ion beam analysis - arizona state universityvenables.asu.edu/grad/lectures/rcibatalk09.pdf · some...
TRANSCRIPT
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IBeAM Facility for Ion Beam Analysis of Materials
Ion Beam Analysis Robert J. Culbertson
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Outline
I. Overview
II. Fundamentals of Ion Scattering
A. Kinematics
B. Scattering Cross Section
C. Penetration into Matter (Energy Loss and Energy
Straggling)
III. Channeling
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References
J.W. Mayer and E. Rimini, Ion Beam Handbook for Material Analysis, (Academic Press,
New York, 1977)
W-K. Chu, J.W. Mayer, and M-A. Nicolet, Backscattering Spectrometry, (Academic Press,
New York, 1978)
L.C. Feldman, J.W. Mayer, and S.T. Picraux, Materials Analysis by Ion Channeling,
(Academic Press, New York, 1982)
L.C. Feldman and J.W. Mayer, Fundamentals of Surface and Thin Film Analysis, (North-
Holland, New York, 1986)
S.A.E. Johansson and J.L. Campbell, PIXE: A Novel Technique for Elemental Analysis, (John
Whiley and Sons, Chichester, 1988)
J.R. Bird and J.S. Williams, Ion Beams for Materials Analysis, (Academic Press, Sydney,
1989)
J.R. Tesmer, C.J. Maggiore, M. Nastasi, J.C. Barbour, and J.W. Mayer, Eds., High Energy
and Heavy Ion Beams in Materials Analysis, (Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1990)
J.L. Campbell, K.G. Malmoqvist, and S.A. Johansson, Particle–Induced X–Ray Emission
Spectrometry (PIXE) (John Wiley and Sons, 1995)
J.R. Tesmer and M. Nastasi, Editors, Handbook of Modern Ion Beam Materials Analysis,
(Materials Research Society, 1995).
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J. Tirira, Y. Serruys, P. Trocellier, Forward Recoil Spectrometry: Applications of Hydrogen
Determination in Solids (Plenum, 1996)
M. Nastasi, J.W. Mayer, and J.K. Hirvonen, Ion-Solid Interactions: Fundamentals and
Applications, (Cambridge University Press, 1996).
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Energy Scale
Egap in HTSC Nuclear Binding Energy
Egap in SC X-Rays Cosmic Rays
10-2
100 10
4 10
2 10
6 10
8 10
10 10
12 10
14 10
16
ION BEAM ANALYSIS
Hel
ium
No
zzle
Beam
Vap
or
So
urc
e
Lar
ge H
adro
n C
oll
ider
Ele
ectr
ost
ati
c A
ccel
erato
rs
Sy
nch
rocy
clo
tro
ns
Sy
nch
rotr
on
s
Lin
ear
Acc
eler
ato
rs
Fer
mi
Lab
ENERGY (eV)
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Ion Beam Analysis Techniques
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Applications of Ion Beams
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Kinematic Factor K
Definition:
0
EK
E
=
!
"m1 m
2
E
E0
Ef
• E0, m1, and ! are usually pre-set experimental parameters
• E is measured during the experiment
2
1
22 2 2sin cos
2 1 1
1 20
m m m
EK
m mE
! !" #$ %& '( +) *& '+ ,
= = & '+& '
& '& '- .
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Derivation of K
m1
m2
m1
m2
!
"E
10, v
10E
2f, v
2f
E1f, v
1f
• Conservation of Energy (elastic collision):
2 2 21 1 1
1 10 1 1 2 22 2 2m v m v m v
f f= +
• Conservation of Momentum: cos cos
1 10 1 1 2 2
0 sin sin1 1 2 2
m v m v m vf f
m v m vf f
! "
! "
= +
= +
• After some algebra (eliminate " using sin2"+cos2"=1):
21
22 2 221 sin cos21 2 1 11 10
21
1 2210 1 1
E m m mm vf
Km mE m v
f
! !" #$ %& '( +) *& '+ ,
= = = & '+& '
& '& '- .
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Recoil of Target Atom
m1
m2
m1
m2
!
"E
10, v
10E
2f, v
2f
E1f, v1f
Recoil Energy of target atom:
2 212 1 1 10 2 2 102
1 21 2
1 2
4cos
where and ( is the "reduced mass")
f f fE E E E m v EM
m mM m m
m m
µ!
