inulins-investigating the influence of inulin as a fat

8/9/2019 Inulins-Investigating the Influence of Inulin as a Fat

1/13

Investigating the influence of inulin as a fat

substitute in comminuted products using rheology,

calorimetric and microscopy techniques

Derek F. Keenan a,* , Mark A.E. Auty b,2, Linda Doran b,2, Joseph P. Kerry c ,3,Ruth M. Hamilla,1

aTeagasc, Food Research Centre Ashtown, Dublin 15, IrelandbTeagasc,

Food

Research

Centre

Moorepark,

Fermoy,

Co.

Cork,

IrelandcFood

Packaging

Group,

School

of

Food

and

Nutritional

Sciences,

University

College

Cork,

Co.

Cork,

Ireland

f o od s t ru c tu r e x xx ( 2 01 4 ) x xx –x x x

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +353 1 8059500; fax: +353 1 8059550.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D.F. Keenan), [email protected] (Mark A.E. Auty), [email protected] (J.P. Kerry).

1 Tel.: +353 1 8059500; fax: +353 1 8059550.2 Tel.: +353 25 42222; fax: +353 25 42340.3 Tel.: +353 21 4903000; fax: +353 21 4903000.

a

r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o

Article history:

Received 16 January 2014

Received in revised form

17 April 2014

Accepted 16 June 2014

Available online xxx

Keywords:

SausageFat replacement

Inulin

Design of experiment (DOE)

Relaxation studies

Cryo-scanning electron microscopy

a

b

s

t

r

a

c

t

Thepresentmanuscript studied the effects of fat substitutionwith twocommercial inulins

on themagnetic resonance, rheological, calorimetric andmicroscopic properties of break-

fast sausages. Sausage formulations were evaluated using mixture design (D-optimal). A

total of 17 experimental treatments were employed, with each representing a different

substitution level for fat. Sausage batters were formulated to contain lean pork shoulder,

pork back fat/inulin, water, rusk andseasoning (44.3, 18.7, 27.5, 7 and2.5% w/w, respective-

ly). The resultant products’ water mobility, deformation and thermal behaviors were

analyzed for each treatment group using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), rheology,

differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), while their ultra-structural properties were ana-lyzed using light, confocal andscanning electronmicroscopy for selected extremes. Signifi-

cantmodelswere produced forwatermobilitywith inulin inclusions in sausages increasing

the relative protonpopulations of boundwater (T2b) values ( p < 0.0001)anddecreasing free

water (T22) population ( p < 0.0001). Inulin inclusions significantly altered the rheological

characteristicswith increases inboth thegel strength (G00 G00

0) andunit interactionstrength

( An) ( p < 0.0001, respectively). Complementary temperature-dependent behavior was ob-

servedusing rheology andDSCwhichshowed increasedelastic behavior (G0) circa 40 8C that

corresponded to the endothermic peaks for the onset of protein denaturation. Cryo-scan-

ning electron and confocal laser microscopy techniques permitted visualization of the

aggregation of inulin micro-crystals and distribution of fat within the cooked sausage

matrix. Overall, the work presented has improved our understanding of the fundamental

properties of sausage products and will enable a more scientific-based approach to future

product development.#

2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

FOOSTR-15; No. of Pages 13

Please cite this article in press as: Keenan, D. F., et al. Investigating the influence of inulin as a fat substitute in comminuted products using rheology, calorimetric and microscopy techniques. Food Structure (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.001

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foostr

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.0012213-3291/# 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.001mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.001http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/aip/22133291http://www.elsevier.com/locate/foostrhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.001http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.001http://www.elsevier.com/locate/foostrhttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/aip/22133291http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.001mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.001


