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Motivation and Leadership(Most of the theories and studies had been presented in this area)Definition of Motivation:“ I t i s a process, whi ch accounts for an individual’s I ntensity, dir ection and persistence of efforts

towards attaining a goal”

It is essential to have an objective or goal with intensity etc as for a goal, difficulties vary as well asthe intensity required, a directions needed to know where to put those efforts in or where to movewhile persistence never ends, unless the goal is achieved.

Definition of variables should be with reference and should be aligned with the study objectives of a research

Need based Theories/studies: Need is a driving force or factor of motivation to do something. In this regard Langer (1937) andMurray (1938) started studies on this area and only hierarchy was missing in their work, whereasmost comprehensive model was given by Maslow (1943) for the first time and then later on (1954 &1970). He presented hierarchy of five needs, which became one of the most popular theories, widelyaccepted with minimal empirical support. None other than Maslow discussed the hierarchy of needs,while his theory was derived or based upon the Deprivation Gratification‘s concept with reference toneed (Dynamic Cycle of Needs):

“ Any sort of depri vation of need, leads to domin ance of thi s need over the individual’s personality”

An individual keeps on exerting efforts unless his need is fulfilled:“Gratification of need submerges it and activates the next higher level need”

No one gets out of these circle, one need may dominate the other. When once the need is gratified,he will go to the other level.

“Hunger observed now becomes safety observed” This was basic philosophy behind the need theory. Needs are then classified into two levels known as Lower order needs (survival, Safety & Security)

and higher order needs (Actualization & self-esteem). Then people related it with intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Dessy & Rayon). Theory X & Y (Doglus & Maylar) needed two category of people (1- cann‘t be self -exercised and 2-

Self exercise) Thus all theories on motivation were somehow the extension of Maslow‘s work. Motivation‘s levels or factors are well integrated because of the division of lower-higher order

needs. David McClelland’s theory of Needs (1961) presented, with framework of three needs or drivers of

motivations:1- Needs of Achievement (nAch)2- Needs of Affiliation3- Needs of Power

1-Need of Achievement:He defined this need as Personality trait characterized by:1- Consistent Concerns for setting and meeting standards of excellence (whatever one may do)2- To work with singleness of purpose , towards high and distant goals.3- To have determination to win.4- A moderate level of difficulty , while goal setting.

( Moderately difficult tasks) this concept was taken from a parallel concept in Biology “overload Principle” fitness through exercise.



5- For them achievement is more important than financial rewards.6- Achievement gives them more satisfaction than praise and recognition.7- They want feedback for improvements not only for praise.

The impact of this concept on Motivation: Parallel to motivation, leadership was discussed, initially it was considered as a Trait,

Then it was challenged by Behaviorists; Who considered it as a Behavior Then it was understood as trait plus behavior Then as Situational factors ( Contingency theory ) Rival of trait-paradigm Then the concept of Charismatic Leadership arrived where Charisma was found to be a trait (thus

one of th e most important area of research today is Personal Traits’ impact on Leader) All of these traits that are there in leaders are linked with the need of achievement motivation

(McClelland‘s Concept) in leaders (Charismatic, Authentic leadership and transformationalleadership etc).2-Need of Power (nPow):

(we must be) to be influential

Need to make an impact To lead To prevail To have status To have Prestige

3-Need of Achievement: To have friendship To have Interaction To be liked To be held in popular regard

Reference to work in team

(MISSED PART OF LECTURE)Leadership

When there is more than single individuals work in a place, there is the possibility of two things toemerge:

Politics and ConflictRoles:

(With reference to groups)

Role can be defined as: Expected norms According to a particular Position, the set of expected behavioral patterns is known as role Comprehensive work on roles has been done by Super (1958) life span theory Life Span theory (Super, 1958) stated that each individual performs a different role.



Initial debate on roles was initiated on role and its outcomes. First thing is to define role, which weattempted above as we are discussing role in group, and group in any context, as at differentcontexts, a single person performs different roles, as :

1- Child2- Student

3-

Worker4- Citizen5- Leisurite (role performed as leisure time spending)6- Spouse7- Home maker8- Parent9- Pensioner

As we perform all of these 9 roles in 4 theaters:1- Home2- School3- Workplace

4-

Community It was a very comprehensive study understands role and theater. When we change theater, even our role is changed It is difficult to adjust in different theaters with different roles at the same time. As one cannot perform role without adjusting in to that particular theater.

Definition of Role:“Role is an expected behavior pattern (according to the particular theater)”

These two are parallel to each others:Role Perception:

― How I am supposed to perform this role” It is individual’s perspective

Role Expectations:“ H ow others thi nk or feel th at you should perfor m thi s task ” It is others’ Perspective

As others matter also in group because of so many linkedrelations everyone is involved with.

There are Multiple Expectations by every differentrelations and another issue is linked with every differentrole performed by an individual, the gap between thesetwo is known as Role Conflict (which is divergent roleexpectation or perception).

This directed to the work-family conflict.

In Pakistan (1970) there was a trend prevailed in the society where families used to re-uniteat lunch, breakfast and dinner time, which has been removed now a days, on the other handeven the working hours have been expanded, which initiated work family conflict (in

Pakistani context). This is emerging because one role is valued more time and given more time as well than the

other, this disturbed ratio can also be caused backwards, resulting in family work conflict.Work-Family Conflict:



Underpinning theor y was ‗Role Stress Theory‘ (Kahn, 1964) from which its definition wasderived.

Definition of WFC (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985):“It is a form of in ter r ole confl ict in whi ch roles pressur es f rom work and famil y domains

are mutually incompatible”

There were different concepts involved in it or are linked with it ( but it has to be kept in mind that in literatureTime and Context matters a lot) such as:

Segregation or Segmentation Hypothesis (Doben, 1956) there exists no relationship between work and non-work issues.

Spill over theory (Staines, 1980) “Emotions, strain, tasks, time etc spil l over f rom onedomain to another”

Making this theory as base, further three types of spill over are mentioned (Greenhaus &Beutel, 1985) as follows:

1. Strain Based Spill over (Tiredness by workplace, will be spilled over at home aswell)

2. Time Based Spill lover (Latness or extra hour working)

3. Behavior Based Spill over (Behavior at home same as of workplace) Another similar concept was given of spill over; the impact of one domain is transferred toanother (Karesk, 1976) of Active and Challenging job spill over as socially activeness or

passive work as passive socially as well.Family-Work Conflict:Afterwards another variable was identified as separate from WFC, known as FWC as a reversedconcept.

