investigation of a passive thermal management system for
TRANSCRIPT
Investigation of a Passive Thermal Management System for
Lithium-Ion CapacitorsInvestigation of a Passive Thermal Management
System for Lithium-Ion Capacitors Jaguemont, Joris; Karimi, Danial;
Van Mierlo, Joeri
Published in: IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology
DOI: 10.1109/TVT.2019.2939632
Citation for published version (APA): Jaguemont, J., Karimi, D., & Van Mierlo, J. (2019). Investigation of a Passive Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Capacitors. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 68(11), 10518-10524. [8825519]. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2019.2939632
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Download date: 26. Apr. 2022
Investigation of a Passive Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Capacitors
Joris Jaguemont , Danial Karimi, and Joeri Van Mierlo
Abstract—Lithium-ion capacitors (LiCs) have emerged as a promising technology for automotive applications due to the solu- tion offered by their power density, high voltage operation and their excellent durability (more than 2 million cycles). Nevertheless, the reliability of LiCs can be drastically affected by overheating issues which raise the importance of thermal management. Nowadays, active cooling is employed to keep the battery systems temperature in range. However, due to the bulkiness and weight of the existing active cooling systems, latent heat thermal energy storage through the use of phase change materials (PCMs), represents an attractive way. In this paper, paraffin is investigated experimentally and simulated as a PCM cooling solution for the thermal management of a dual-LiC module. Moreover, since paraffin presents a low thermal conductivity characteristic, an additional component such as aluminium mesh grid is inserted to the system to solve the low conductivity issue. Results show good performance of the Al-PCM on the battery thermal management for both ESSs with a relatively lower temperature. The Al-PCM combination was able is lower the temperature to 36 °C compared to natural convection (46 °C).
Index Terms—LiC, thermal model, PCM, temperature, testing.
I. INTRODUCTION
DWINDLING natural resources and global warming have become an urgent matter over the last years and new
technologies directing to reduce greenhouse gas and stabilize sea level have arisen. Moreover, European Union (EU) regulations that concern diesel, petrol and natural gas vehicles, imposes strict limits on pollutants emissions of light-duty vehicles, such as carbon monoxides, particulates, nitrogen oxides and hy- drocarbon levels [1]. In this regard, electrified vehicles (EVs) or battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have emerged to replace current fuel-powered vehicles, for which the use is reported as a major factor in the greenhouse emission. Nowadays, lithium-ion battery (LiB) technologies have become the dominant energy storage system (ESS) for BEV traction due to their high energy density [2].
Nonetheless, LiBs suffer from a series of serious problems that hinder their marketability [3]. One, for example, is that current battery technologies cannot cope with high power ap- plication without suffering from serious degradation factors of
Manuscript received June 26, 2019; revised July 19, 2019; accepted Septem- ber 1, 2019. Date of publication September 5, 2019; date of current version November 12, 2019. The review of this article was coordinated by Prof. L. Gauchia. (Corresponding author: Joris Jaguemont.)
The authors are with the Department of Electric Engineering and En- ergy Technology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TVT.2019.2939632
the cell, rendering the technologies obsolete on the long-term [4], [5].
Further, for the automotive industry, fast-charging and sup- porting the output power during acceleration are two major criteria in the selection of BEV as customers look to charge their vehicle faster and easier for travel purposes.
In that regard, lithium-ion capacitors (LiCs) are promising hybrid components mixing the working principles of superca- pacitors and lithium-ion batteries. Its unique hybrid combina- tion gives it the property to support high-current profiles (over 1000 A) for at least 2 million cycles [6].
Additionally, LiCs are a hybrid energy storage device that combines the energy storage mechanisms of the EDLCs and the LiBs, remarks the advantages of EDLCs (i.e., the high-power capability, long-duration lifecycle, and extended allowable op- erational temperature) at a relatively higher specific energy of >14 Wh/kg [7]. Moreover, the application of LiC has been widely spread resulting from the higher voltage level it provides compared to supercapacitors [8].
However, as reported in [9], [10], using LiCs at a high current level might cause overheating which negatively affects the cell performances and reduces the life duration of the cell drastically taken into account, limiting their capabilities and their safety of usage. Indeed, using LiCs in a very high current level like in hybrid vehicles in the regenerative mode [11] may cause overheating which negatively affects the cell performances and reduces the life duration of the cell drastically [12]. As explained in the literature [13], the internal resistance of an aged cell is higher than a fresh one, therefore, it generates more heat and consequently, its lifetime decreases even faster. For example, in [14], a LiC tested at 25 °C at 50 A shows a rapid temperature behavior for which the final temperature point is around 50 °C. If not controlled, the thermal behavior of the LiC can lead to overheating, and in worst case thermal runaways led by an explosion.