2/13


3/13

products represented two commercial forms of inulin)) were

developed using Design Expert software (v. 7.6.1, Stat-Ease

Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA). Pork shoulder (95% lean) and pork

back fat (Granby Meats, Dublin, Ireland) were minced (model

PT-82/22 Mainca Barcelona, Spain) twice (5 mm plate size) and

bowl chopped with powdered inulin, ice water, seasoning and

rusk for 2 min. Sausage batter was piped into a cellulose casing

and blast frozen (air speed 3.75 m/s) and stored (20 8C) for allsubsequent analyses as outlined in a previous study (Keenan

et al., 2014). Sausages (five per treatment, vacuum-packed)

were cooked usingwaterbath immersion (85 8C) offive vacuum-

packed

sausages

per

treatment was

until they

had

achieved a

core temperature of 73 8C. Core temperature profiles were

recorded during the process using an Ellab E-Val TM TM9608

data module (Ellab [UK] Ltd., Norfolk, England) connected to a

laptop. A standard Ellab SSA-12080-G700-TS temperature probe

was inserted through an Ellab GKM-13009-C020 packing gland

(20

mm)

into

the

largest sample

in

the vacuum

bag.

2.2.

Time

domain

nuclear

magnetic

resonance

(TD-NMR)

Nuclear

magnetic

resonance

(NMR)

relaxation

measurements

were carried out as previously described (McDonnell et al.,

2013), on a Maran Ultra instrument (Oxford Instruments,

Abington, Oxfordshire, UK) with a resonance frequency for

protons of 23.2 MHz. Transverse relaxation (T2) times were

measured using Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG) pulse se-

quence

with

the

resultant relaxation

decays

analyzed

by

tri-

exponential unsupervised fitting in the RI Win-DXP software

(V. 1.2.3 Oxford Instruments, Abington, Oxfordshire, UK).

2.3.

Rheology

Rheological measurements were performed on a Physica MCR301 rheometer (Anton Paar GmbH, Graz, Austria) fitted with

parallel plate (50 mm; smooth) geometry running Rheoplus

software package (version 3.21, Anton Paar GmbH, Germany).

Sausage batterswere pressed fromtheir casingsand placed onto

the center of the base plate. The upper plate was moved into

position, i.e. the distancebetween the twoplates (gap)was set to

1 mm. Excess material was trimmed from the plate edges and

samples were allowed to rest for 5 min to achievea constant test

temperature

(25

8C

regulated

by the

rheometer’s

Pelltier

plate

and temperature hood), and for relaxation of residual stresses.

Viscoelastic properties were assessed by performing a prelimi-

nary amplitude sweep to identify the linear viscoelastic (LVE)

region of the samples and the strain (0.1%) that should be usedfor the resultant frequency sweep. A frequency sweep from 0.1

to 10 Hz was performedand the results for storagemodulus (G0),

loss modulus (G00), and complex modulus (G*) were recorded.

These data were modeled using the following power law

equations as suggested by Friedrich and Heymann (1998):

G0¼ G

0

0vn0 (1)

G00¼ G

00

0vn00 (2)

G¼

Anvn (3)

Thermal gelation properties were assessed as previously

described (Cofrades,Serrano,Ayo, Carballo,& Jiménez-Colmenero,

2008) with slight modifications. Before testing, samples were

rested (5 min) to achieve a constant test temperature (5 8C) and

relaxationof residual stresses. Thermal gelationwas inducedby

heating samples from5 8C to 85 8C at 1 8C min1 (Brunton, Lyng,

Zhang, & Jacquier, 2006). Temperature was controlled by the

aforementioned Pelltier plate and temperature hood. Samples

were sheared at a fixedfrequency of1.0 Hz with a strain of0.02%.

Sampleperimeterwas coated with a thin layerofpetroleumjellyto prevent dehydration during testing. Changes in the storage

modulus (G0) were monitored throughout the gelling process.

2.4. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

Thermal transition properties were measured using a TA

Instruments DSC (Model No. DSC 2010, TA Instruments Inc.,

New Castle, DE, USA) equipped with nitrogen cooling. Indium

(melting point 156.6 8C) and baseline (empty pan) calibrations

were

carried

out

prior

to

testing.

Homogenized

(Robot

Coupé

Blixer 41 mono, Bourgogne, France) sausages samples

(15–20 mg) were weighed into aluminum pans and hermeti-

cally sealed. Samples were equilibrated at 10 8C and thenheated

from

10

to

90

8C

at

a

heating

rate

of

10

8C

min1

against a reference (empty) pan (McArdle, Kerry, Mullen, Allen,

& Hamill, 2011). Onset temperature, protein denaturation (T o),

the peak temperature (T p) and the denaturation enthalpy (DH)

were recorded. Samples were analyzed in triplicate.