FWC can be defined (Gatek, 1991) as:“ Confl ict can originate in either direction ”

Work Family Border Theory (Clark, 2000) “Work and family are separate domains,character ized by dif ferent cul tures (pur pose, language, rules and customs) and people are

b order crosses” Therefore according to this theory, conflict will rise when the borders are crossed.

Psychological Contract(SECODN IMPORTANT TOPIC RELATED WITH ROLE)

Major contributions by: Argyris, 1960 Schein, 1980 Rousseau, 1989 most comprehensive study was presented, which‘s underpinning theory

was Social Exchange theory According to this theory, there exists an element of Reciprocity or mutual expectations Psychological Contract can be defined as (Schein, 1980) :

“An unwritten contract between employee and employer on mutual expectations” In others words ( Rousseau, 1989) as:

“Exchange relationship between employee and employer” While the most comprehensive definition is:



“Employee’s perspective of reciprocity, existing with their employer , as such employeehas belief regarding the organizational obligation to them and their obligation to

organization ”

Can be illustrated as:

This list is not fixed, it depends upon the perception and person, as perception is linked with personality.

Then comes the concept of Personality‘s impact on Psychological contract (Raja et al, 2004)as expectations vary from personality to personality, therefore expectation to organizationsare different as well.

Psychological Contract is person specific

Three components of Psychological Contract were identified ( Rousseau and Park, 1993):1. Promise2. Payment3. Acceptance

It is all about how psychological contract is developed, thus it all starts with promise (eitherstated or perceived) were perception matters, and thus it starts mostly with perceived

promise. Then payment comes, when something is offered in exchange of promise. If reward is as per perception or expectation will lead to the fulfillment of obligation as

positive outcomes and if reward is against perception or expectation Breach/Violation ofPsychological contract.

As said by Rousseau (1989) that “it is a voluntarily based action, thus it is done or madeby choice or by choice it is accepted” and both of the parties are supposed to carry out thecontract.

These outcomes can be of Psychological or Behavioral.Breach and Violation:

Previously breach and violation was considered as of single purpose but then these are differentiate( Robbinson and Morrison, 1997) as:

“ Breach is Cogni tive Awar eness that one or more obligations have not been fulfilled”

“ Violation i s emotional exper ience that breach has occurred, the reaction of emotional

experience is known as violation”.

Various people have used ―importance of promise‖ as moderator between the relationship ofBreach and Violation on psychological contract.

EmployeeLoyaltyHard work etc

EmployerJob SecurityEquity & Justice etc



On the basis of the work of various researchers (Rousseau, 1989; Rousseau & Park, 1993;Park, 1992) there are two types of Psychological Contracts identified:

1. Transactional Psychological Contract2. Relational Psychological Contract

Transactional Psychological Contract:

“ These are shor ter i n nature, involving moni tory exchange ‖ (Mostly in economic terms wherereturns are monitory ‖ Relational Psychological Contract:“These are long-term contracts, requir in g emotional in vestment ‖ (expectations of investment inlong term such as invested as loyalty, commitment, tenure etc thus organization expand long-termrewards such as justice, equity and job security etc).

After 1990‘s new psychological contract was introduced as employers by focusing on CostLeadership, lost concerning about employees‘ long term investment, which resulted inMissing element of long-term investment by employees in the organizations now a days.

Usually these are the outcomes used with breach (variables):1. Psychological wellbeing

2.

Trust in organization or leadership3. Turnover Intensions4. Commitment5. Job Satisfaction6. Cynicism

Moderators:1. Importance of Promise 2. Procedural & Interactional Justice 3. Equity Sensitivity 4. Locus of Control

Leadership:

Ability is sort of ability. Which means it is something that is within a person. There are varioustypes of abilities, two broadly categorized ones are:1. Intellectual Abilities2. Physical Abilities

It is important to notice, that when you are going for research you have to select and focus on one approach only and keep movingon accordingly, thus before getting into research, firstly select one school of thought

Thus ability‘s introduction can be as: “It is a sort of a bil ity to in f lu ence others (groups) for achievin g a goal or job”

By group we mean that two or more people, who are working for some common goals. The majordifference between Manager and Leaders is that manager is normally a formally role while leaderis someone who is normally an informal role.

This definition is very closely linked with group‘s definition, because leader is someoneamong the group.

1970‘s first time talked about the ―Role‖ along with these four basic foundations ofmanagers (Henry Mintherg) where the focal point was leader‘s “Ability to Influence” toachieve some goal or objective. Thus we can formulate the components of leaders as:

Manager + Additional Characteristics = Leader It was analyzed that why one team performs better than the others. Then this element of

leadership was identified. Minute difference between these two, resulted in massively different outcomes.



Through various Implications on national levels, it was seen that these differences werecreated by leadership‘s eleme nt not by management.

Then the question was raised that whether leadership is an ability or a trait means can it bedeveloped or is it inbuilt.

1990‘s comprehensive study was conducted by Bass (1990), but the formal literature on this

concept was found at 1930‘s. Major contributions in leadership‘s domain was made by Bass and ? After 1930‘s Bass identified 3000 studies on leadership from literature (1930-1990) In 1940‘s , first theoretical debate named as :

“Trait Paradigm of Leadership” Gibb (1947) Jenkius (1947) Stogdill (1948)

1st Paradigm; Trait Leadership

It was argued that there are certain inbuilt traits in Leaders, which differentiate them fromnon-leaders, for example Charismatic, authentic factors etc.

Parallel to this, at the same time Big-Five Personality traits emerged as well. Thereforethere was a major influence on Leadership‘s literature by Big Five personality traits. This isthe reason that leadership was related with personality and proved as:

Ambitious, energy (which are leadership traits) strong correlation withExtraversion

When five traits showed a strong correlation with leadership, then people related it withleadership as trait.

Whereas Behaviorists were against this concept, as they believed that behaviors can beconditioned accordingly and trait paradigm was rejecting their perspective.

Criticism: Apart from big-five model, there was no literature support for this other than the inductivesupport.

By the moderation of various variables, very different variance came in results between traitand leadership characteristics as well

Theoretical support was already not existed, other than this big-five model. It was based on induction than theoretical support. One important point has to be understood that opposition of trait paradigm does not

eliminate the traits‘ influence or importance in leadership but they merely do not give all thecredit to traits.

