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INVESTIGATING Le CORBUSIER & FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier are considerably the greatest pioneers of architectural development of the twentieth century. Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier both had a mutual understandings of the fundamental principles of architecture which I believe drove them to their successes.

2.0 BACKGROUND: Le CORBUSIER (1887 -1965)

Le Corbusier, a Swiss – French designer and artist, was born Charles-Edouard Jeanneret on October 6th 1887 in a small town called La Chaux-Fonds. By 1900, he was already training as an engraver, painter and goldsmith at the Ecole d’Art in La Chaux-de-Fonds, where he later enrolled in architecture (Dennis 1991; RIBA 2011). Between 1907 and 1911, Le Corbusier travelled and studied extensively in Europe and worked in numerous cities including Paris, Berlin, Desden and Vienna with leading architectural firms (RIBA 2011; Dennis 1991).While in Paris, he studied under Auguste Perret and absorbed the cultural and artistic life of the city (Dennis 1991). During this period he developed a keen interest in the synthesis of the various arts. Although his early work was mainly nature inclined, he later developed a reinforced concrete skeleton system “Maison-Domino” for multi storey buildings, a basic building prototype with free-standing pillars and rigid floors (Gans 1995, 12).

Between 1916 and 1922, he moved to and settled in Paris where he founded, published and edited L’Espirit Nouveau magazine, an avant-garde magazine about the arts (RIBA 2011). He also published his “manifesto of purism” where he implied that artistic work is determined by the use of elementary geometrical forms (Dennis 1991, RIBA 2011). From 1922 his idea became more physical mainly as houses which he created as “a machine for living in” and which he incorporated his trademark Five Points of Architecture (Dennis 1991; Gans 1995). During this period, he published his urban design as a project for a city of three million inhabitants, the principle of “Radiant City” (Samuel 2007). Incorporated in this approach are the differentiation of vehicles and pedestrians and the buildings in the form of large housing units that are integrated into the supply and service facilities (Samuel 2007; Dennis 1991; GHM ?). Although there were controversies at that time, his idea was later adopted in numerous urban planning projects across the world (RIBA 2011).

In 1923, Le Corbusier published a book titled Vers une architecture [Towards a New Architecture], based on his earlier articles in L’Espirit Nouveau magazine. In this book, he defined architecture as “wise, correct and magnificent play of light in the united body” (Le Corbusier). He demonstrated in his buildings the design example of functionalism with prognostic thinking without neglecting the architecture as art (GMH ?, Gant 1995). He continued to practice until the 1940 when the fall of France brought to halt his activities (RIBA 2011). After the Second World War, Le Corbusier and group of architects designed the United Nations Headquarters in New York where he owes the design of the secretariat to himself (RIBA 2011).

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Although his vision was mainly focused on solutions / better living conditions for resident in crowded cities, Le Corbusier ideals resolved and provoked many crises involving modern architecture and most paths, if not all, lead to or from him (Gans 1995). One can argue that it is impossible to not cross paths with the phenomenon that is Le Corbusier and his contemporaries, to some extent, found it quite frustrating to know that he is miles ahead and already has all their best ideas.

2.1 Le CORBUSIER: VILLA SHODHAN

Villa Shodha is one of the numerous works of Le Corbusier. Villa Shodhan is a private residence located in India just after Kirariwala road right behind a hospital. Le Corbusier had several plans for the house, two of which were for Chinubhai Chimanbhai the mayor of Ahmedabad and Surottam Hutheesing his cousin (Gans 1995). Both projects were commissioned in 1951 but failed due to 'spatial extravagance and related cost' (Gans 1995: 210) and Hutheesing later sold his plans to a man called Shyamubhai Shodhan. Shodhan built the house in exactly the same way it was planned with the supervision of Le corbusier's office. Working in Ahmedabad was a first for Le corbusier, he found a strategic way of building in India because the climate was so diferent. He developed many materials and geometric formulas by splitting cubes into quadrants and moving them into a matrix of open and closed spaces which would help with ventilation and reduce the amount of direct sunlight (Dosh 1994, Gans 1995). 'Le corbusier summed up rhetorically, "what have I given to Shodhan? I have given him: shade in the summer, sun in the winter, air circulating and cool in all seasons". (Doshi 1994: 5-6, Gans 1995: 211)