In this context, thermal management, and in particular cool- ing, is a critical issue during the operation of LiCs. Indeed, as recommend by the manufacturer, the LIC should operate between 20 °C and 35 °C. Currently, it exists two types of the cooling system: active and passive cooling [2], [15]. The first one accounts on active techniques such as air cooling or liquid cooling to keep the LiCs in an ideal temperature range. These techniques rely on an external device (pump, compressor, fan, etc.) to increase the heat transfer flux.
The second one uses a heat sink or spreader to minimize the heat generated by the system. As it requires no external devices,
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JAGUEMONT et al.: INVESTIGATION OF A PASSIVE THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LiCs 10519
passive cooling main perks lie in the energy efficiency and lower financial cost. One main technique that has brought attention is phase-change material. This technique uses the latent heat capacity to absorb and release the heat of the system. Easy to integrate and quite a low-cost material, phase-change materials (PCMs) have used to ensure the thermal management of Li-ion in many studies [16]–[19].
Nonetheless, in the LiC application, the use of cooling tech- niques has not been well documented. Few articles investigate, however, the effect of active system on LiC systems with the use of cooling techniques [20], [21]. In [20], a LiC module consisting of 12 cells has been modeled and simulated under a high-current profile. Aluminium cooling plates with copper cooling channels are placed between the cells to increase the global conductive coefficient. Results show that the module temperature has been successfully controlled and the maximum temperature has been safely maintained under the temperature limit. Nonetheless, one main conclusion that has been drawn is that the active cooling system is too bulky and heavy, which has been supported in the literature [22]. Regarding the passive cooling system, unfortunately, a literature survey indicates that it has not been fully reported due to the recent emergence of LiCs as storage systems.
Thereby, based on the observation above, this paper con- centrates on the development of a novel thermal management system for LiC applications including PCMs. The main idea is to propose a novel, lighter and compact thermal management system able to propose efficient thermal performances.
In this paper, the use-case uses two LiCs stacked to represent the module arrangement used in a BEV [23]. A high-current profile is applied to the system at ambient temperature and an infra-red (IR) camera captures the thermal behavior. A casing able to contain 1 cm of paraffin PCM holds the dual LiCs. Results show that as the conductivity of the paraffin material is rather low, the heat extraction is not fully satisfied. Therefore, in order to enhance the thermal conductivity of PCMs, a highly conductive material such as Aluminum foil is added to the system [24]–[27]. Results show a much better heat conduction flux for which the conductivity of Al-foil plays a significant role.
Alternatively, we propose the development of a 3D-thermal model of the dual-LiC system for future optimization tasks. The model based on the current methodology captures the thermal distribution of the system with PCM management for which paraffin and Al-foil are considered. The novel data obtained from the experiment are then used for robust validation of model which at the end is a solid modelling based for thermal management purposes.
The paper is organized in such a way that section II describes an experimental protocol for validation, Section III deals with the model development, Section IV illustrates the simulation results and model validation, and finally, conclusions are given in Section V.
II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
In order to perform accurate and trustworthy tests, an ex- perimental test setup has been built in the MOBI laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel. To provide a passive thermal
Fig. 1. Top: schematic of the test bench. [28], [29]. Bottom: Picture of the PCM-38 (solid phase).
management system for LiCs that will successfully keep its optimum performance in range, an experimental investigation conducted for which a system combining LiCs and PCM system is built-in hardware. This section describes the different parts used for the development and testing of the dual-LiC system.
A. Battery Overview Description
The LiC used in this study is a lithium-ion capacitor of 2300F. The characteristics of the proposed LiC cell are given in Table I.
B. Test Setup Description
The test bench is shown in Fig. 1. A module ACT 0550 (80 channels) battery tester (PEC) was used for the testing of the LiCs. The data acquired from the test bench were treated with a computer linked to the PEC tester. The latter monitors three signals: current (I), voltage (V), and temperature (T).
In order to measure accurately the thermal distribution of the LiC, a Ti25 thermal camera captured IR images at regular time intervals. The surface of the cell was directly placed in a climate chamber to recreate the environmental condition of ambient temperature, 25 °C.
10520 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 68, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2019
TABLE I LIC PROPERTIES ANNOUNCED BY THE MANUFACTURER
TABLE II PCM PROPERTIES AS PRESENTED BY THE MANUFACTURER
aSource: http://www.clauger.fr)
At the start of the test, all cells are charged to the same level with the accuracy of 20 mv and during the test, the voltage is monitored and controlled by the PEC tester.
Finally, an external thermocouple (K-type) is also used for temperature measurement and mounted across the cell near the positive tab of cells where studies [21] have shown that the maximum temperature is observable here.