2nd

Paradigm; Behavioral Leadership This is the second school of thought when it comes to leadership In this regard, universities played an important role, the most influential groups were of:

1. Robbert, Bales and Associates from Howard University (1954)2. Stogill and Coones from Ohio state University (19573. A ―Leadership Center‖ was introduced by Kahn and Katz (1953), Likert (1961),

Mahn (1965) from University of Michigan.



This was developed in 1940‘s but presented by McClelland (1961), it states:

“A Non -consciou s concern f or achi eving excellence and accompli shments through one’sindividual efforts”

McClelland et al. (1958)

When variable was analyzed, strong relation was found between trait and leadership. There weredifferent dimensions of leadership found:1- Entrepreneurship by McClelland (1985)2- Task Orientated Groups effectiveness (House et al., 1991) Achievement Motivation

Presidential Effectiveness3- Self-Regulatory Behaviors as proposed by Bandura (1986)

A detailed data collection through interviews with CEO‘s of different MNCs was done andfound that Achievement Motivation is strongly related with Organizational Effectiveness(Achievement Motivation).

Major contributions were by:

David McClelland on Trait Dimensions whereas other people then tested these dimensionsand found other dimensions as well.

2nd Concept is of LMP (Leader Motive Profile)

McClelland (1975) as his name is included in the ten most influential psychologists in theworld.

He had conducted an analysis with dispositional factors. Around 1000 studies in literature, which are supporting Traits study of McClelland. Empirically tested studies were presented McClelland argued Through LMP that; Leader effectiveness is department on following

factors:o High power motivationso High concern for moral exercise of powero Power motivation is greater than affective motivation

1- Non-Conscious concerns for acquiring status and having an impact on others. To be aneffective leader, you have to contain high power and influence power.

Authority Influences of Leaders (it has to be noted that this is discussed with reference todispositional factors)

2- It is not only power, but morally and ethically or there are ethical concerns and he alsoconsiders the consequences for others.

3- Power motive should be and must be higher than the affective motives of a leader.

Establishing, managing, retrieving cross personal relationships.Leaders would be reluctant in evaluating people if the Affiliative motives are higher than thePower motivation. That is why the need of power should be higher than the relationships.

According to 1991 winter more than 1000 studies have supported McClelland‘s trait paradigm.

3rd concept of Charismatic Leadership:



It was presented by House (1977) who did further work on M cClelland‘s study. Underpinning theory was Trait-theory Containing the work of McClelland and basics of his work was depicting that:

o ―Exceptional self-confidento Strongly motivated to attain and assert influenceo Strong moral correlation of their beliefso Advocated changeo Challenge the status quoo Thus they are likely to by strongly resisted by the defenders of status quoo And since social change is difficult to attain, so there individual‘s must have high

level of persistence and determination As far as characteristics described by H ouse, was somehow similar with McClelland‘s but

what was uncommon, it was with reference of change. There was lots of support available. Article: Leadership Quoradis (means; Which Direction) by Jesus Christ (P)

4th Concept of Leader Flexibility: Major contributions by:1- Kenny et al., 1983, 19922- Zaccaro et al., 1991 Identified:

Rigidity Vs Flexibility in a social context (groups) Tested it with group‘s performance Zaccaro et al,. 1991, 59% of variance (R square) of leadership effectiveness depends on

flexibility and social perspectives. In other studies even 49 and 82 percent of variance has been found. And all of these dispositional factors are in accordance or are linked with situation.

3rd Paradigm; Contingency theories of Leadership

Most important determinants of leadership‘s success if situation specific Situations makes leaders That is why, one leader performs well in one context, is not very successful in other. A trend is followed in behavioral studies, context or situation has been developed for

checking a variable, after discussing itThe value of context is analyzed while accepting or rejecting the hypothesis (includes two things t heory supports etc)

When especially a hypothesis, is rejected, it has to be justified that is why this particular hypothesis is accepted or rejected in this particular context.While in discussion, results are discussed

Main initiative by Fiedler (1967‘s) uptill now people are talkinga bout ―Traits andBehaviors‖

He argued what is the factor, that at times by both of these elements, existing in a person orleader, yet why he is not effective?

Problem statement : Although having desired traits and behaviors, why a leader is noteffective?



Whenever a leader is effective or not, there is always a context involved Situations can make a person leader or non-leader (although the significance of trait and

behavior remain there)

Fielder’s Contingency Model or Framework:

―Effective group performance depends upon two things:1- Proper match between leader‘s style of Interaction with subordinates2- Degree to which situation gives control to leader ‖

He gave the scales to measure for orientation of leader to assess these two elements that is Styleand Control and named it as:

Least Preferred coworker questionnaire (LPCQ)

Gave 16 contrasting adjust lines like:

Open – guarded Efficient – Inefficient Supportive – Hostile Etc (where one was totally negative and one was totally positive)

It means that if you have been asked to think of a person, to have in your group as a coworker,which is least preferred by you.

Normally the score is negative (Production Orientation)But at times if you‘re least preferring him yet the score is maximum on positive side, then it showsthat the person is “Relationship Oriented” , which means people oriented. It was meant formeasuring the style of interactions.

Control over Situation:There are three factors which give control:

1- Leader-Member relationsWhat is the basis of this relationship and the outcome of the relationship will vary accordingto the basis, for instance it can be as follows:

Respect, trust, confidenceOr

Fear, Power etc2- Task Structure:

In job design it can be:

1- StructuredOr2- Unstructured (it will require more interaction between leader and

member, as the job would be ambiguous, requiring more clarifications)That is why in structured tasks the role of leader is comparatively easy than in unstructured tasks.

3- Position Power:



When subordinates are aware of the empowerment of the leader, employees understand the levelof significance of the power or the decision that can be made by a leader also. For instance theauthority of the leader to hire, promote or fire.