Fig. 1 – Representative distribution of T2 relaxation times

for

breakfast

sausages:

(a)

comparison

between

raw

(

)

and

cooked

(–)

in

control

sausages

(run

10)

and

(b)

comparison

between

cooked

control

(–)

sausages

and

selected fat-substituted counterparts [- - - 100%

substitution

HP

(run

10)];

[

67%

substitution

HP:GR

1:1

(run 15)].

f o od s t ru c tu r e x xx ( 2 01 4 ) x xx – xx x 3



http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.001http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2014.06.001


4/13

2.5.

Microscopy

Sausage

samples

(1

cm3)

were

flash

frozen

in

liquid

nitrogen

and stored at 80 8C. Sections were cut (20 mm) using a Leica

CM1950 cryostat (Leica Biosystems, Nussloch, Germany) after

equilibration to specimen chamber temperature (25 8C).

Light microscopy sections were stained with fast green and

iodine (ratio 10:1) stains and examined using a Leica DMLB

light

microscope

(Leica

Microsystems

AG,

Wetzlar,

Germany).

Confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) was used in

conjunction with differential staining to visualize the distri-

bution of the fat component within the sausages. Sectionswere

stained

with

Fast

Green

(FCF)

and

Nile

Red

stains

and

examined under a Leica SP5 confocal microscope (Leica

Microsystems GmBH, Mannheim, Germany).

For Cryogenic Scanning Electron Microscopy (Cryo-SEM),

cooked samples were frozen in liquid nitrogen slush (210 8C)

and transferred to an Alto 2500 cryo preparation chamber

(Gatan

Ltd.,

Oxfordshire,

UK)

at

185

8C.

Samples

were

fractured used a cooled knife and then warmed to 95 8C

Table

2

–

Regression

coefficients

for

significant

quality

and

structural

parameters

of

sausages.

Dependent variables Independent variables R2 p model p lack of fit

X1 X2 X3 X1*X2 X1*X3 X2*X3 X1*X2*X3

DH p1 Y 1 1.05 0.22 0.17 0.85 0.0001 0.25

DH p2 Y 2 1.36 2.97 3.77 1.96 2.38 1.89 0.90 0.0001 0.78

G0

0 Y 3 8.73 10.66 11.67 0.89 0.0001 0.84

G0

0G

00

0 Y 4 8.47 10.40 11.42 0.89 0.0001 0.84 An Y 5 8.80 10.66 11.74 0.84 0.0001 0.86

n0 Y 6 0.18 0.37 0.32 0.40 0.0286 0.76

G0(30) Y 7 45.00 222.28 303.96 0.75 0.0001 0.87

G0(72) Y 8 47.10 114.40 128.10 0.35 0.0468 0.60

T2b (P) Y 9 15.40 27.71 30.03 6.86 11.39 30.63** 0.90 0.0001 0.79

T2b (T) Y 10 17.52 14.09 12.10 0.61 0.0013 0.98

T21 (P) Y 11 69.48 65.01 64.75 5.45 14.77 27.13** 0.70 0.0100 0.56

T21 (T) Y 12 40.30 26.87 21.94 0.96 0.0001 0.99

T22 (P) Y 13 15.51 7.08 5.12 0.96 0.0001 0.56

T22 (T) Y 14 171.68 140.96 136.22 0.85 0.0001 0.08

*,

**,

***Significant at p < 0.05, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001 respectively.

Fig.

2

–

Contour

plots

of

T2

relaxation

data

of

(a)

relative

proton

population

for

bound

water

(T2b

–

%);

(b)

time

constant

for

bound

water

population

(ms);

(c)

relative

proton

population

for

intra-cellular

water

(T21

–

%);

(d)

time

constant

for

intra-

cellular water population (ms); (e) relative proton population for extra-cellular water (T22 – %); (f) time constant for extra-

cellular

water

population

(ms);

for

fat

substituted

sausages

(A,

pork

fat;

B,

OraftiW GR;

C,

OraftiW HP;

where

A

+

B

+

C

=

18.7%

of total mixture).

f o od s t ru c tu r e x x x ( 2 01 4 ) x xx – xx x4





5/13

for 5 min to remove surface ice. Fracture surfaces were sputter

coated with platinum for 120 s at 130 8C and the sample

transferred to the cold stage in the SEM instrument. Images

were acquired at 125 8C and 2 kV accelerating voltage in a

Carl Zeiss Supra 40VP field emission scanning electron

microscope (Carl Zeiss Ltd., Hertfortshire, UK).