µ µ
= " = # = =
= + =+
Example: 2 MeV He incident on Ag
m1 = mHe = 4 amu; E10 = 2 MeV; m2 = mAg = 107 amu
The maximum recoil energy (head-on collision; " = 0):
( )
2 1 22 10 10 10 102 2
1 2
4 4 4 4 107cos (0) 0.14
111f
m mE E E E E
M m m
µ ! !" #= = = =$ %
& '+
Thus, a maximum of 14% of the initial He energy can be transferred to the Ag atom.
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Kinematic Factor: Example Consider a graphite substrate with layers of approximately one monolayer each of O, Si, Ni,
Ge, and W. A Rutherford backscattering spectrum using He ions at 2.0 MeV and a scattering
angle of 170 degrees is shown below.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
100 200 300 400 500 600
0.5 1 1.5
O, Si, Ni, Ge, and W on Graphite
2 MeV He, 170 degrees
Channel Number
Energy (MeV)
Given the mass of each of the elements we can construct a table of kinematic factors.
Multiplying K by incident energy E0 gives the expected detected energy. Lastly, the “channel
number” for a particular data acquisition system can be determined from calibration constants
(in this example, Energy = 0.003*Channel + 0.08). Element
Mass
(amu)
K
Energy
(MeV)
Channel
Number
C 12.01 0.2529 0.506 142
O 16.00 0.3527 0.725 215
Si 28.09 0.566 1.132 351
Ni 58.71 0.7627 1.525 482
Ge 72.59 0.8033 1.607 509
W 183.85 0.9173 1.835 585
Now C, O, Si, Ni, Ge, and W are readily identified in the spectrum.
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Kinematic Factor: Example (cont.)
Plotting the spectrum using a logarithmic vertical scale shows the smaller peaks more clearly.
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
100 200 300 400 500 600
0.5 1 1.5
O, Si, Ni, Ge, and W on Graphite
2 MeV He, 170 degrees
Channel Number
Energy (MeV)
C
O Si
Ni GeW
Some questions:
What is the peak near channel 240?
Why is the silicon peak not symmetric?
Why do the Ni and Ge peaks overlap?
Why is the carbon data flat, and why does it have a step?
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Finding m2
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
2 21 2 22 cos 4 cos 4 1 1 2 cos
2 1 1 12 1m Km K Km K K m K K
K! ! !
" #$ %= & & & & + &' () *& + ,- .
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Dependence of K on m2
Note that K changes rapidly for small values of m2. This results in high mass resolution.
However, K is rather insensitive to m2 at high values of m2; thus, mass resolution is not as
good at high values of m2.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150 200
K vs. m2
m1=m
He, !=170
m2
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Dependence of K on m1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150 200
K vs m2 for various m
1
1 H4 He12 C28 Si40 Ar
m2
Conclusion: better mass resolution is obtained with larger m1.
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Angular Dependence of the Kinematic Factor K 2
122 2 2
sin cos1 2 1 1, ,
1 21 210
E m m mf
K m mm mE
! !!
" #$ %& '( +) *& '$ % + ,
= = & ') *++ , & '
& '& '- .
Note that this form of K simplifies for !=90° and !=180°.
K m
1
, m
2
, 90°!
"#$
%&=
m
2
'm
1
m
1
+m
2
!
"
###
$
%
&&&
K m
1
, m
2
, 180°!
"#$
%&=
m
2
'm
1
m
1
+m
2
!
"
###
$
%
&&&
2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150 200 250
K vs m2 (m
1=4)
90
180
m2
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Dependence of K on !
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150 200
KHe
vs. m2 for various !
60
30
90
120
150
180
m2
• K is more sensitive to m2 at high values of m2 for larger !; K is most sensitive at higher
masses for !=180°.
• Many laboratories, including IBeAM, use !=170°.
(Why not use !=180° in the lab?)
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Mass Resolution
Example: thin layers of Ag (108 amu), Sn (119), W (184), and Au (197); detector resolution:
15 keV FWHM; beam: 2.0 MeV He; scattering angle: 170°
Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9
Mass Resolution(2 MeV He, 170 degrees)
Energy (MeV)
Ag Sn
W Au
Note that Ag-Sn are barely resolved; W-Au are not resolved.