After these, a series of theories had been presented on situation by various people as well such as:

Life cycle Theory:(Hersey and Blanchard, 1982)

“Leadership is like parent -child relationship, where parents gradually relin quish control as childmatures ”

According to this theory the relinquishing of control depends on maturity of the employee. Thereforea new dimension came up:

“ Ef fective leadershi p depends upon follower’s readiness or matu ri ty ” Normally theories talk about parent-leader; very few have talked about followers or in this

perspective of child. It identified four levels of followers:Levels of Followers:

1-

Willing & Able ( favorite situation for leader) 2- Willing & Unable3- Unwilling & able4- Unwilling & Unable

This showed followers‘ importance and leader‘s role at each level was seen. In other words, theyhad identified four Leadership Styles as per these four levels of followers in order to deal with thesituation, accordingly.Leadership Style:

1- Telling2- Selling3- Participating4- Delegating

Leadership style for each Level of followers:

1- Telling for Willing & Able followers2- Selling for Willing & Unable followers3- Participating for Unwilling & able followers4- Delegating for Unwilling & Unable followers

Person-by-situation Interaction Theory or Cognitive Resource Theory (CRT):(Fiedler & Garcia, 1987)

It focused on: Impact of stress (situational factor) of leadership What should he do in a stressful situation. What should his behavior be at non-stressful situation. They examined situationally induced stress on leader and followers, as stress is an

unfavorable situation. They identified two Cognitive Resources:

1- Intelligence



2- Experience (tacit knowledge)Thus, the interaction would take place between Resource and Situation. Stress, experienced by Leaders and Followers:These were the findings of their study:

Situation of Low Stress--- Intelligence is directly associated with performance

Experience is indirectly associated with performanceIn a low-stress situation, intelligence will be more effecting performance while experience is not.Situation of High Stress---Intelligence is reversely related to performance

Experience is directly related to performanceIn high stress situation, brilliant people would perform worst than dull people. Thus, a

leader should relay on experience in stressful situation rather than of intelligence. As intelligenceurges for an immediate responding that is what it is said that:

“ Stress is biggest enemy of Rationality” LMX (Green et al, 1975-95):

This theory has transformed the individuals as an element to a dyadic relationship and itstates:

“Leaders based on expectations” It is important to consider that what are the expectations of leader, from his followers? There aremany followers working along with leader but leader does not expect equally and same from all ofhis followers. This is also because of the judgment and prediction that has made him recognize thedifferences that have been observed by the leader, in his followers, he expect differently and then hetakes or picks special individual or followers as In-group. Why do people who are expected to perform well, actually performs well?Here comes the above mentioned question, we need to go through the following concepts in orderto understand or answer this point.

Path Goal Theory:(House 1971; House & Mictel, 1974) along with the Ohio studies (talks about leaders‘ style)

+ expectancy theory of motivation (talks about followers‘ belief on leader) by Vroom (1964) Housework on traits and also in behavioral paradigm

―The job of a leader is to provide foll owers the inf ormati on, support and resources for theachievement of a goal and the fol lowers wil l perf orm well if they beli eve or h ave a beli ef that

leader is providing requir ed direction towards the goals and reduce road blocks” Goal + Path followers

Outcome will depend on the belief of the followers as per the expectancy theory, thus the outcomewill be increased as per the increasing belief. That is why it is always advocated to trust on theleader’s ability!

Following are the hints for research:Leaders’ Behaviors: Directive Supportive Participative Achievement oriented

Outcomes: Performance



Satisfaction

( Moderator could be any factor that is Motivating for Achievement)Moderation could be of:

Environmental Contingency factors such as: Authority system Workgroup Task Structure etc

Personal Characteristics of employees: Locus of Controls Experiences Perceived ability etc

Path Goal Model:

Strategic Leadership:Initial debate was on the Role of the Leadership. Forinstance the corporate level strategy plays a vital role inorganizational performance, thus the one who makes itmatters a lot in the success or failure of the organization.At this point the difference of two kinds of leadership isalso fund; where at one place there is Leadership ―in‖ the

organization while oth er is leadership ―of‖ theorganization. When the leadership is ‗OF‘ theorganization then the role of leader is at multiple fronts.He must have the ability to consider external factors which are prevailing outside the organization(as we know that‘s success itself is a relative term, so success for an ―in‖ leadership might not benamed as success by a ―of‖ organization‘s leader).

Upper Echelon Theory:

LeadershipBehaviors

Outcomes

Moderation



(Hambrick &Mason, 1984)“ Specif ic knowledge, preferences and values of the top management i nf lu ences thei r assessment

of the environment and strategic choices, they make”

Leadership ―In‖ Organization Changes into Leadership ―Of‖ Organization

And because of this strategic choice, the actual magic is done. Following are the other importanttopics or concepts of leadership domain: Transactional Leadership (Production focused) Vs Transformational Leadership (Oriention)

by Bass & Awilo (1985). Servant Leader(serves as a servant) Authentic Leadership(Luhan &Awolio, 2003) Ethical Leadership

Now we had been discussing about Group, along with leadership term is used in a group as “GroupDynamics ‖ which is known as overall as Social Psychology (major contribution was developed byKurt Lewin (1890-1947), who is also known as most influential psychologist and he worked on

Group behaviors, group dynamics, change management etc). the group dynamics include: Power Politics Conflicts

Thus, for understanding all of these, we have to first go through the Kurt‘s work and even the termGroup Dynamics was defined by him for the first time.

Resources are scarcity and nature is different. In a group, every individual tries to avail maximum benefits They use tactics, for gaining or maximizing their benefits. Tactics are Most commonly used for gaining Power in Oder to influence others

Power: People had been talking about it long ago As we will take it from ―Political Sciences‖ etc for discussing in class Its traces are found from literature by:

Machivalli,1532 Hobbes,1651 Neitzche,1883 Russel, 1938 Weber, 1948 Lukers, 1974

Apart from Lewin, these people have talked about all of these (like power etc).but all of thefoundation was provided by Kurt Lewin (1941). One of the best things about Lewin‘s work is thathis ability of abstraction was really high, as he could define concepts very simply and briefly.Following is the definition of power by Lewin:

“The possibility of inducing force on someone else” Lewin gave a formula for calculating Power as through the maximum force that person A caninduce on person B, divided by maximum resistance that we can offer, and is equal to power:

Power= Force A on B/ Resistance If resistance is higher, than B will be powerful and if force is higher than the resistance then

A will be powerful.



Afterwards all the people who worked onward were inspired by Lewin Another important contribution was made by French and Raven (1959)with reference to

Social Power, he said:“Force that the one person (agent) exerts on someone else (Target) to induce a cha nge in

the target in cludin g changes in behaviors, opini ons or att i tudes goals or needs and

values” (Why target changes his opinion, needs etc? is also discussed further, below Reasons of Change:Why target us willing to change or surrender?

