared with the values determined by the computational model.
Fig. 12: The produced physical prototype
In the tests with the physical prototype, the following vibration values were measured:
• The main handle - 8 m / s2;
• The side handle - 14 m / s2;
Compared to the calculations made in the virtual model, there are small differences that
are due to the damping values set in the individual links and will be subject to subsequent
incremental settings of the computational model.
193
In parallel to the tested prototype, hammer drill from leading manufacturers in the same
class of power tools has been tested.
The design has a lot to do with the marketing of the range products. Another requirement
for the design is the use of the company's color solution configuration as well as the
uniformity of the machine shapes with the existing ones.
The design of the family of power tools has been created by a team of designers directly
involved with the overall development of the manufacturer's products. It is based on the
dimensions and shapes defined in the construction of the conceptual models for the respective
machine. Other criteria are the ergonomic requirements laid down in European standards as
well as the safety requirements. Machines must also meet the intended functional parameters.
4.3. STYLISTIC AND ERGONOMIC FORMING. CHOICE OF MATERIALS,
TEXTURES AND COLOR SOLUTION
Stylistically, this family of hammer drills follows the line of other power tools of the
manufacturer. Different designs have been developed for every machine.
Again, one or more representatives of low, medium and high class machines of the
developed range of power tools have been examined.
"LIGHT" CLASS HAMMER DRILS
In the lighter class the design solution for the K306E hammer drill shown onFig. 13 is
considered. The machine is elongated, which is determined by the coaxial motor and the
mechanics of the impact group. At its front end it is shaped as a cylindrical surface, gradually
passing into a prismatic shape, allowing user convenience of operation. There is a front
handle not shown in the figure below. For the lighter class it is also characteristic that a
minimum distance from the spindle axis is sought to an end point at the upper end of the
machine. This configuration would allow work near a wall. Also characteristic of this power
tool are the stylish air ducts at the front end of the machine. Besides their functional
significance for creating airflow along the gearbox, they add elegance in the design and
reduce the visual effect of the long spindle. Their effect is emphasized by three sloping ribs on
the plastic casing of the machine. Another component of the design is the contrast between
the recess in the rear handle area and the convex contour - passing to the gear box. This
convex contour creates the connection between the front and rear air slots. Another design of
a machine from the lighter class is shown on Fig. 14
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Fig.13:Design of a machine from the lighter class - К306Е
Fig. 14: Design of a machine from the lighter class - ВРR280Е Variant В
"MEDIUM" CLASS HAMMER DRILS
“Medium” class of the developed family of power tools is represented by two
machines - BP330CE and BP540CE. The main stylistic feature of these machines is the open
metal casing, which is different for the other hammer drills of the family. Another significant
feature of the medium class compared to lower class is the vertically positioned electric
motor. It determines the design of the machine and the deployment of its components. The
vibro insulation system, on its part, uses a rear-mounted grip, which also brings a stylistic
accent to this class of machines.
• Fig. 15 below shows a solution for shaping BP330CE (class "3kg"). There are several key
elements of the design:
• External ribbing of the metal gearbox;
• Airborne slots at the front end of the engine body;
• Incline of the rear wall of the engine body;
• Macrogeometry of the rear handle;
• Elastomeric component - geometry and positioning of the rear handle;
• A gear element of the handle to the gearbox;
195
• The electrical hammer used;
• Other elements of design.
The latest version is also shown with the styling solution for the front handle. The
front handle is intended to be common to the "middle" and "high" classes.
Fig. 15:Design project for a medium class machine ВР330СЕ
Another mid-class power tool is presented with some of the design variants developed
for it. The two options shown are the initial and final versions. Again design elements are
changed, according to the ones listed for the previous machine (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16:Design project for a medium class machine ВР540СЕ
For the final version, a model of the external surfaces defining the design of the
machine is also made. A photo of the model is shown on Fig. 17 below. The designed model
is used for initial primary assessment of grip comfort, design ergonomics, and gives a better
idea forthe aesthetics of the power tool. Discovered disadvantages are removed in the next
step to obtain suitably shaped outer surfaces.
196
Fig. 17:A design project for a medium class BP540CE. Model of the final version
HIGH-CLASS HAMMER DRILLS
Power tools from the high-class range are represented by the BP750CE. A
characteristic feature of the construction is that it is from the so-called "shell" type.
Mechanical elements are enclosed in two semi-handles that fully predeterminate the design of
the power tool. Again, a vertically installed electric motor design solution is used.
Additionally, there is a difference in the front handle as compared to the "medium" class, Fig.