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Rules of Thumb:
• Can identify elements up to mass ~100 amu
• Can resolve isotopes up to elements of mass ~50 amu
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Mass Resolution
1
20 2
0
22
E E E Km
E mKEE
mm
! ! !"# $
%& '( = = = & '%# $ # $# $ & '%%& ' & ' ) *& ') *& ' & '%& ' & '%) *
& ') *
Here, E! is the total energy resolution, including the detector resolution and energy
straggling.
22
2 2 2 2 2 22 sin ( ) cos( ) 2 sin ( ) cos( )2 1 1 2 2 1 1
2 32 2 2sin ( )
1 2 2 1 1 2
K
m
m m m m m m m
m m m m m m
! ! ! !
!
"=
"
# $ # $% + % +& ' & '
( ) ( )%# $ # $
+ % +& ' & '( ) ( )
Note: This derivative may be found by hand or from Maple, for example:
> diff(((sqrt(m2^2-m1^2*(sin(q))^2)+m1*cos(q))/(m1+m2))^2,m2);
! 2 ( ) + ! m2 2 m1 2 ( )sin q 2 m1 ( )cos q m2
( ) + m1 m2 2 ! m2 2 m1 2 ( )sin q 2
2 ( ) + ! m2 2 m1 2 ( )sin q 2 m1 ( )cos q2
( ) + m1 m2 3
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Mass Resolution
1
2
20
KEm
mE
!"# $
%& '( =& '%& ') *
10
100
1000
104
105
0 50 100 150 200
(dK/dm2)-1 vs. m
2
30
60
90
120
150
180
m2
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Mass Resolution: Example
Example: Given 20 keV, 2.00 MeV, 1700
E E! "= = = °
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 50 100 150 200 250
Mass Resolution
(2 MeV He, !=170 degrees, "E=20 keV)
m2
1
2
20
KEm
mE
!"# $
%& '( =& '%& ') *
Note that increasing E0 directly improves mass resolution.
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Scattering Cross Section
The number of scattered particles detected, nd, depends on:
• The number of incident particles, I
• The “size” of the detector (solid angle), !
• The number of scattering particles (areal density), Nt
• The probability of scattering (cross section), !
n I N td
!= "#" " "
Target
Flux I
Scattered ions
Detector
!
nd
"
Incidentmonoenergeticbeam
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Impact Parameter, b
bImpact parameterTarget atom
Incident ions
m1
m2
Notice that:
• Small b, large scattering angle
• Large b, small scattering angle
• Generally, scattering is dominated by small angle scattering, but more information is
obtained from large angle scattering.
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Solid Angle
A
R
!
R
s
"
Solid angle: (steradians; dimensionles
24Note
Planar angle: (
that for a comp
radians
lete sp
; dimensio
here,
s)2
nl
4 sr
ess)
2 2
A
A
R
R
R R
s
R!
""#= = =
#=
=
Note: Just as s is the length of the arc and not the length of a straight line, A is the area of a
portion a spherical surface of radius R; it’s not the area of a flat circle, although for small
angles the difference is negligible.
( )
For small and :
22 2
24 4 4 1 ( is the diameter of the "flat" circle)2 2 2 2 4
Rd sA
d
R R R R
!
" !" "
"!
#
#= $ $ = =
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Solid Angle of the Sun and Moon
Earth
Moon
Sun
Rs=1.5x1
011 m
Rm=3.38x10
8 m
! = 0.53°
ds =
1.4x1
09
m
dm =
3.5
x1
06
m
( )
( )
20.532 51 1 6.7 10 sr
4 4 180
or
22 91.4 10
54 4 6.8 10 sr 2 2 2
111.5 10
35 10 srASUdetect
Compare: - Almost 100x the size of the full moo !o
nr
sun moon
d
sA
sunR R
!!" !
! !
# $ %& '& ' = = () *+ ,
(
%& = = = =
%& ' (
(
(
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Cross Section and Reference Frames
m1
m2
m1
m2
!1
!2
Before After
Lab Frame
m1
m2
m1
m2
!
!
Center of Mass Frame
Before After
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Differential Scattering Cross Section
(Rutherford)
In the center of mass reference frame:
2
11 2
4 4sin / 2
Z Zd
R
Ed
cm
!