Nature of Power is “Kinetic Power” (1959) and in literature five basis for power have beenidentified and in 1965, six dimensions of power were found as well by Raven.Dimensions of Power:(On the basis of Power, as in this case, agent has to monitor these basis in order to develop asurveillance mechanism as it is publically accepted)Following are the six dimensions of power:

1. Coercive Power2. Reward Power

3.

Legitimate Power4. Referred Power5. Expert Power6. Informational Power

1st-Coercive Power:This dimension of power is based on fear

2nd -Reward Power:It is defined as:

“Ability to influence on target’s positive or negative superficial change will come on target andwill not change the attitude and values etc”

Therefore, there are two kinds of values, attitude and behavior etc:

1.

Public (which can be changed)2. PrivateAnd its impact will remain, unless the basis is demolished or over.3rd - Legitimate Power:“Target’s belief that agent has a legitimate right to induce or exert influence and the target doesnot resist and accept i t internal ly, thus agent does not need sur veil lance, as i t has been accepted

by the target” 4th - Referent Power:

“Target identify with the agent on the basis of some desirable attributes or characteristics” When you want to become like the agent as it happens in marketing when “indorsed

celebrity” is used.

Strongest power‘s impact as an inner influenced is gained by it (like role model etc). 5th - Expert Power:“ T arget is depending upon the agent’s superior knowledge or experi ence, when th is kin d of

power is given to the agent then pri vately accepted by the target ‖. (Researchers had to link these theories with each other)

6th - Informational Power:Raven added this sixth power basis by saying that:



Basis of power Resources-Resistance High Resistance

Means of Tactics

Modify/change or quite etc

“It is independent of both agent and target’s relationship and instead it is based upon perceivedvalidity and relevance of information”

Nothing personal Information can be a tool of power

It is the description by French and Raven about the situation when an individual uses tactics .

Power Act Model:(Kipnis, 1976)

"Once choice of means of “influence" depends mainly on the Resour ces* one has and avail able“Resistance” an individual is expecting towards that influence attempt”

Resources*: Estimate of cost of using the power basis Subjective value Attitudes Social norms ( influencing paths of power will vary contextually) Individual differences

(Before using power tactics, analysis is done by the agent by considering these factors andtherefore, this analysis between the resistance and resources will define the effectiveness of power).This process starts with:

Analysing the resistance and then go for power tactics if Resistance is high

It is similar to what has been told aboutChange by Lewin:

Power Tactics:1980 Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilknson have identified different means to influence, known as PowerTactics or Means to Influence:

1. Assertiveness : To give strict deadlines, Reminders, requests etc and to show anger whendeadlines are not met.

2. Ingratiation: Using flattery plus praise ways to gain favor with someone through thedeliberate efforts

3. Rationality: Presenting logical arguments, facts, figures and data etc.

4. Exchange: Rewarding target with benefits (social exchange).5. Upward Appeal: Approvals higher ups by appeal.6. Associations: To find out some common links, interests ro association with the target.

Power Interaction Model of interpersonal influences:

Another model is developed Raven (1992), stating that:



“Agent is a Rational Decision Maker, who uses various cost and benefit analysis for the availablebasis to be used, before practical ly implementin g them and i n case he feels that target’s

motivation , perception and feelin gs are nota ali gned with the basis, to be used, agent makes aconscious effort to change them. So there is no gap left or no dif ference lies between publi c and

private acceptance”.

As it is important to see that what were the perceptions of the target about the influence? That iswhy this is also considered while selecting the tactics.

The Power Use Model:Another model about the power tactics was presented by Bruinis (1990) dealing with when

and how to use power:“Choice of Power Tactics, it depends in terms of its softness vs. hardness”

Hardness like Sanctions Softness rationality etc. Use of hardness vs. softness on In-group and out-group. So when the agent thinks for in-

group, he would go for soft tactics and vise versa but situation matters also.

Socially Desirable Responding (SDR): It was about a Dyadic relationship It was focused o n target‘s psychology

Its idea was given for the first time in 1960‘s but then given by Riondan (1993) by stating that: “Presenting oneself favorably regarding current social norms and standards”

(This is done by the target)There are two components in SDR:

1. Self-deception (Social deception):“A deceives B into believing that something “P” is true, while A knows “P” is falseand convincing B to believe “P” is true”

You know the reality yet you true to convince someone to believe in something as true, which youknow is false and self-deception or SDR starts because of self-image, after this the secondcomponent of SDR raises which is:

2. Impression Management (I.M)The class discussion is moving in following direction:

Power Politics Conflicts After discussing Power, why and how people go for politics in order to attain the power

and this politics lead to conflicts etc When organization‘s structure changes, all of the things and variables change as well,

Therefore structure has to be considered while talking about any kind of variable.Politics:

Why people opt for politics, reasons behind adopting politics Presence of politics in organization Literature about politics Relation with impression management Driving forces or factors, forcing employee to go for politics The basic presence is found in political sciences Politics is the effect of life in an organization



As Politics is a day to day, regular activity In a group, people go for politics in order to gain benefits It exits everywhere When its existence was accepted, then it was searched and studied Why people go for it?

Much more work has been conducted from 1960 to 1970. According to Pettigrew (1973):

“Politics is opted by people in order to effect, influence or power the decisionmaking”.

It was then said that the basic reason is‖ “Self -serving to promote self - serving behavior in the organization”

The work done by Burns (1961) and Porter (1976) etc was focusing Self-Serving element. Some researchers (Ferris, 1989& others) had categorized politics as:

“For Social Influence and it can be having “functional” or “dysfunctional” influence” Pfeffer (1981) have linked politics and power and used the term politics as:

“Study of power and actions” Mintzberg (1983) stated that:

“It is illegitimate in nature” Legitimate political levelsPeople have also worked and said that there is legitimate politics in organization also, as it is areality of the people, thus they have divided it in different levels as:

1. Legitimate Politics2. Illegitimate politics

This level of legitimate and illegitimate politics is defined by the management.1- Legitimate Politics:

o It cannot be stoppedo Cannot be controlled eithero As a level of politics have to be allowed in the organization as 100% politically free

organization cannot exists.o As manager cannot take actions against to everything that is done politically in an

organizationo That is why a boundary or limitation line has to be defined

Illegitimate politics:o It is harming the organizationo It is not allowed in the organizationo As there are some politics unintentionally done for any cause but parallel to this,

there exists politics that is done intentionally done for some cause, and those causeor reasons are harming the organization