2.6. Analysis of data

Mixture design experiments were designed and analyzed

using Design Expert (v. 7.6.1, Stat-Ease Inc., Minneapolis, MN,

USA)

as

previously

described

(Keenan

et

al.,

2014). All

parameters of NMR spectrometry, rheometry and calorimetry

were assessed and modeled using linear, quadratic, or

Scheffe’s special cubic models. Models were subjected to

analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine the significance

( p


6/13

concentrations of 13–50% due to these limited surfactant

properties (Kim et al., 2001).

T21 was the second peak identified and occurred between

23–41 ms. T21 values represent water trapped by the dense

myofibrillar network, i.e. ‘intra-myofibrillar water’ (Bertram

et al., 2001).The T21 population represented the majority of the

water present in the sausage matrix for all samples and this

overall trend is consistent with the findings of other authors(Møller, Gunvig, & Bertram, 2010). T21 values were fitted to a

quadratic model which was found to be significant ( p < 0.01)

with a good fit to the experimental data (R2 = 0.70). The model

showed

that

linear

terms

were

significant

(

p

<

0.0140)

and

that

fat formulations resulted in higher T21 values than their inulin

substituted counterparts (Fig. 2c). Additional interactions for

the B and C components (GR and HP) were observed

( p


7/13

implying a relatively weak structure, which is indicative of a

gel-like material consisting of a loosely ordered structure with

a viscoelastic consistency (Delgado-Pando, Cofrades, Ruiz-

Capillas, Triki, & Jiménez-Colmenero, 2012). Power law-fitted

parameters were derived from G0, G00 and G* moduli as

previously described (Campo & Tovar, 2008). G00 and G00

0

(Eqs. (1) and (2)) are the initial storage and loss moduli,

respectively, and are a measure of the resistance of a testmaterial to elastic (storage) and viscous (loss) deformation

(Zhou & Mulvaney, 1998) at an angular frequency of

0.5 rad s1. The parameters were fitted with a linear model,

which

was

transformed

using

a

natural

log

recommended

by

the Box–Cox method. The initial elastic behavior of sausages,

G0

0, increased in sausages which contained more inulin,

particularly in full substitutions with Orafti HP, compared to

intermediate formulations and fat-only controls (Fig. 4a). The

predicted model for G00 was found to be significant ( p


8/13

and exhibited a lower frequency dependence. The reason for a

weakening of the protein conformation is unclear as inulin

appeared to add structural stability to the sausage matrix (as

evidenced by the other rheological parameters). NMR data

showed more bound water which could be attributed to the

inulin molecules. Typically, sausage emulsions are formed by

the salt-soluble myofibrillar proteins emulsifying the fat and

immobilization of water (Feiner, 2006, chap. 12). Less availablewater may have affected the emulsion structure, with less

protein being solubilized and hence reduced emulsification of

the fat component and consequently, increased its frequency

dependence.

3.2.2. Temperature-dependent behavior

Temperature sweeps showed that the thermal behavior of

samples in terms of their storage, loss moduli and phase angle

(G0, G00 and d) as a function of temperature (5–85 8C) (Fig. 5a–c).

Differences

in

thermal

rheological

properties

were

observed

between the different formulations due to their differing

compositions (presence or absence of fat/inulins) as expected

and are supported by the previous texture and rheologicalexperiments.

As

was

the

case

for

frequency

sweeps,

storage

modulus (elastic behavior) exceeded the loss modulus

(viscous behavior) over the temperature range, indicating

gel network (elastic) formation containing a substantial

emulsion structure (viscous). These observations were in line

with previous studies on the rheological thermal gelling

properties of low fat pork liver patés formulated with other

polysaccharides (Delgado-Pando et al., 2012). Fig. 5a and b

shows a slight decrease in both G0 and G00 moduli for samples

containing higher fat content, such as the full fat control (and

to a lesser extent the intermediate formulations) at 30–35 8C. If

we consider the absolute values of G0 at 30 8C in the mixturedesign, it shows that data was significantly ( p < 0.0001) fitted

to a linear model with a good fit to the experimental data

(R2 = 0.75) and showed that the linear components were the

most

significant

terms.