C. Phase-Change Material Feature
The PCM used in this study is called PCM-38 supplied byed by an industrial company called CLAUGER (France). The PCM is pure paraffin and is a solid/liquid phase material with a snow- like white base color. Its characteristics are given in Table II.
D. Test Profile Definition
To investigate the effect of the PCM thermal management, the LiC is cycled at 25 °C between the maximum and the minimum voltages with a 3000s-current profile, as can be seen in Fig. 2, which goes up to 150 A and correspond to 18 W on average. The aim of this profile is to produce enough heat generation to trigger the PCM fusion point.
The initial temperature of the cell is 25 °C and forced con- vection occurring on all surfaces, due to the climate chamber, is considered, thus a coefficient of 25 W/m².K was set as an input.
E. Design of the Dual-LiC System
1) PCM-System: The system is composed of two stacked LiCs, and a plastic casing filled with the PCM. The purpose
Fig. 2. Test profile for the LiCs.
Fig. 3. Top: dual-LiC system with PCM. Bottom: dual-LiC system with Al- grid mesh.
of the casing is to contain the PCM as well as the LiCs. It is made of strong PVC to enable the solid to liquid phase change. A picture of the system is shown in the top picture of Fig. 3.
2) Al-PCM Foil System: Since the conductivity of the paraf- fin material is rather low, an additional component can be added to enhance the conductivity. The least expensive way is to surround the cell with Al-foil for which the conductivity with increase the transfer between the cells and the PCMs. In this case,
JAGUEMONT et al.: INVESTIGATION OF A PASSIVE THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LiCs 10521
Fig. 4. Experimental results for the test profile and the different designs. Top: no-PCM design. Middle: paraffin-PCM design. Bottom: Al-PCM design.
the cell is covered with a thin Al grid mesh for three rounds, as seen in the bottom figure of Fig. 3.
F. Test Results
In these sections, the test results of zero-strategy, PCM and Al-PCM using the test profile defined earlier. The test condition was done at an ambient temperature of 25 °C, the profile was applied for 20 minutes. IR snapshots at the end of the pro- file and graphical evolution of the temperature are shown in Figs. 4 and 6 for which the results of the different design are depicted.
1) Zero-Strategy-System: In the top picture of Fig. 4, one can observe that the overall temperature of the cells exceed 45 °C, which is above the safety limit of 40 °C, as it is recommended by the manufacturer. Moreover, at this temperature, the ageing effect occurs which emphasizes the crucial need for a proper thermal management system.
2) PCM-System: In the middle picture of Fig. 4, the paraffin- PCM design shows that the final temperature is reduced thought
Fig. 5. Graphical comparison of the different designs. The temperature point is obtained by a thermocouple placed near the positive tab.
the LiCs with an average temperature of 40 °C. Nonetheless, it can be seen that the paraffin restricts the discharge of the LiC stored thermal load though a cooler block surrounding the cells. This is due to the low thermal conductivity of the paraffin that limits the thermal performance.
3) Al-PCM Foil System: In the bottom picture of Fig. 4, additional material was added to discharge the thermal load of the cell. As it can be seen, the Al-grid mesh carefully places around the cell proposes a better conductivity for which the heat generation of the LiC can be rejected faster. This results with a uniform design and the lower final temperature (37 °C) of all three designs, as shown in Fig. 5.
In the end, it can be concluded that the PCM management can be easily integrated with an ESS with significant results.
Nonetheless, in this case, a considerable amount of PCM and Al was used for the designs increase the volume and mass of the system, which in automotive application is not recommended due to space and weight limitations. Optimization of the design for which weight, cost and volume are therefore described in the next sections.
III. MODEL DEVELOPMENT
Based on the above observations reported in the last section, one can see that the PCM strategy is interesting to implement in a LiC system. Nonetheless, a large quantity and volume of PCM have been used, increasing the weight and cost of the system, which are two criteria that must be the lowest possible according to the automotive industry. Therefore, in order to optimize the whole system, we propose to develop an electro-thermal model of the solution and this section describes the different parts of the model.
A. Modelling Methodology Description
In this study, a 3D-thermal model for LiCs is developed. As shown in Fig. 6, the model methodology treats the system, here LiC, in two parts: electrical and thermal parts [30], [20]. The first one calculates the voltage and the heat generation of the system under current solicitations thanks to electrical parameters and
10522 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 68, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2019
Fig. 6. Schematic of the modelling methodology.
Fig. 7. Geometry representation of the dual-cell system.
basic voltage equations. The second one uses the heat generation to estimate the thermal distribution according to a predefined geometry, in this case, the LiC system. This couple 0D-electro and 3D-thermal methodology has been reported in the literature [21], [31] with accurate results and is therefore used in this paper.