Perception of Politics: Now the discussion will more to the ―Perception of Politics‖

According to Lewin (1936):―People response on th e basis of their perception of reali ty, not to r eality but as per they

see reality or apparently” Politics in organization is a reality and the perception of this reality matters a lot as it varies



As you cannot mark a hard-line between legitimate and illegitimate politics, as it is all thegame of the perception

Impression Management:Another important reason of politics is impression management, major contributing names

includes:

Gardner, 1988 Wortman, 1971 and others“The basic motive behind politics or using political tactics is to have a better impression” Major contributors also include Schenkler (1980), who defined IM as:“The conscious or non -conscious attempt to contr ol images that are projected in the real or

imagined social interactions” Although a number of people also argue that it cannot be an unconscious attempt. Sederberg (1984) states that:“Non deliberate behavior on regular basis is not necessarily to be a conscious attempt, such

as, M in dless activiti es or rou tin e activiti es etc. there are dif ferent f orms which are specif icall y geared or developed behavior (GDB) directed towards changing or uttering the meanings”

The basic concept of IM is that when you intervene through any activity to influence the process where people build an impression about you, this is how impression management isdone.

Tactics:There are various kinds of activities involve in IM such as:

Influence Tactics, including: Assertive tactics (Jones & Billman, 1982) there are further five

categories in it Defensive Tactics (Wood & Mitchell, 1971)

Selection of these tactics has to be made after a critical evaluation or analysis of the target.Assertive Tactics:

It includes the following categories:1- Ingratiation: it is individual‘s desire to b seen as more Likeable (for example early arrival

and late departure) as it all depends upon the intentions.2- Exemplifications: to be viewed as dedicated (accepting tough assignments etc)3- Intimidation: To be viewed as Dangerous4- Self-Promotion : To be seen as Committed (highlighting achievements)5- Simplification : to be seen as Needy (need assistance)

Defensive Tactics:It includes the followings:

1- Avoiding Actions:

i. Over Conformity : strictly following the rules and regulations to avoid a particular action and to give the signal that I am strictly following the rulesand regulations

ii. Buck-Passing: transferring the responsibility (in cases where responsibilitiesare not cleared)

iii. Playing Dumb: Strategic ignorance iv. Stretching: Prolonging the task or showing as over-occupied



v. Stalling: Appealing to be supportive publically while doing little or nothing privately

2- Avoiding Blame:i. Buffing: Rigorously documenting everything and keeping evidence

ii. Playing safe: taking only those tasks which have higher probability of

success or taking neutral positions in conflicts iii. Justifying: developing explanations to lessen one‘s responsibility iv. Scapegoating: blaming external factors that were not entirely blame worthy. v. Misrepresenting: fraud, misinterpretation of information and deception and

not letting facts to be presented n actual or exact way

Antecedents of Political Behavior:There are various determinants of politics identified in the literature such as:

1- Ambiguity Vs Formulization (Feris, 1989) When ambiguity is high then politics will be high as well And when Formulization is high then politics will be low

2-

Spatial Distance (Feris, 1990)Proximately distance between bosses and employees on the workplace. In suchsituation two kinds of politics directions can be initiated:

1- To organization or job2- Towards supervisorIf the direction is towards the supervisor then employee will protect himself fromnegative activities in boss‘s presence. Organization/Job target is organization or job, as distance with boss is moreSupervisor target is boss as distance is less with him on the workplace

3- Responsibility (Caldwell & Kiely, 1982)When position or power is high, then Impression management will be highly

required as per the hierarchy.4- Instrumentality (Feris, 1989)“Whether the political behavior is rewarding or not”

When employees observe that the use of tactics is beneficial in a particular environment,they will use only then the political instruments.5- Self-Monitoring (Snyder, 1987)

It is sort of trait as a personality construct, where an individual changes his or her behavior according to the situation. On this base there are two kinds of people:

a. High self monitoring people b. Low self monitoring peopleAnd accordingly they asses environment and change rapidly

6-

Social Anxiety (Watson & Friend, 1969; further studied by Leary, 1983)“Anxiety in the presence of others” Everyone is watching or starring at me Not comfortable among people or others

Perception of Politics:Up till now the full focus of the class or discussion was on politics and even in literature

(Feris, 1989-90 and onwards). According to Madison (1980):



Behavior

Perception Actual

PerceivedReality

ActualReality

PerceivedConflict

Behavior

DecisionMakin

“Politics is a subjective percept not necessarily an objective reality”

James and Jones (1974) who were the followers of Lewin andSchneider (1975) etc.

These two elements already existed in the literature but Ferrisrelated both of them with behavior and there are chances ofhaving the gap/chance that perception is more important. And

from 1989 the focus was shifted to the perception of politicsinstead of politics.

When we talk about Power and Politics, it is important tonote that people use politics in order to gain power for

availing maximum rewards or benefits and it is important for the reward to be scare, which means itmust not be easily available to everyone and it must be valuable as well.

When individual sees the distribution of reward and perceive it as unequally, this leads tothe arising of conflict thus the flow of emergence of these elements as follows:

Group Politics Power Rewards unequal distribution Conflict It is not essential that conflict lies in physical form always, it si also possible that conflict

exists in the form of a perceived conflict Normally this is the nature of conflict that exists among people, in the workplace There are two kinds of conflicts, perceived conflict and felt (actual) conflicts As these perceived conflicts influence our decision making Latent Variable — it is the variable that exists and cause influence but are directly

measurable as it is not seen. Thus, perceived conflict is latent variable,

while felt conflict is visible and relatively easyto be resolved

Perceived conflict influences two elements ofan individual; decision making and behavior

Conflict:“it is a process, which begins when one party feels or perceives that the other party has

negatively affected or about to affect (chances to influence) negatively something which iscared by the first party”

Either presently existing or… Potentially expected in future to occur Preparing yourself for that perceived conflict It happens everywhere and at all levels such as:

i. Interpersonal conflictii. Departmental conflict

iii. Between group conflictiv. Organizational conflicts etc

Six Approaches for Studying Conflicts:



1. Micro Level Approach : psychological aspect, where conflict within human beings arestudied or at interpersonal level

2. Macro Level Approach: (Sociology) it deals with groups, departments or organization etc3. Economic analysis Approach: it deals with utility maximization for reward or for

maximum gain (based on prospects theory (1970-40).