"
# $% &=% &' # $% &( ) % &
( )
In the laboratory reference frame:
22
11 sin cos
22
11 2
1/ 24 4 2sin / 2
11 sin
2
m
m L LZ Zd
R
Ed
mL
m L
! !"
!
!
# $% &' (' () )* +) ), -, -* +. +/ 0, -, -' ( * +, -) ), -' ( , - 1 21 2* +) )3 45 6, - , -=, - ' (7 , -, - % &, -1 2 ' (, - ' (* +1 21 2 , -, -* +., -, -* +, -, -1 21 2* +3 4
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Expanding in (m1/m2):
( )
22
11 2 12 44 sin / 2
2
Z Z md
R
E md
!
"
# $% &% & ' () *) *= + + ,,,' () *) *- ' () *) *. /. / ' (0 1
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Rutherford Scattering Cross Section: Lab Frame
( )( )
2
24 2for << with in MeV and in b/sr [1b (barn)
2
11 2 1, 0.02073 244 s
= 10 c
in / 22
m ]1 2
Z Z m
ER E
m m ER
m
!
! ""
# $% &% & ' () *) *+ ,' () *) * ' (
,
) *) *- .- . ' (/ 0
This Rutherford cross section is often further approximated by leaving out the mass
correction:
( )( )
The accuracy of this form is given
2
11 2, 0.0207344 sin
in the table below for =4 (He) and =170
/ 2
1
Z
m
Z
ER E
L!
" !!
# $ % &' () * +' ( * +' ( , -. /°
m2 Error 10 -18.71% 20 -4.10% 50 -0.63%
100 -0.16% 200 -0.04%
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Deviations from the Rutherford Cross Section
Low Energy Limits
Partial screening by electron shells for both low and high energy ions indicate the need for
screening corrections:
4 /30.0491 21 low energies
Z Z
E
R cm
!
!= "
7 / 20.03261 21 light ions with MeV energies
Z Z
E
R cm
!
!= "
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Deviations from the Rutherford Cross Section
High Energy Limits
For each element in the figure, the scattering cross section for a given Z2 is “Rutherford” at
energies below the line.
0
5
10
15
0 10 20 30 40 50
Non-Rutherford Energy ( !Lab
: 160-180 degrees)
Z2
7Li
4He
1H
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Deviations from the Rutherford Cross Section
Simple Estimates
Consider the distance of closest approach for a head-on collision: energy conservation
requires that the kinetic energy at large separation E is converted to potential energy U
at closest approach distance d:
2
1 1 2 (SI units)4
0
Z Z e
Ed!"
=
2
21 2 ("IBA units": 14.4 eV A)
Z Z e
E ed
= =
!
Low Energy Limit: Want d<rK (K-shell radius)
• For 2 MeV He in Ag (rK~10-3 nm), d=6.8x10-5 nm; thus d<rK is satisfied
• Some limits: EHe > 10 keV in Si; EHe> 340 keV in Au
High Energy Limit: Want d>rnucleus
rnucleus =R0A1/3, R0~1.4x10-15 m; A is the atomic mass in amu
At d=Rn, Emax=Z1Z2e2/(R0A
1/3)
• For He in Si, Emax~9.6 MeV
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Energy Loss
t
N
E0
E0 - !E
0
t dEE dx
dx! = "
Energy
Electronic stopping
Nuclear stopping
dE/dx or !Bethe-Bloch region
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Energy Loss
400 nm
Al
1 nm Au1 nm Au
E0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Energy (MeV)
Al
Au
(front)
Au
(back)
Normal Incidence 2 MeV He+; 170 degrees Scattering
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Energy Loss
Stopping Power: Typical units: eV / AngstromdE
dx
( )2eV cm eV
Stopping Cross Section: Typical units: or 15 210 atoms g / cm
!
µ
21 eV cm 3 where is the atomic density (atoms/cm )1510 atoms
dEN
N dx!
" #$ % & '=( ) & '* + , -
Sometimes used:
( )1 eV 3 where is the mass density ( g/cm )
2g / cm
dE
dx! " µ
" µ
# $% & ' (=) * ' (+ , ' (- .
Rules of thumb:
• N (atomic density) is typically around 22 35 6 10 atoms/cm! "
• is approximately the energy lost per monolayer!