B. LiC Modelling
The dual-cell LiC model is based on the single model of a LiC that was developed and validated in previous studies [6], [8], [14]. With reference to [6], [8], [14], the model equations and parameters are the same used in this study.
In Fig. 7, the dual-cell system is visible with its different domains: the electrode domain, the negative and positive tabs. The system is the combination of two LiCs stacked together to represent the module arrangement used in a BEV.
Due to the complexity of 3D modelling, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) commercial software package such as COM- SOL Multiphysics is used to establish the 3D model. Heat transfer in solids (ht) physic module is used to estimate the heat generation of the LiC system. Table III reports the physical parameters used for the modelling obtained from the previous study.
TABLE III PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF THE DESIGN
C. PCM Modelling
In order to model the PCM, the submodule “phase-change material” in the heat transfer in solids (ht) physic of COMSOL was used. Basically, the submodule uses the enthalpy method for which equation 1 is assumed to describe the heat transfer in the solid, liquid and mushy region of the PCM [32]–[34].
The global idea is to have an effective heat capacity taking into account the latent heat in the mushy zone. Moreover, for each zone, the density and thermal conductivity of the paraffin are also considered in the different phases.
ρCpeff dT
dt = λeff∇2T (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
with Cpmushy , λmushy and ρmushy, the specific heat capacity, the thermal conductivity and the density of the PCM in the mushy phase, respectively.
JAGUEMONT et al.: INVESTIGATION OF A PASSIVE THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LiCs 10523
Fig. 8. Graphical comparison of the numerical and experimental results for the three different designs.
D. Al-PCM Modelling
In order to account for the Al-grid mesh foil, the physic that has been developed for the embedded PCM modelling is used. The modelling of the Al-grid foils would enhance the complexity of the model and increase the computational time.
λeff = ξ . λPCM + (1 − ξ) λAl
ρeff = ξ . ρPCM + (1 − ξ) ρAl
(5)
with CpAl, λAl, and ρAl, the heat capacity, thermal conductivity and the density of Aluminum for which values are 0.963 kJ/kg.K, 218 W/m2.K and 2700 kg/m3, respectively. ξ is the associated fraction of Al in the embedded PCM. For example, 20% of Al corresponds to ξ = 0.8.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
This section reports the simulation results obtained with the models and the test profile described in Section II.D. The main idea is to compare the simulations from the developed electro- thermal model compared to the experimental tests of Section II for validation. Results are shown in Fig. 8 for which the graphical evolution of the estimated temperature is compared to the data of Section II.F.
As shown in Fig. 9, the simulation results for the three designs show good accordance with the experimental curves. This means that the model is able to reproduce the temperature behavior of the LiC design with and without PCM management under the current solicitation.
Moreover, regarding the Al-PCM management, since for modelling the Al-sheets surrounding the LiCs, the methodology for modelling an embedded PCM with Al particles was pro- posed, a method by which inserted particles of Al are considered in a total mass fraction of the PCM. In the simulation, an Al fraction, ξ, of 0.9 (10% of Al) was found to account for the
Fig. 9. 3D thermal simulation results for the test profile and the different designs. Top: no-PCM design. Middle: paraffin-PCM design. Bottom: Al-PCM design.
Al-mesh grid surrounding the LiCs. This fraction was later validated by scaling the Al-mesh grid over the total weight of the PCM:
%Al (%)= mAl-sheet (kg)
mAl-sheet(kg) +mPCM (kg) =
0.036 0.036 + 0.33
=10
(6) This provides a rigorous validation of the model, thus im-
proves the integrity of the study and accommodates with the optimization task, which is presented in the next section.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, an experimental study was performed on LiCs, one without PCM, one with paraffin and one with Al-grid mesh. Results showed that the Al-PCM enhances the conductivities of the heat generated by the LiC.
Moreover, in order to improve the design, an electro-thermal model has been developed and validated using the data obtained from experimental work. Then, the different effects of design parameters on the developed model have been tested. The main idea was to use Al-mesh grid in order to improve the heat rejection by increasing the conductivity of the system.
Results showed that the overall temperature of the system was decreased by 10 °C. Optimization of the system and in
10524 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 68, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2019
particular the thickness could be interesting to perform in order to lower the cost, weight and volume while maintaining the good thermal performance of the system. Furthermore, a validation test in hardware could be interesting to perform. In the end, this means that embed PCM with Al seems a promising way. Nonetheless, one main problem has been seen with the use of PCMs: the difficulty to regenerate the PCM between two thermal loads due to the absence of a cold source. To solve this problem, an additional active system can be added such as liquid cooling. Future works will then include the investigation of such a system for improving the LiC-based design.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank research project JSR. They would also like to thank F. Make for support to our research team.