All concepts of economies, which are used in decision making, are discussed tomaximize the benefits and minimize or reduce the loss. Thus economic analysis is based on such theories such as; utility- maximization (1940‘s) or prospects theory(1970) etc

4. Labor Relations approach: it deals with unions or labor conflicts, for instance unionmanagement etc

5. Bargaining and Negotiation Approach: it involves techniques etc that are used fornegotiation and bargaining. It is similar to be perceived or viewed as bargaining or dealing

between Seller and Buyer, where both parties go and intent for utility maximization.6. Third party dispute resolution: (third party trusted to negotiate) it involves basic

approaches regarding conflicts (1930-2013)

Phases of conflict:Following are the three phases of conflict:1- Classical View : Conflict is harmful, thus it must not exist2- Human Relation View: When human interact, conflict will always

come, it is accepted or it can be said that its existence is accepted3- Interactionist View : without conflict, organization cannot perform

well, therefore conflict is absolutely essential for effectiveorganizational performance, in two perspectives or aspects:

1. Functional 2. Dyfunctional

Dominant Paradigm in views for Conflict:There are various models, theories whicha re considered as the dominant paradigm view

such as:1-Pondy’s Organizational Conflict Model (Pondy, 1987):

Conflict is a process. There are different inter related steps or stages which cause theconflict, such as:

I. Antecedent conditions:Greatest potential reason of conflict is the competition overthe scarce resources.

II. Latent Conflicts:It is known as the undefined conflicts, which are hidden andunderlying source of the conflicts. As competition is theessential condition that contains chances of conflictsoccurrence and in the competition is over the resources,causes latent conflicts which is them converted it as perceivedconflict, which is known as defined conflict.

III. Perceived Conflict:



Where the conflict is recognized and the target is identifiedwith whom the conflict is developed, therefore in perceivedconflict the individual knows with whom he has the conflict.

IV. Manifest Conflict :Different strategies are used to gain maximum benefits on the

cost of the other party. These strategies are:i. Covert Strategies (which arecovered)

ii. Overt Strategies (which areopen)

V. Conflict after Math:The term ‗after math‘ is related with conflict resolution.Where the individual analyze their position to see where doeshe stand now and after this conflict (which can result intofurther conflict)

Models of Conflicts:

There are two kinds of models; Descriptive models of conflict and Normative Models foconflicts.

Descriptive Models of Conflict:1- Fight Model (Rapoport, 1960):

“Conflict that steams from interpersonal aggression, fights are generallyemotional and non-r ational , resul tin g in conf li ct spir als, these spir als only end on

the removal of one party ” 2- Debate (Rapoport, 1960)

―Exchange of ideas ―What i s‖ versus ―What ought to be ‖ Dialogue Debate etc

….. Is conducted to resolve an issue.3- Stages of Conflict (Filley, 1975)

He added in Pondy‘s model and used different techniques for conflict resolutions: Problem solving Parties should present the evidence for decision and it should

be evaluated as well.4- Dual Concerns Model (Ruble & Thomas, 1976)

Basic model was of Blake and Mouton (1964) model of management grod behinddual concern model, that is why we will study it first, where Blake and Mouton gavethe concept of:

Management Grid/Conflict Grid (Normative Model), which is a 9 X 9 matrix.(With reference to Leadership)1,1 – Improvised5,5 – Middle of the Road Style9,1 – - Country Club Style1,9 --- Produce or Perish9,9 — Team Building Style



It was then related with conflicts and management‘s conflict resolution. It is important tounderstand that conflict resolution is depending upon the willingness of the management, thereforeit has to be seen that where does the organization lie in the grid. It will define the level ororientation for their conflict resolution as well.

On the basis of the previous model, this model of dualconcerns model was made byRuble and Thomas (1976), in thefollowing form:

Conflict Handling Intentions:1- Assertiveness

Versus2- CooperativenessIn order to resolve conflicts,

they identified various pointsas per the intentions of people to resolve it.1. Avoidant: For avoiding resolving the conflict and for it you use low

Assertiveness and Low Cooperativeness strategy.2. Accommodative: it is highly cooperative where Low assertiveness

and high cooperativeness strategy is used.3. Competitive: where low cooperativeness and high assertiveness

strategy is used.4. Collaborative: where assertiveness is high and cooperativeness is

also high.5. Compromise: Moderate assertiveness and cooperativeness and both

parties compromise at this point.5- Conflict Cycles (Waltson, 1969) (Normative Model)

―There are certain emotional or substanti ve issues that mani fest aconf li ct and as a resul t dif ferent behavior s are adopted to face theconf li cts. Af ter the behavior, the feedback resul ts redef in ed issue, itmay instigate (enhance) additional conflict cycles”

Issues Conflicts (Decision making takes place) Behaviors Redefined IssuesThere is lot of work on the selection of conflict resolution strategy in order to make it work

positively and effectively.

Models of Negotiation and BargainingDefinition of Negotiation (Waltson, 1965):

―As the deli berate in teraction of two or more social uni ts whi ch are attempting to defi ne,redef in e the terms of their in terdependence. This defi ni tion applies on individual as well as

social un its (groups etc) ” Subunit of negotiation is bargaining but used together, thus these models are normally

common in view.Definition of Bargaining (Gulliver, 1979):



“ I s limi ted to presentation and exchange of proposals for terms of agreement in particular issue”

One level of interdependence would be before negotiation and it will change or redefinedafterwards, while in bargaining only a proposed resolution (not result focused or no after mathsunlike negotiation).

Dominant Paradigm View of Bargaining and Negotiation (from 1965 till now):

Four Sub-Processes (Waltson & Mckersie‘s, 1965) :1- Distributive Bargaining:

―When each par ty tr ies to maxi mize i ts shar es of f ixed payoff s, one party wins andother loses, so i t i s also called as a win- loss situation”

2- Integrative Bargaining: “Process in which parties attempt to in crease the size of joint-gains (win - win)”

3- Attitudinal structuring:“Negotiator efforts to influence the quality and nature of the relationship, so in

this process the parties attempt to changes others’ perception, attitude or climateof change” To influence the decision making

4- Intra-organizational Bargaining:First make sure that there must not have conflict within the teams (team A).