The

modeled

surface

shows

that

G0

values were lower in higher fat containing formulations than

their inulin containing counterparts (Fig. 4e). This observation

is consistent with the melting of pork back fat ( Jiménez-

Colmenero et al., 2012) and is in agreement with the DSC data

in the present study. This was followed by a dramatic increase

in

G0 and

G00 values

for

all

samples

between

40

and

80

8C

during

which the main rheological changes occurred (Fig. 5a and b).

This can be attributed to conformational changes in the meat

proteins that occur in this temperature range leading to thecharacteristic

stiff

elastic

matrix

of

meat

gels

The

absolute

values of G0 at 72 8C (finishing temperature of the sausages in

the present study) were successfully fitted ( p < 0.0468) to a

linear model (R2 = 0.35). Similarly, samples containing inulin

Fig.

6

–

(a)

Representative

thermal

behavior

of

control

( ~ )

sausages

and

selected

fat-substituted

counterparts

[&

–

100%

substitution

HP

(run

10)];

[

–

67%

substitution

HP:GR

1:1

(run

15)];

[+

–

50%

substitution

HP:GR

1:1

(run

16)];

[*

–

33%

substitution HP:GR 1:1 (run 5)]; and contour plots of thermal behavior: endothermic peaks (EP) (b) 1; and (c) 2; in

fat-substituted

sausages

by

differential

scanning

calorimetry

(DSC)

(A,

pork

fat;

B,

Orafti1 GR;

C,

Orafti1 HP;

where

A + B + C = 18.7% of total mixture).

f o od s t ru c tu r e x x x ( 2 01 4 ) x xx – xx x8





9/13

had higher storage moduli than those containing fat (Fig. 4f).

The presence of inulin increased the storage and loss moduli

due to the formation of inulin’s own three-dimensional

network which differs to that of pork back fat. These data

corresponds to the thermal properties observed in the second

endothermic peak of DSC data (Fig. 6a). However, the effect

was not consistent for increasing levels of inulin, for example,

run 15 (containing 1/3 of each fat/inulin component) hadsubstantially higher G0 and G00 values than those containing

full substitution with inulin. Statistical analysis did not

support any possible interactive effect between the two inulin

types

to

account

for

this

phenomenon.

It

could

be

attributed

to

the heterogeneous nature of the sausage batter or due to the

mechanisms governing the formation of the inulin gel,

i.e. nucleation and crystallization, which are difficult to control

and rely on the mutual arrangement of the crystals that can

lead to gels with different rheological properties (Glibowski,

2010; Stasiak & Dolatowski, 2008). Furthermore, increases in G0

and G00 values were less pronounced in control formulations

compared to their inulin containing counterparts.

Further investigation of the absolute values of G0, G00 and d

and specific temperature points in the mixture designrevealed some interesting observations. Significant differ-

ences were observed between different formulations for G0

values from5 to 72 8C. However, this was only the case from 5

to

50

8C

for G00 values. This

could

indicate

that

conditions

that

conferred elasticity rather than viscosity were favored after

50 8C. Phase angle data showed no significant differences

Fig.

7

–

Light

micrographs

of

cryostat

sections

of

(a)

control

(full

fat)

sausages

at

4T; (b) 10T; and (c) 20T magnifications and

(d) fully fat-substituted sausages at 4T; (e) 10T; and (f) 20T magnifications.






10/13

between formulations between 5 and 30 8C, implying a

similar underlying structure in all formulations. This

changed with increasing heat from 40 to 80 8C, with inulin-

formulated samples showing increases in viscoelastic prop-

erties (data not shown). These changes imply substantial

structural changes occurring during the application of heat

(as expected) and this changed significantly for different

levels of fat substitution (which is in agreement in with DSC,rheological and textural parameters shown in this study). A

decrease in G0 and G00 values was observed between 80 and

85 8C for sausage samples containing inulin, which were

more

notable in

samples

containing

the

inulin

form

Orafti

HP. This may be attributable to the greater degree of

polymerization (DP) of Orafti HP (>23) compared to Orafti

GR (>10). Inulin with high DP is thought to be thermally

unstable and temperatures above80 8C havebeen reported to

inhibit the formation of gels (Bot et al., 2004; Glibowski &

Wasko, 2008).