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Published in: IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology
DOI: 10.1109/TVT.2019.2939632
Citation for published version (APA): Jaguemont, J., Karimi, D., & Van Mierlo, J. (2019). Investigation of a Passive Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Capacitors. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 68(11), 10518-10524. [8825519]. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2019.2939632
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Download date: 26. Apr. 2022
Investigation of a Passive Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Capacitors
Joris Jaguemont , Danial Karimi, and Joeri Van Mierlo
Abstract—Lithium-ion capacitors (LiCs) have emerged as a promising technology for automotive applications due to the solu- tion offered by their power density, high voltage operation and their excellent durability (more than 2 million cycles). Nevertheless, the reliability of LiCs can be drastically affected by overheating issues which raise the importance of thermal management. Nowadays, active cooling is employed to keep the battery systems temperature in range. However, due to the bulkiness and weight of the existing active cooling systems, latent heat thermal energy storage through the use of phase change materials (PCMs), represents an attractive way. In this paper, paraffin is investigated experimentally and simulated as a PCM cooling solution for the thermal management of a dual-LiC module. Moreover, since paraffin presents a low thermal conductivity characteristic, an additional component such as aluminium mesh grid is inserted to the system to solve the low conductivity issue. Results show good performance of the Al-PCM on the battery thermal management for both ESSs with a relatively lower temperature. The Al-PCM combination was able is lower the temperature to 36 °C compared to natural convection (46 °C).
Index Terms—LiC, thermal model, PCM, temperature, testing.
I. INTRODUCTION
DWINDLING natural resources and global warming have become an urgent matter over the last years and new
technologies directing to reduce greenhouse gas and stabilize sea level have arisen. Moreover, European Union (EU) regulations that concern diesel, petrol and natural gas vehicles, imposes strict limits on pollutants emissions of light-duty vehicles, such as carbon monoxides, particulates, nitrogen oxides and hy- drocarbon levels [1]. In this regard, electrified vehicles (EVs) or battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have emerged to replace current fuel-powered vehicles, for which the use is reported as a major factor in the greenhouse emission. Nowadays, lithium-ion battery (LiB) technologies have become the dominant energy storage system (ESS) for BEV traction due to their high energy density [2].
Nonetheless, LiBs suffer from a series of serious problems that hinder their marketability [3]. One, for example, is that current battery technologies cannot cope with high power ap- plication without suffering from serious degradation factors of
Manuscript received June 26, 2019; revised July 19, 2019; accepted Septem- ber 1, 2019. Date of publication September 5, 2019; date of current version November 12, 2019. The review of this article was coordinated by Prof. L. Gauchia. (Corresponding author: Joris Jaguemont.)
The authors are with the Department of Electric Engineering and En- ergy Technology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TVT.2019.2939632
the cell, rendering the technologies obsolete on the long-term [4], [5].
Further, for the automotive industry, fast-charging and sup- porting the output power during acceleration are two major criteria in the selection of BEV as customers look to charge their vehicle faster and easier for travel purposes.
In that regard, lithium-ion capacitors (LiCs) are promising hybrid components mixing the working principles of superca- pacitors and lithium-ion batteries. Its unique hybrid combina- tion gives it the property to support high-current profiles (over 1000 A) for at least 2 million cycles [6].
Additionally, LiCs are a hybrid energy storage device that combines the energy storage mechanisms of the EDLCs and the LiBs, remarks the advantages of EDLCs (i.e., the high-power capability, long-duration lifecycle, and extended allowable op- erational temperature) at a relatively higher specific energy of >14 Wh/kg [7]. Moreover, the application of LiC has been widely spread resulting from the higher voltage level it provides compared to supercapacitors [8].
However, as reported in [9], [10], using LiCs at a high current level might cause overheating which negatively affects the cell performances and reduces the life duration of the cell drastically taken into account, limiting their capabilities and their safety of usage. Indeed, using LiCs in a very high current level like in hybrid vehicles in the regenerative mode [11] may cause overheating which negatively affects the cell performances and reduces the life duration of the cell drastically [12]. As explained in the literature [13], the internal resistance of an aged cell is higher than a fresh one, therefore, it generates more heat and consequently, its lifetime decreases even faster. For example, in [14], a LiC tested at 25 °C at 50 A shows a rapid temperature behavior for which the final temperature point is around 50 °C. If not controlled, the thermal behavior of the LiC can lead to overheating, and in worst case thermal runaways led by an explosion.