Descriptive Models of Negotiation:1- Bilateral monopoly (1960): Using the economic parameters (one buyer and one seller”

the negotiation here were call ed as bilateral monopoly.2- Three phases model: these are three phases of models:

i . The negotiator ’ defining or determi nin g the “Range of negotiation” i i . Re-assessment of i ni tial positi on and Jockeying, how to r e-positions

(placing your self in the range)i i i . Declar ation of agreement

3- Bargaining Power: “is driven by manipulation of perceived cost or capacity of one party to produce an agreement on its own term”

Organizational structure/design:These are two basic components of an organization and there are further two components of thisdiscussion:

1- Work Design, where2- Organizational Design

And their outcome is psychological aswell as behavioral aspects of theemployee.Initial Literature about Job Design or

Team A Team B

Bargaining for Resolving a Conflict



work design: Initial literature had existed when Adam Smith (1976) had talked about the ―Division of

Labor‖, where he talked about how organization can improve their efficiency byspecialization through incorporating division of labor.

Babbage (1835) also talked

Major work was done afterwards by Taylor (1911). He proved that productivity can beenhanced by ―scientific Managing work design‖ When the moment started in 1933-45 known as Human Relation Movement (Mayo,

1933-45), which was based on How thrown studies, it was discussed that how job designcan or how external factors can influence the employee.

It was always either about job design or focused to see the impact of other/ variousfactors on job design and to explore those variables which can potentially influence it.

Trist and Bamforth (1951) from ‗Tavistock Institute ‘ of management published a journalnamed as ―Human Relations‖. Who gave:

Socio-Technical System Theory (Trist and Bamforth, 1951)They discussed the impact of social interaction while working.

Then in the following model, technology was discussed with job design:TAM (Technology acceptance Model): And other models were also introduced to show the impact.

JCM (Job Characteristic Model): Firstly (Hackman & Lawler, 1971) Then major work was by Hackman & Oldham (1976) Various motivational theories were presented in 1960‘s but the main focus was on

―employee‘s perception‖ etc. These two men, merged these two streams of industrial psychology:

Motivation Job Characteristic Model Job Design It discussed about achieving motivation through job design

Work Design ---------- Motivation Apart from all other theories, these two people had discussed how a careful job design can

be a source of motivation as well, for instance make the task interesting for the employeeand it will be the source of motivation for the employee.

They identified five characteristics, that can make the job, interesting:1- Task identity (each employee can see his contribution by the task he has

been given)2- Autonomy3- Task significance (impact or importance of this task on others)4- Skill variety5- Feedback

Other literature was promoting specialization by, for instance specialization; this newapproach purposed Specialization Versus Skill Variety.

Working/Job Design Performance

Social Interaction



Criticism on Specialization: To a certain kevel we can get benefits from

specialization, but excess of it can result innegative.

That is why the concept of skill variety and then

there were other types of skill variety for which adetailed literature is now available. This initiated a new debate with reference with

motivation and that is why 1980‘s was called asEra of Testing JCM

After 1990, there came lots of findings against JCM What happens that wherever a new concept is emerged, its impact is massive and then it

fades away. Environment was changed and various logical criticism was emerged

Criticism on JCM:Following are the components missing in work design:

Problem solving (if you cant handle the problem then it leads to demonization as well, withtime passing by, complexity is increasing in job, that si why problem solving is needed.

Ergonomics Physical demand etc

Deficiencies which were comprehensively addressed by Moregson & Humphery (2006): A comprehensive model was developed of 21 characteristics Another debate is that which model is more effective, the one which is talking of 5

characteristics or 21? The validity lies with the strength that how much they are reflecting the complete conpcet Inspiring theory was:

Relational Perspective of Job Design: In 1970‘s and 80‘s the focus was on job characteristics only (like Oldham etc) and these

models ignored social context (theoretical gap identified by Moregson & Hemphery) They focused on social context, that distinguishes this model from others

1- Social support (part of work-design and support from coworker andsupervisor)

2- Interaction Outside (interaction with others as required by job, for exampleswith customers, suppliers et that is why this factor has to be considered whilework-design, especially in service sector)

3- Task interdependence (degree to which employee‘ s task is interdependenceto others)

These are the pre-requisites for the effective performance or task or job All of it was discussed to see that how job design has influence on employee

Meta Analysis (Humphery. 2007)This study included :

256 studies 219,625 respondents

And they found and summarized that these 21 elements have influence on: 24% turnover



40% organizational commitment 17% job satisfaction 9% performance

Social Dimension (5 characteristics from these model) OutcomeOrganizational Structure:

1920- 30‘s Vyber‘s concept of Bureaucratic Structure APEX decides what mixture of thee components can be effective What are these elements, which are comprised by a structure All structures use these same main or key components:

Work specialization Departmentalization Formularization Centralization Span of control Chain of command

1- On the basis of requirement as per job‘s nature following one of the options are selected:

Job Enlargement (multi tasking, more focus on executive posts, vertical) Job Enrichment (from planning to execution all tasks are given, samedesignation and task-more authority-total responsibility, horizontal)

It will be decide on: Nature of job Situation Effective factors at that time Objectives of organization

2- Different basis for departmentalization: Usually on functional basis Processing product etc

What kind of department and in which number There are various benefits as well as problems of departmentalization, like incoordination etc

3- Rules and regulations: To what extent they are following rules and regulations High standardization etc

4- Centralization versus Decentralization which can be based on: culture mindset strategy

experience need authority etc

5- Span of Control: how many people can be efficiently managed by a person, there are two types: Narrow, where expansion is high and coordination is threaten



Wide, where you cannot physically regularly guide a lot, thus researchers suggestedto invest more in training and development, so that they will not require guidelines

etc Red Tapism (delaying the processing)- Corruption

By varying the combinations of these components, results in to a specific designThere are various kinds of structures such as:

Simple structure (for small scale businesses) Work specialization--high Departmentalization--low Formularization--high Centralization--high Span of control--wide Chain of command--tall

Bureaucratic structure (for bigger scale businesses) Work specialization--high Departmentalization--high Formularization--high

Centralization--high Span of control--narrow Chain of command — tall

Famous Concepts for Focusing on coordinating:Matrix Structure:

It is project based structure or Team structurewhere the reporting line doublePBS:

Tasks are given in project forms to the teamindependently, yet reported to the top management side

by side.

ip's notes (after mid)

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