18.
Fig. 18:A design project for a medium class punch BP760CE. Model of the final version
197
CREATION OF MODELS FOR PRIMARY ASSESSMENT OF GRIPPING
COMFORT AND SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF STYLISTICS
The best method for evaluating the handles is using a physical prototype to get sense
of grip comfort. Such models are produced by the Rapid Prototyping method. The evaluation
is carried out under uniform conditions through expert evaluation from the design specialists
and questioning of users working with such machines.
For the purpose of this project, several 3D printed handles (Fig. 19) were produced to
discover an optimum result that willreflect in the design members of the family.
Fig. 19: Prototype handle
MODELS FOR WEIGHT BALANCE
For the comfortable handling of hand-held power toolsweight balance is of great
importance, especially for those with battery power and increased weight due to the battery
pack. On Fig. 20 is shown the battery distribution.
Fig. 20:Battery location
198
The optimum battery pack location or the machine's total weight balance (center of
gravity and inertia characteristics) were subject to separate modeling for the rechargeable
machine by the developed family.
4.4. IMPACT SYSTEM POWERED BY SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM
This type of impact system is driven by rotation about an axis perpendicular to the axis
of the impact system.
Prototypes of the Type 5/7 kg elements and the nodes for this type size are shown on Fig. 21
to Fig. 24.
Fig. 21:Prototype of gearbox set of machine driven by slider-crank mechanism
Fig. 22:Prototype of housing-spindle of machine driven by slider-crank mechanism
199
Fig. 23:Prototypes of the kinematic elements of the actuating and impact systems
Fig. 24:Prototype of the housing
The remaining components of the structure - axes, O-rings and bushings - are
relatively more simple as design features. However, their use in the pneumatic vacuum
mechanism requires their compatibility with the above criteria - in particular, this applies to
the original features.
Fig. 25 and Fig. 26 show the prototypes of the gearbox, the air spring and impact
systems elements of the 3 kg type.
200
Fig. 25:Gearbox prototype
Fig. 26:Prototypes of the kinematic elements of the actiating and impact systems
The produced prototypes gave the full scope of all the necessary tests and tests that
followed in the implementation of the project.
PROTOTYPING OF THE SYSTEMS
According to the initial separation of the components of the power tool by individual
systems, the examination of the other groups continued. Detailed design concepts are also
considered, according to the machine class, each type being represented by a representative
machine. The main objective is to obtain adequate functional prototypes. The prototypes
allow functional tests of the design concepts. Also, they will be used as the basis for
constructing design documentation for a productiontest series.
201
ACTUATING SYSTEM: GEARBOX SET
The gearbox set is an important unit of the actuating system. It includes gears, which
are producing the necessary reduction of the revolutions of the electric motor and are driving
the spindle and the impact group. (Fig. 27)
Another important element of the gearbox is the safety clutch designed to limit the
transmission of high resistance torque to the motor to permissable value. The safety clutch is a
separate node from the machine. For large machines, the clutch design is radial roller type.
The prototype of the clutch is shown in Fig. 28.
Fig. 28:Prototype of the safety clutch
Fig. 27:Gearbox set
202
In the case of machines with coaxial motor, the most common safety clutch was used.
In them, the sprocket transmits its torque to the spindle through a housing pressed by a tilted
cylindrical spring located on the spindle.
An important feature of the connectors is their ability to tare during assembling. In the
radial roller connectors, this is achieved by placing of spacers under the springs, and in the
front coupler by placing the washers to the cylindrical spring.Front cam coupler is also used
for machines with a vertical electric motor, the design of which is a combination of the two
above-mentioned ones.
CARRIER SYSTEM: HOUSING ELEMENTS OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR
The elements of the support system differ mainly by the machine class, which defines
conceptually the type of body elements. In general, the hulls can be divided into low-class
machines (2kg and 3kg), medium-sized machines (3kg and 5kg) and high class (7kg or more).
Prototypes of 3 carrier systems from low and medium class were made.
The housings of the electric motor in the low-class machines are characterisedwith the
longitudinal horizontal positioning of the engine. This also determines the structure of the
body of the motor. It carries the stator pack and the rear bearing of the anchor shaft. The stator
package is located on ribs on the inside of the body and the rear bearing in a specially
designed socket. The gearbox is attached to the front end of the motor body, and to the rear
there is a pair of half-handles. Motor body for power tool with coaxial motor is shown on Fig.
29.