In this context, thermal management, and in particular cool- ing, is a critical issue during the operation of LiCs. Indeed, as recommend by the manufacturer, the LIC should operate between 20 °C and 35 °C. Currently, it exists two types of the cooling system: active and passive cooling [2], [15]. The first one accounts on active techniques such as air cooling or liquid cooling to keep the LiCs in an ideal temperature range. These techniques rely on an external device (pump, compressor, fan, etc.) to increase the heat transfer flux.
The second one uses a heat sink or spreader to minimize the heat generated by the system. As it requires no external devices,
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JAGUEMONT et al.: INVESTIGATION OF A PASSIVE THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LiCs 10519
passive cooling main perks lie in the energy efficiency and lower financial cost. One main technique that has brought attention is phase-change material. This technique uses the latent heat capacity to absorb and release the heat of the system. Easy to integrate and quite a low-cost material, phase-change materials (PCMs) have used to ensure the thermal management of Li-ion in many studies [16]–[19].
Nonetheless, in the LiC application, the use of cooling tech- niques has not been well documented. Few articles investigate, however, the effect of active system on LiC systems with the use of cooling techniques [20], [21]. In [20], a LiC module consisting of 12 cells has been modeled and simulated under a high-current profile. Aluminium cooling plates with copper cooling channels are placed between the cells to increase the global conductive coefficient. Results show that the module temperature has been successfully controlled and the maximum temperature has been safely maintained under the temperature limit. Nonetheless, one main conclusion that has been drawn is that the active cooling system is too bulky and heavy, which has been supported in the literature [22]. Regarding the passive cooling system, unfortunately, a literature survey indicates that it has not been fully reported due to the recent emergence of LiCs as storage systems.
Thereby, based on the observation above, this paper con- centrates on the development of a novel thermal management system for LiC applications including PCMs. The main idea is to propose a novel, lighter and compact thermal management system able to propose efficient thermal performances.
In this paper, the use-case uses two LiCs stacked to represent the module arrangement used in a BEV [23]. A high-current profile is applied to the system at ambient temperature and an infra-red (IR) camera captures the thermal behavior. A casing able to contain 1 cm of paraffin PCM holds the dual LiCs. Results show that as the conductivity of the paraffin material is rather low, the heat extraction is not fully satisfied. Therefore, in order to enhance the thermal conductivity of PCMs, a highly conductive material such as Aluminum foil is added to the system [24]–[27]. Results show a much better heat conduction flux for which the conductivity of Al-foil plays a significant role.
Alternatively, we propose the development of a 3D-thermal model of the dual-LiC system for future optimization tasks. The model based on the current methodology captures the thermal distribution of the system with PCM management for which paraffin and Al-foil are considered. The novel data obtained from the experiment are then used for robust validation of model which at the end is a solid modelling based for thermal management purposes.
The paper is organized in such a way that section II describes an experimental protocol for validation, Section III deals with the model development, Section IV illustrates the simulation results and model validation, and finally, conclusions are given in Section V.
II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
In order to perform accurate and trustworthy tests, an ex- perimental test setup has been built in the MOBI laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel. To provide a passive thermal
Fig. 1. Top: schematic of the test bench. [28], [29]. Bottom: Picture of the PCM-38 (solid phase).
management system for LiCs that will successfully keep its optimum performance in range, an experimental investigation conducted for which a system combining LiCs and PCM system is built-in hardware. This section describes the different parts used for the development and testing of the dual-LiC system.
A. Battery Overview Description
The LiC used in this study is a lithium-ion capacitor of 2300F. The characteristics of the proposed LiC cell are given in Table I.
B. Test Setup Description
The test bench is shown in Fig. 1. A module ACT 0550 (80 channels) battery tester (PEC) was used for the testing of the LiCs. The data acquired from the test bench were treated with a computer linked to the PEC tester. The latter monitors three signals: current (I), voltage (V), and temperature (T).
In order to measure accurately the thermal distribution of the LiC, a Ti25 thermal camera captured IR images at regular time intervals. The surface of the cell was directly placed in a climate chamber to recreate the environmental condition of ambient temperature, 25 °C.
10520 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 68, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2019
TABLE I LIC PROPERTIES ANNOUNCED BY THE MANUFACTURER
TABLE II PCM PROPERTIES AS PRESENTED BY THE MANUFACTURER
aSource: http://www.clauger.fr)
At the start of the test, all cells are charged to the same level with the accuracy of 20 mv and during the test, the voltage is monitored and controlled by the PEC tester.
Finally, an external thermocouple (K-type) is also used for temperature measurement and mounted across the cell near the positive tab of cells where studies [21] have shown that the maximum temperature is observable here.