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Some He Stopping Cross Sections (Polynomial Fit)
( ) 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5E A A E A E A E A E A E! = + + + + +
(E in MeV, ! in eV/1015 atoms/cm2)
Element Z At. Wt. (amu) A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
N 7 14.007 31.01 64 -76.97 34.76 -7.127 0.5523
O 8 15.999 25.9 73.3 -80.5 35.17 -7.1 0.5462
Al 13 26.982 55.94 0.6773 -4.752 0.3401 0.2662 -0.0405
Si 14 28.086 57.97 56.59 -77.66 36.41 -7.624 0.5995
Ti 22 47.879 64.01 109.8 -125.5 55.67 -11.37 0.8827
Ni 28 58.728 41.59 97.79 -91.19 37.32 -7.482 0.5893
Pd 46 106.441 13.57 285.2 -287.4 124.9 25.24 1.939
W 74 183.842 61.69 156.6 -150.9 62.45 -12.33 0.9421
Au 79 196.967 57.99 193.2 -185.4 77.9 -15.59 1.199
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Stopping Cross Section of Some Elements
Energy (MeV)
OAl
Si
Ti
Ni
W
Au
N
N
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Compounds: Bragg’s Rule
For a compound of elements A and B with chemical formula AmBn:
m nA B A B
m n
! ! != +
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Bragg's Rule
He4 Energy (MeV)
!O
!Si
!SiO2
=!Si
+ 2!O
2eV cm
Note that is in units of 15SiO
10 2
molecules
!" #$ %$ %& '
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Energy Loss
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
2 MeV He+: 30 deg. incidence; 170 deg. scattering
Energy (MeV)
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A Note About Scattering Geometry
The scattering angle defines a cone centered about the incident beam direction; a detector is
located somewhere on this cone. Two typical choices involve a detector-beam plane that is
vertical (“Cornell” geometry) or horizontal (“IBM” geometry)
!-"scattering
"scattering
Beam Direction
!2 Cornell
!2 IBM
Vertical p
lane
Horizontal plane
Beam Direction(horizontal)
SAMPLE
SURFACE
ve
rti c
al dir
ect io
n
"-!scattering
"-!scattering
Sample normal
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Cross Section
Application: Thin Films
The number of scattered particles detected, n, depends on the number of incident particles, I,
the detector solid angle, ! the number of scattering particles (areal density), Nt, and the
scattering cross section, !
n I N t != "#" " "
Consider two elements in the same spectrum, such as a thin film of Si and Ni shown below
(in this case: 2 MeV He, 170°, total of 1017 cm-2 and equal amounts of Si and Ni). The value
of n for each element is the area of the peak. In this case, nSi=1551 and nNi=6385.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Thin Si and Ni Film (1017
cm-2
)
Energy (MeV)
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Cross Section
Application: Thin Films (cont.)
If we are interested in the relative amount of Ni to Si, then we must find (Nt)Ni/(Nt)Si.
( )
( )
nNt
I
nNtNi Ni Si
Nt nSi
Si Ni
!
!
!
="
=
The cross section has the form
( )
2
11 2 ( , , and are the same for both Si and Ni cases)4 14 sin / 2
Z Z
Z EE
! ""
# $ % &' () * +' ( * +' ( , -. /
( )
( )
26386 14
1.031551 28
nNtNi Ni Si
Nt nSi
Si Ni
!
!" #" #
= = =$ %$ %& '& '
Thus, the Ni and Si components are nearly equal in this film.
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Cross Section
Example: Au on Si and Si on Au
Consider a thin layer of Au on Si and visa versa
mSi=28, ZSi=14, mAu=197, ZAu=79
279Au 3214
Si
!
!" #$ $% &' (
0
1 104
2 104
3 104
4 104
5 104
0.5 1 1.5 2
Au on Si and Si on Au
2 MeV He, Normal Incidence, 170 deg. Scattering
1 ML Au
200 ML Si
Energy (MeV)
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Cross Section
Example: Au-Si Alloys
Consider Au-Si alloys
mSi=28, ZSi=14, mAu=197, ZAu=79
279Au 3214
Si
!
!" #$ $% &' (
0
5000
1 104
1.5 104
2 104
2.5 104
3 104
3.5 104
4 104
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Au-Si Alloys
2 MeV He, Normal Incidence, 170 deg. Scattering
99% Si 1% Au
50-50 Si-Au
Energy (MeV)
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Energy Loss
Surface Energy Approximation:
Stopping Power Factor [ ] and Energy Loss Factor [ ]S!