Fig. 29:Motor body for power tool with coaxial motor
203
In the middle class machines, the housing elements of the motor are vertically
positioned and are the main part of the machine's outer surface. In this way, they are also
subject to stylistic shaping, following the general line of the machine. Again, the gear housing
is attached to the upper end of the machine, and in the lower part the rear bearing of the rotor
shaft is based. There are also structural elements for attaching the brush holders as well as
functional elements related to the attachment of the electronic block. A diffuser is provided in
the motor body, and there are also slots for blowing the airflow created by the fan. For
connection of the stator pack and the gearbox there are provided columns for tightening the
screws and forpositioning of the components. One of the sidewalls is suitably designed to
attach the rear handle.
Fig. 30 shows a prototype of a motor unit for a vertical motor machine made using the
SLS prototype technology (Selective Laser Sintering).
Fig. 30:Prototype of a motor unit for a vertical motor machine made using the SLS
5. PROTOTYPING OF FAMILY OF HAND-HELD POWER TOOLS.CHOICE OF
APPROPRIATE PROTOTYPING TECHNOLOGIES.PRODUCTION OF THE POWER TOOLS
AND THE SUPPORTING ELEMENTS OF THE FAMILY
The individual elements were prototyped using different production technologies, and
a clasification of accepted and implemented technological processes were made:
204
• Mechanical components that are produced with the same technology as serial
production, but usinganother machines (mostly universal);
• Aluminum / Magnesium Alloy Body Elements - mostly made by machining using a 5-
axis machining center. Regardless of the complex surfaces, this method is more
adaptable compared to other methods for obtaining precise thin-walled parts;
• Plastic housing elements (mainly PA6 material) such as bodies, handles and others -
they are mostly produced through Rapid Prototyping technology. This method allows
production of complex shapes regardless of the complexity of the surfaces.
6. TEST OF THE PERFORMANCE OF COMPETITIVE MACHINES
The results of previous BP400E hammer drill tests were compared with corresponding
result of competitive machines - AEG PN400E; GBH5-40DE and GBH7-40DE produced by
Bosch; DW745 produced byDeWalt. The studies are presented sequentially below.
The comparison was initially made at constant speed drilling, common to all the machines,
and with different diameters of the used tools. Data from the tests described above were used,
with SPARKY's BP400E data collected from the final machine structure (hammer and spindle
revolutions). The results are shown on Fig. 31.
Fig. 31:Comparison of BP400E and competitive machines
7. RESULTS
Through the VP and PP an innovative resonance impact mechanical / pneumatic
vacuum system - a novelty on the world market, protected by an international patent, was
developed;
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
16 25 32 40
Perf
orm
ance
,V,c
m3/
min
Diameter of the drill, dd, mm
BP400E PN400EGBH5-40DE GBH7-40DEDW745
205
The optimal range of the family is defined as an area and a dimensional order allowing
for flexibility, maximum satisfaction of consumer needs and efficient production;
High performance (best worldwide performance), improved work comfort (through
reduced weight) and improved ergonomics for the operator and overall fatigue reduction are
achieved;
Energy savings and raw materials through total weight reduction of machines, with
equal performance.
The envisaged technical and economic indicators of the family are a prerequisite for
very good positioning on the market and achieving high competitiveness.
8. REFERENCES
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maintenance processes.. Computers & Graphics, 23(3), pp. 389-403.
3. Wang, G., 2002. Definition and Review of Virtual Prototyping.. Journal of Computing and
Information Science in Engineering, pp. 232-236.
4. Р е ев, Н. П. и д ., 1970. Ручнье електрические машинь ударного действия. М ва: Нед а
5. BS OHSAS 18001, 2007. OHSAS 18001 - Системи за управление на здравето и безопасността
при работа.. еизв.: еизв.
6. EPTA, 23 е е в и 2008 г.. Протокол от заседание на законодателната комисия на EPTA.,
С и : еизв.
7. Kujala, S., 2002. User Studies: A Practical Approach to User Involvement for Gathering User Needs
and Requirements.. Mathematics and Computing Series, Issue 116.
8. Almefelt, L., 2005. Requirements-driven product innovation—methods and tools reflecting industrial
needs. Ph.D. Thesis., Gothenburg: Chalmers University of Technology.
9. Valtasaari, M., 2000. Design for customer needs: Utilization of quality function deployment in product
development (MSc. Thesis), Lappeenranta: Department of Industrial Engineering and Management,
Lappeenrannan University of Technology.
10. Sharman, D. & Yassine, A., 2004. Characterizing Complex Product Architectures. Systems
Engineering, pp. 35 - 60.