C. Phase-Change Material Feature
The PCM used in this study is called PCM-38 supplied byed by an industrial company called CLAUGER (France). The PCM is pure paraffin and is a solid/liquid phase material with a snow- like white base color. Its characteristics are given in Table II.
D. Test Profile Definition
To investigate the effect of the PCM thermal management, the LiC is cycled at 25 °C between the maximum and the minimum voltages with a 3000s-current profile, as can be seen in Fig. 2, which goes up to 150 A and correspond to 18 W on average. The aim of this profile is to produce enough heat generation to trigger the PCM fusion point.
The initial temperature of the cell is 25 °C and forced con- vection occurring on all surfaces, due to the climate chamber, is considered, thus a coefficient of 25 W/m².K was set as an input.
E. Design of the Dual-LiC System
1) PCM-System: The system is composed of two stacked LiCs, and a plastic casing filled with the PCM. The purpose
Fig. 2. Test profile for the LiCs.
Fig. 3. Top: dual-LiC system with PCM. Bottom: dual-LiC system with Al- grid mesh.
of the casing is to contain the PCM as well as the LiCs. It is made of strong PVC to enable the solid to liquid phase change. A picture of the system is shown in the top picture of Fig. 3.
2) Al-PCM Foil System: Since the conductivity of the paraf- fin material is rather low, an additional component can be added to enhance the conductivity. The least expensive way is to surround the cell with Al-foil for which the conductivity with increase the transfer between the cells and the PCMs. In this case,
JAGUEMONT et al.: INVESTIGATION OF A PASSIVE THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LiCs 10521
Fig. 4. Experimental results for the test profile and the different designs. Top: no-PCM design. Middle: paraffin-PCM design. Bottom: Al-PCM design.
the cell is covered with a thin Al grid mesh for three rounds, as seen in the bottom figure of Fig. 3.
F. Test Results
In these sections, the test results of zero-strategy, PCM and Al-PCM using the test profile defined earlier. The test condition was done at an ambient temperature of 25 °C, the profile was applied for 20 minutes. IR snapshots at the end of the pro- file and graphical evolution of the temperature are shown in Figs. 4 and 6 for which the results of the different design are depicted.
1) Zero-Strategy-System: In the top picture of Fig. 4, one can observe that the overall temperature of the cells exceed 45 °C, which is above the safety limit of 40 °C, as it is recommended by the manufacturer. Moreover, at this temperature, the ageing effect occurs which emphasizes the crucial need for a proper thermal management system.
2) PCM-System: In the middle picture of Fig. 4, the paraffin- PCM design shows that the final temperature is reduced thought
Fig. 5. Graphical comparison of the different designs. The temperature point is obtained by a thermocouple placed near the positive tab.
the LiCs with an average temperature of 40 °C. Nonetheless, it can be seen that the paraffin restricts the discharge of the LiC stored thermal load though a cooler block surrounding the cells. This is due to the low thermal conductivity of the paraffin that limits the thermal performance.
3) Al-PCM Foil System: In the bottom picture of Fig. 4, additional material was added to discharge the thermal load of the cell. As it can be seen, the Al-grid mesh carefully places around the cell proposes a better conductivity for which the heat generation of the LiC can be rejected faster. This results with a uniform design and the lower final temperature (37 °C) of all three designs, as shown in Fig. 5.
In the end, it can be concluded that the PCM management can be easily integrated with an ESS with significant results.
Nonetheless, in this case, a considerable amount of PCM and Al was used for the designs increase the volume and mass of the system, which in automotive application is not recommended due to space and weight limitations. Optimization of the design for which weight, cost and volume are therefore described in the next sections.
III. MODEL DEVELOPMENT
Based on the above observations reported in the last section, one can see that the PCM strategy is interesting to implement in a LiC system. Nonetheless, a large quantity and volume of PCM have been used, increasing the weight and cost of the system, which are two criteria that must be the lowest possible according to the automotive industry. Therefore, in order to optimize the whole system, we propose to develop an electro-thermal model of the solution and this section describes the different parts of the model.
A. Modelling Methodology Description
In this study, a 3D-thermal model for LiCs is developed. As shown in Fig. 6, the model methodology treats the system, here LiC, in two parts: electrical and thermal parts [30], [20]. The first one calculates the voltage and the heat generation of the system under current solicitations thanks to electrical parameters and
10522 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 68, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2019
Fig. 6. Schematic of the modelling methodology.
Fig. 7. Geometry representation of the dual-cell system.
basic voltage equations. The second one uses the heat generation to estimate the thermal distribution according to a predefined geometry, in this case, the LiC system. This couple 0D-electro and 3D-thermal methodology has been reported in the literature [21], [31] with accurate results and is therefore used in this paper.