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Shodhan House in Ahmedabad, India (Tzonis1937: 206)

Shodhan House in Ahmedabad, India

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Ground floor plan and plaided grid

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2.2 Le CORBUSIER DRIVING PRINCIPLES – FIVE POINTS OF ARCHITECTURE

The pilotis elevating the mass off the ground (The support) In order to solve a problem in building and construction projects, there is need for a differentiation “between the supporting and non-supporting elements” (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926). The earlier foundations are replaced by individual foundations and the walls by individual supports. A precise calculation is done for support and support foundations based on the load they carry while ensuring equal interval of space between them (UAA ? ; Corbusier 1926). At this point, there is no consideration for the interior arrangements of the building (UAA ? ; Corbusier 1926). They rise 3, 4, 6, etc meters above the ground floor (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926). In doing so, the rooms are completely free from dampness, adequate light and air is let in, there is enough space for the garden, and the same area is also gained on the flat roof (UAA ? ; Corbusier 1926). The roof gardens The flat roof will normally be systematically put into domestic use such as roof terrace and roof garden (UAA ? ; Corbusier 1926). At the same time the reinforced concrete requires protection against changing temperatures. The roof terrace however will satisfy the demands of both the “rain-damped sand covered with concrete slabs” with the use of lawns in the ‘interstices’ while the “earth of the flowerbeds is direct contact with the layer of sand” (UAA ? ; Corbusier 1926). This process allows the rainwater to flow extremely slowly through the waste pipes in the interior of the building (UAA ? ; Corbusier 1926). Hence a latent humidity will remain continually on the roof skin (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926). The roof garden becomes an essential part of the aesthetics of the house while also supply ‘luxuriant vegetation’ while also serving as brilliant way of reclaiming the built up area in the city (UAA ? ; Corbusier 1926). The free designing of the ground-plan The evolution of the ‘Free Plan’ remains the main contribution made by Le Corbusier in contemporary architecture (RIBA 2011). Free plan means that the interior walls could be placed “wherever required” with individual floor entirely independent of the other (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926). The absence of supporting load bearing walls made possible by modern materials such as concrete and steel means that the house is unrestrained in its internal usage (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926). There is therefore absolute freedom in designing the ground-plan which in turn allow high cost of reinforced concrete construction to be offset (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926) The horizontal window The idea of horizontal window as conceived by Le Corbusier is provide an opening (rectangular) in the façade in which light and air enters abundantly (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926). The window extends from support to support and thus becomes a horizontal window. The result of that is a gradual disappearance of stilted, vertical windows the way ‘mullions’ did. What we then have are rooms that are equally lit from wall to

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wall. This new way has greatly improve the illumination from reinforced concrete (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926). Free design of the façade Free design of the façade allow floor projections beyond supporting pillars, all around the building until the façade is extended beyond the supporting construction (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926). As a result, the supportive quality is lost and “the windows may be extended to any length at will, without any direct relationship to the interior division” (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926). “A window may just as well be 10 metres long for a dwelling house as 200 metres for a palatial building (our design for the League of Nations building in Geneva). The façade may thus be designed freely” (UAA ?; Corbusier 1926).

3.0 BACKGROUND: FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT (1867 – 1959)

Frank Lloyd Wright was born 8th June 1867 just after the American civil war ended, and for over 70 years, he showed his generation and beyond new ways to build their homes and see the world around them. He was involved in some of the most monumental and some of the most intimate spaces in the United States of America (PBS 1998). His designs covers a wide range of areas including “banks and resort, office buildings and churches, a filling station and a synagogue, a beer garden and an art museum” (PBS 1998).

Frank Lloyd Wright career began in 1885 as a draftsman with Allan D. Conover, an engineering professor at the University of Wisconsin (Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 2012). A year later, he enrolled at the same university as a special student while also being involved in the work of building a family chapel – Unity Chapel (Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 2012). In 1893, Wright held his first exhibition at the Chicago Architectural Club and also opened an independent practice (Department of American Decorative Arts). Like Le Corbusier, Wright is considered nature loving and his belief in need for direct relationship between nature and man is reflected in his concept of “organic architecture” (Department of American Decorative Arts, Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, 2012).