3.3.

Differential

scanning

calorimetry

(DSC)

Fig.

6a

shows

typical

DSC

heat

curves

for

fat

and

inulin-

enriched sausages, with two endothermic peaks obtained for

all samples. The first endothermic peak had an onset

temperature between 24 and 31 8C and corresponds to the

melting point of fat. This finding is in agreement with data

presented by other authors (Morin et al., 2004). A linear model

was

fitted

to

the

reaction

enthalpy

(data,

which

was

transformed using an inverse square-root power law recom-

mended by the Box–Cox method). The model was significant

( p


11/13

from a system (Hinrichs, Prinsen, & Frijlink, 2001). This helps

to maintain the proteins native confirmation and prevents

denaturation (Barclay et al., 2010). Other reported findings of

increased DH values soy protein dispersions containing both

sucrose and inulin (using water as a solvent) compared to

controls18 were postulated as a thermal stabilization effect

on native soy proteins by inulin. Other contributory factors

which are responsible for the increased thermal propertiesobserved in the second thermal peak may have been due to

the water binding effect of inulin. This could limit the

available water to other matrix components, e.g. rusk,

thereby

limiting

hydration of

starch

and profoundly

modifying the thermal properties of starch gelatinization

( Juszczak et al., 2012).

3.4.

Microscopy

Lightmicroscopy conducted on

iodine

and

fast green stained

cryostat sections of control (full fat) and fully fat-substituted

sausages at different magnifications (4, 10 and 20) are

presented in Fig. 7a–f. Both treatments consisted of acontinuous

protein

phase (green)

containing fat

globules

and adipose cells (unstained). Some larger muscle fragments

were also visible. Large aggregates of partially gelatinized

starch granules (stained purple in iodine) were dispersed

within the protein matrix. These are most likely rusk

particles. No obvious structural differences were observed

between the

control

and

inulin-containing samples. The

presenceof fat and its distributionwithin the sausage matrix

was subsequently visualized using confocal scanning laser

microscopy (CSLM) and differential staining with fast green

and Nile red (Fig. 8a–c). Significant differences between the

sausage treatments were observed. Fig. 8a shows fat (stained

green) was abundantly present in full-fat control and was

coated by the protein/water continuous phase forming the

typical sausage emulsion-like structure. A large population

of adipose tissue is also visible in the bottom right of theimage. Fat substitution in different sausage formulations led

to a concomitant reduction of green stain, which can be

clearly seen in Fig. 8b and c representing 66% fat reduction

(run

15)

and

full fat

substitution, respectively.

The residual

green stain in the latter represents the native fat content of

the pork shoulder muscle. The presence of the inulin and its

distribution within the sausage matrix was visualized in a

fully fat-substituted formulation (Fig. 9c and d) using

cryogenic scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM) and

compared against

control (Fig. 9a and

b)

formulation (full

fat). Gelatinized starch granules from the added rusk could

be clearly identified in the sausage matrix (labeled SG –

Fig. 9a). Sausage treatment containing inulin had crystal-line

regions, often

in

the form of rounded spherulitic

structures. These structures were notpresent in the control

sample, which contained more conventional fat morphol-

ogy (labeled F – Fig. 9b), and it is strongly suggested that

they are inulin crystals (labeled I – Fig. 9d). Previous studies

(Cooper & Carter, 1986; Cooper & Steele, 1991)have reported

that inulin

particles normally

crystallize

from

water as

ovoids of 1–10 mm diameter, much like the observations of

Fig.

9

–

Cryo-scanning

electron

microscopy

(cryo-SEM)

of

(a

and

b)

control;

and

(c

and

d)

full

fat-substituted

sausages

(where

GS, gelatinized starch; F, fat; and I, inulin).






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inulins-investigating the influence of inulin as a fat

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