B. LiC Modelling
The dual-cell LiC model is based on the single model of a LiC that was developed and validated in previous studies [6], [8], [14]. With reference to [6], [8], [14], the model equations and parameters are the same used in this study.
In Fig. 7, the dual-cell system is visible with its different domains: the electrode domain, the negative and positive tabs. The system is the combination of two LiCs stacked together to represent the module arrangement used in a BEV.
Due to the complexity of 3D modelling, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) commercial software package such as COM- SOL Multiphysics is used to establish the 3D model. Heat transfer in solids (ht) physic module is used to estimate the heat generation of the LiC system. Table III reports the physical parameters used for the modelling obtained from the previous study.
TABLE III PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF THE DESIGN
C. PCM Modelling
In order to model the PCM, the submodule “phase-change material” in the heat transfer in solids (ht) physic of COMSOL was used. Basically, the submodule uses the enthalpy method for which equation 1 is assumed to describe the heat transfer in the solid, liquid and mushy region of the PCM [32]–[34].
The global idea is to have an effective heat capacity taking into account the latent heat in the mushy zone. Moreover, for each zone, the density and thermal conductivity of the paraffin are also considered in the different phases.
ρCpeff dT
dt = λeff∇2T (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
with Cpmushy , λmushy and ρmushy, the specific heat capacity, the thermal conductivity and the density of the PCM in the mushy phase, respectively.
JAGUEMONT et al.: INVESTIGATION OF A PASSIVE THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LiCs 10523
Fig. 8. Graphical comparison of the numerical and experimental results for the three different designs.
D. Al-PCM Modelling
In order to account for the Al-grid mesh foil, the physic that has been developed for the embedded PCM modelling is used. The modelling of the Al-grid foils would enhance the complexity of the model and increase the computational time.
λeff = ξ . λPCM + (1 − ξ) λAl
ρeff = ξ . ρPCM + (1 − ξ) ρAl
(5)
with CpAl, λAl, and ρAl, the heat capacity, thermal conductivity and the density of Aluminum for which values are 0.963 kJ/kg.K, 218 W/m2.K and 2700 kg/m3, respectively. ξ is the associated fraction of Al in the embedded PCM. For example, 20% of Al corresponds to ξ = 0.8.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
This section reports the simulation results obtained with the models and the test profile described in Section II.D. The main idea is to compare the simulations from the developed electro- thermal model compared to the experimental tests of Section II for validation. Results are shown in Fig. 8 for which the graphical evolution of the estimated temperature is compared to the data of Section II.F.
As shown in Fig. 9, the simulation results for the three designs show good accordance with the experimental curves. This means that the model is able to reproduce the temperature behavior of the LiC design with and without PCM management under the current solicitation.
Moreover, regarding the Al-PCM management, since for modelling the Al-sheets surrounding the LiCs, the methodology for modelling an embedded PCM with Al particles was pro- posed, a method by which inserted particles of Al are considered in a total mass fraction of the PCM. In the simulation, an Al fraction, ξ, of 0.9 (10% of Al) was found to account for the
Fig. 9. 3D thermal simulation results for the test profile and the different designs. Top: no-PCM design. Middle: paraffin-PCM design. Bottom: Al-PCM design.
Al-mesh grid surrounding the LiCs. This fraction was later validated by scaling the Al-mesh grid over the total weight of the PCM:
%Al (%)= mAl-sheet (kg)
mAl-sheet(kg) +mPCM (kg) =
0.036 0.036 + 0.33
=10
(6) This provides a rigorous validation of the model, thus im-
proves the integrity of the study and accommodates with the optimization task, which is presented in the next section.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, an experimental study was performed on LiCs, one without PCM, one with paraffin and one with Al-grid mesh. Results showed that the Al-PCM enhances the conductivities of the heat generated by the LiC.
Moreover, in order to improve the design, an electro-thermal model has been developed and validated using the data obtained from experimental work. Then, the different effects of design parameters on the developed model have been tested. The main idea was to use Al-mesh grid in order to improve the heat rejection by increasing the conductivity of the system.
Results showed that the overall temperature of the system was decreased by 10 °C. Optimization of the system and in
10524 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 68, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2019
particular the thickness could be interesting to perform in order to lower the cost, weight and volume while maintaining the good thermal performance of the system. Furthermore, a validation test in hardware could be interesting to perform. In the end, this means that embed PCM with Al seems a promising way. Nonetheless, one main problem has been seen with the use of PCMs: the difficulty to regenerate the PCM between two thermal loads due to the absence of a cold source. To solve this problem, an additional active system can be added such as liquid cooling. Future works will then include the investigation of such a system for improving the LiC-based design.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank research project JSR. They would also like to thank F. Make for support to our research team.
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