Wright vision of American architecture was complete departure from classical and renaissance tradition (Department of American Decorative Arts). However, Wright travelled within Europe between 1909 and 1911 despite his antipathy for European design and during these periods established himself as a frontrunner of modernism (Department of American Decorative Arts). Architecture to Frank Lloyd Wright was not just about buildings, it was about nourishing the lives of those sheltered within them. This is what he called “organic architecture”. Between 1916 and 1922, Wright spent a great deal of time in Japan overseeing the work of Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. His experience in Japan would later have significant influence in his work particularly with decoration (Design Museum). He returned back to the US in 1922 and the years that followed were a long spell of economic constraint and depression which in turn affected Wright’s work (Design Museum; Department of American Decorative Arts).

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By 1930’s, Frank Lloyd Wright re-emerge his style and image again through several western residential houses.(Hurder, 2001). Most of his works during this period were for middle income earners. From the early 1940’s to his death in 1959, Wright was extraordinarily prolific and designed almost 500 projects, almost half of his total output (Design Museum)

3.1 FALLINGWATER 1939

Fallingwater is by far one of Frank Lloyd Wright's most famous buildings and perhaps Wright's most inspirational. Frank Lloyd Wright designed Fallingwater for the Kaufmann's after forming a good friendship. He wrote to the Kaufmann: "the visit to the waterfall in the woods stays with me and a domicile has taken vague shape in my mind to the music of the steam. When contours come you will see it." (Pfeiffer 1997: 106). With Fallingwater, Wright wanted to join all the natural elements of the forest, river and rocks together. The house was built on the edge of a cliff and

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resembles a cave like structure with stone walls that blend into the surroundings. Wright designed the house in such a way that one would have to move on to the terrace and lean over the balconies to admire the waterfalls. The residence has three floors all with their own terrace and stairways leading to other terraces. While construction was under way for Fallingwater the Kaufmann's and contractor found the cantilevers a source of worry but not Wright. He believed that everything would turn out exactly how he imagined it. After Frank Lloyd Wright completed the Fallingwater project the Kaufmann's felt that they needed more space to accommodate their guests so they commissioned him to design a guest house farther up the side of the main house. He was quiet jealous of Fallingwater and said " Anyone can build a big house for the rich man, but design a beautiful home for the man of moderate mean, ah… that will show the mettle of mettle of the architect" (Pfeiffer 1997: 115)

Perspective drawing (Pfeiffer 1997: 104, Levine 1941: 243)

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Fallingwater Interior

Living room (Cuito 2003: 30)

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Floor plans (Pfeiffer 2007: 121)

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Entrance side from east and section (north-south) through living room. (Levine 1941:229)

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Preliminary plan, ground foundations (Levine 1941:231)

Preliminary plan, ground floor (Levine 1941:231)

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Fallingwater ground floor plan. (Levine 1941:232)

3.2 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT DRIVING PRINCIPLES

Organic

Wright was very interested in the organic growth and described his architecture as being organic. He was quoted "Let your home appear to grow easily from its site and shape it to sympathise with the surroundings if nature is manifest there and if not, try and be as quiet, substantial and organic as she would have been if she had the chance" (Pfeiffer 1997: 7).

Organic architecture

Architecture to Wright had to be appropriate to time, place and man. By time he meant that a twentieth century building should not emulate a seventeenth century building and by place he meant that a building is best suited to its natural environment and landscape which provides natural features. He described organic architecture as that “great living creative spirit which from generation to generation, from age to age, proceeds, persists, creates, according to the nature of man and his circumstances as they both change” (Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation 2012). Fallingwater is a good example of a "building and site in harmony" (Pfeiffer 1997: 7). By man Wright meant a building is supposed to serve people therefore the building has to suit the needs of those living within it.

Human values

He placed the family unit above everything that he believed in and created an environment that would suit an individual and the family unit as a whole in society. A majority of Wright's buildings were residential homes for clients with moderate incomes. So, in essence Wright was considered a residential architect.

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The space within

His quest was to free architectural space by opening up rooms into one another and eliminating unnecessary partitions to allow the rooms to easily flow. This was a major move in his career as it not only affected the family unit but the general public as well. The idea of open plan housing came from him.