!1
!2
t
E0
kE0
E
Scattering from a surface atom:
• Energy before scattering: E0
• Energy after scattering: kE0
• Detected energy: kE0
At depth t: the ingoing and outgoing paths are
cos
1
tdin != and ("IBM" geometry)
cos2
tdout !
=
or ("Cornell" geometry)cos cos
1 2
tdout ! !
=
(continued)
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Energy Loss
Surface Energy Approximation:
Stopping Power Factor [ ] and Energy Loss Factor [ ]S!
Scattering from an atom at depth t:
Energy at surface: E0
Energy at depth t, just before scattering:
cos
1
cos0 00 1
0
t
dE t dEE E dx E
dxdx E E
!
!
" #$ %& '(= ) * )+ , -. /& ' =0 1
Energy at depth t, just after scattering: kE!
Energy after leaving surface:
cos
2
cos0 2
0
cos cos0
1 20 0
t
dE t dEE kE dx kE
dxdx E kE
t dE t dEk E
dx dxE E E kE
!
!
! !
" #$ %& '( (= ) * )+ , -. /& ' =0 1
$ %" # " #, -& '$ % $ %& '* ) ), - , -. /& ' . /& '= =, -0 1 0 1. /
(continued)
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Energy Loss
Surface Energy Approximation:
Stopping Power Factor [ ] and Energy Loss Factor [ ]S!
The difference in energy between an ion that scattered from a surface atom and an ion that
scattered from an atom at depth t:
1 1
cos co
cos cos0 0
s
1 20 0
01 20 0
dE d
t dE t dEE kE E kE k
EE k t S t
dx dxE E E kE
Edx dxE E E kE!
! !
!
" #$ %& ' & '( () *+ , + ,$ % $ %- = . / . . .0 1
$ %& ' & ') *& ' & '+ , + ,- = + = $ %+ , + ,) * 2 3+ , + ,
) *2 3 2 3+ ,
4 5 4 5= =+ , + ,) *4 5 4 52
+ ,= =( () *4 5 4 52 36 7
3
(continued)
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Energy Loss
Surface Energy Approximation:
Stopping Power Factor [ ] and Energy Loss Factor [ ]S!
The quantity [S] is called the energy loss factor. Instead of using stopping powers (dE/dx) to
calculate [S], we can use stopping cross sections to compute the stopping cross section factor
[ ]! , where
( ) ( )1 1
[ ]0 cos cos
0 01 2
E kE E k Nt NtE E E kE
! ! !" "
# $% & % &' () * ) *+ = , - + =' (= =) * ) *) * ) *' (. / . /0 1
Beware of this odd notation! Note that [ ]! is not simply “! ” with brackets around it – it really
means the entire expression inside the brackets, with k, 1! ,
2! , and ! evaluated at two
energies.
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Accuracy of the Surface Energy Approximation
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 100 200 300 400 500
2 MeV He, Normal Incidence, 170 deg Scattering
(Platinum)
Full Numerical Integration (RUMP)
Surface Energy Approximation
Depth (nm)
For this case (Pt, 2 MeV He, normal incidence, 170° scattering):
-15 2207 10 eV-cm
1370 eV/nmS
! =" #$ %
=" #$ %
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Depth Resolution
Angular Dependence
Consider a 20 nm layer of Au on Si with 2 MeV He in normal incidence with “IBM”
geometry.
!1
!2
t E0
kE0E
0
5000
1 104
1.5 104
2 104
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Depth Resolution: Angular Dependence
20 nm Au on Si
100 deg
140
170
Energy (MeV)
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Energy Loss
Energy Straggling
42.35 2.35 2 (fwhm)1 2
E Z e Z Nts B
! "# $
= % = & '( )
Energy
!E
"!E
!x
N
Incident BeamTransmitted Beam
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Depth Resolution
Limits
Limiters
• Detector Resolution Ed
!
• Energy Straggling Es
!
Depth resolution is improved by increasing path length, but it is ultimately limited by energy
straggling.
[ ] [ ]
2 22E E E
s d
E Et
S N
! ! !
! !!"
# $ # $= +% & % &' ( ' (
= =