Nature

Frank Lloyd Wright spent a lot of time at his uncle farm and learned to love the agrarian way of life. The time he spent on the farm studying nature contributed to his understanding of plants as he noticed that the roots of some trees were weaker than others. He devised a principle called "The tap-root foundation" which was one long root extending far down into the ground (Pfeiffer 1997: 10). However the outward aspect of Nature was not his focal point but the omnipresent spiritual dimensions (Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation 2012). In his words:

Nature……I do not ofcourse mean that outward aspect which strikes the eye as a visual image of a scene strikes the ground glass of a camera, but that inner harmony which penetrates the outward form…..and is its determining character; that quality in the thing that is its significance and it’s life for us,- what plato called (with reason, we see, psychological if not metaphysical) the “eternal idea of the thing”

4.0 CONCLUSION

Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier epitomise the nineteenth and twentieth century modern architecture. Their vision revolutionized how we conceptualise and interact with buildings while their effort provided foundation and inspirations for young and aspiring designers. Architects and Architecture can only be grateful.

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5.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Geoffrey H. Le Corbusier: An analysis of form, 3rd ed, London: E. & F.N. Spon, 1996.

Cuito, A. Frank Lloyd Wright, Gloucester, Mass: Rockport, 2003.

Dennis S., 1991 The illustrated Encyclopaedia of Architects and Architecture. New York: Quatro Publishing ISBN 0-8230-2539-X-NA40145, p92-94 http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Le_Corbusier.html [Last assessed 19th August, 2012]

Etlin, Richard A. 1994 - Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier: The romantic legacy,Manchester: Manchester university press, 1997.

Gans, Deborah. 1955 - The Le Corbusier guide. 3rd ed, New York: Princeton Architectural,2006.

Tzonis, Alexander. 1937- Le Corbusier: The poetics of machine and metaphor, London: Thames & Hudson, 2001.

Pfeiffer, Bruce B. Frank Lloyd Wright: Master builder. Updated and rev ed, London: Thames & Hudson in association with Frank Lloyd Wright foundation, 1997.

Pfeiffer, Bruce B. Frank Lloyd Wright, Hong Kong ; London : Taschen, c2007.

L, Neil. 1941 - The architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1996.

Royal Institute Of British Architects (RIBA) 2011 Building the modern world: 1953 – Le Corbusier (1887 – 1995) http://www.architecture.com/Awards/RoyalGoldMedal/175Exhibition/WinnersBiogs/1950s/1953.aspx [Last assessed 19th August, 2012]

Samuel F., 2007 Le Corbusier in Detail. Architectural Press ISBN: 0750663545 URL:// http://www.ebook3000.com/Le-Corbusier-in-Detail_101705.html [Last assessed: 19th August, 2012]

Corbusier Le 1926 “Five Points “Towards a New Architecture” reprinted from Programs and Manifestos in Twentieth Century Architecture. MIT Press http://www.learn.columbia.edu/courses/arch20/pdf/art_hum_reading_52.pdf [Last assessed: 19th August, 2012]

Website

University of Alaska Anchorage: Five Points Towards a New Architecture http://hosting.uaa.alaska.edu/afbeb/AET121/AET121_lecorbusier_five_points.htm [Last assessed 19th August, 2012]

Foundation Le Corbusier http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=13&IrisObjectId=5507&sysLanguage=en-en&itemPos=75&itemSort=en-en_sort_string1%20&itemCount=78&sysParentName=&sysParentId=64

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Legacy Locator Filmmakers Resources ? Frank Lloyd Wrigth: Life and Work http://www.pbs.org/flw/buildings/index.html [Last assessed: 18th August, 2012]

German History Museum 1887 -1965 Le Corbusier URL:// http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/biografien/LeCorbusier/index.html [Last assessed 18th August, 2012] Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation 2012: Selected events in Frank Lloyd Wright’s life http://www.franklloydwright.org/about/Timeline.html [Last assessed 14th May, 2013] Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation 2012: Overview http://www.franklloydwright.org/about/Overview.html [Last assessed 14th May, 2013] Department of American Decorative Arts, “Frank Lloyd Wright (1867 – 1959)” In Helibrunn Timeline of Art History, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/flwt/hd_flwt.htm [Last assessed 14th May, 2013] Design Museum http://designmuseum.org/design/frank-lloyd-wright [Last assessed 15th May, 2013]