ipt study notes - chromatic (2010)

7/28/2019 IPT Study Notes - Chromatic (2010)

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Study Notes

Project Management

Project Management is a planned and ongoing process that guides all the

development tasks and resources throughout a projects development

A Project Plan organises the project by specifying who will do the task, what

has to be done, how the task is done, what resources are required, and what

is to be expected

PROJECT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Active Listening: Listening to people is the main source of critical

information required for a project to run smoothly. Listening is not the same as

hearing; to listen requires attention and involvement

Mirroring: Involves repeating back some of the speakers key words indicating that you are interested and would like to know and understand more

Paraphrasing: Listener uses their own words to explain what they think the

speaker just said. The listener reflects feelings as well as meaning in their

response

Summarising: Listener confirms their understanding in the speakers mind,

and hence helps to bring the conversation to an end

Clarifying: Listener asks questions or makes statements that encourage the

speaker to provide more detailed explanations

Motivational: Encourage the speaker and reinforce in their mind that you are

indeed listening and are interested in what they have to say Conflict Resolution: Need to manage conflict so that issues are resolved

appropriately for all concerned, and in the best interests of the project

Negotiation Skills: Negotiation should be a friendly exchange where

differences are argued logically and in a reasoned manner. This can even

prevent situations leading towards conflicts

TEAM BUILDING SKILLS

Tuckman Stages of Team Development:

1. Forming Team members are only just getting to know each other

2. Storming People are beginning to feel comfortable with each other 3. Norming Team members now recognise their differences

4. Performing The team is now operating as an effective, productive unit

Team Building building a team of two or more people with complimentary

skills, behaviours and personalities who are committed to achieving a common

goal

Advantages The people within the team are much more productive, and the

systems they develop are of higher quality

Disadvantages Financial loss, employment loss and missed opportunities

unable to meet deadlines, produce quality work and operate within financialconstraints


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Operational: to determine whether a system will be usable by the target

customers. The users must be able to effectively use, or to operate, the system

Technical: to determine what hardware and software (Information

Technology) is currently being used, and then to determine whether the

hardware and software tobuild the system exists

Scheduling: to determine the time frame in which a system must be

developed. To determine whether it will be able to be completed within the

specified time frame, it is useful to use project planning tools, such as Gantt

Charts

Traditional (Structured): AS the name suggests, involves very structured,

step-by-step stages, which each must be completed before proceeding to the

next step. 1. Understanding the problem, 2. Planning, 3. Designing, 4.

Implementing, 5. Testing, Evaluating and Maintaining

Outsourcing: Involves using another company to develop parts of the system,

or even the complete system Prototyping: A CIRCULAR approach to systems development, and new

prototypes of the system are constantly being made in a loopbefore

implementation: Designing > Testing/Evaluating > Understanding the

Problem > Designing. The prototypes eventually evolve to a point where

they become the final solution, and are essentially ready to move out of the

loop, and for the next stage - implementation

Customisation: An existing system is customised to suit the needs and

requirements of the new system. In reality most business systems are

customised versions of existing systems

Participant: Means that the same people who will use and operate the final

system develop the system

Agile: An approach that places emphasis on the team developing the system

rather than following a predefined structured development process

3) DESIGNING SOLUTIONS/DESIGNING

Design Tools:

System Flowcharts are a diagrammatic way or representing both the flow of

data and logic through an information system


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Data Flow Diagrams describe the path data takes through a system. No logic,and no attempt is made to indicate the timing of events

Context Diagrams are used to represent entire information systems


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A Data Dictionary contains a comprehensive description of each field in

one of the databases associated with the information system. It commonly

includes (4): field name, data type, field size, and a description of the purpose

Storyboards give a general overview of the information system. They are

used to document the screens used in a system, and the flow between them.

Storyboards emphasise the user interface of a system rather than the functions

performed by the system

Linear Storyboard: modules are arranged in a sequence


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The new system can be developed from a PROTOTYPE

Screen Designs for input and output of data must be created

The Technical specifications of hardware must be identified before hardware

is bought and installed

Purchasing application software that is readily available may satisfy the

software requirements of the new system

IF however this does NOT meet exact requirements, then custom software

will need to be written by programmers

The new system MUST be tested before implementation!

Test Data is prepared to test any potential problem

Documentation of the new system is required, which includes a written

description of the development and operation of the information system

User Documentation provides direction for any person using the system, and

is also necessary to include. It can be in the form of on-screen help, or a user

manual

4) IMPLEMENTATION/IMPLEMENTING

Direct: This method involves the old system being completely dropped and

the new system being completely implemented at the same time

Parallel: This method involves operating both systems for a period of time,

which allows for any major problems faced with the new system to be

encountered and corrected without a loss of data

Phased: This method involves the gradual introduction of the new systemwhilst the old system is progressively discarded

Pilot: This method involves the new system being installed for a small number

of users. These users learn, use and evaluate the new system. Once the new

system is deemed to be performing satisfactorily then the system is installed

for use by everyone


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Training Techniques

Traditional Group Training Sessions: The training is performed by a trainer

to a group of people onsite, or at separate premises. The trainer can be a

member of the system development team, or an outsourced specialist

Peer Training: One or more users undergo intensive training in regard to the

operation and skills needed by the system

Online Training: Online tutorials and help systems allow users to learn new

skills at their own pace, and as they are needed

Operation Manuals: Printed operation manuals contain proceduralinformation which describes step-by-step instructions specific to the new

system

5) TESTING, EVALUATING AND MAINTAINING

Testing

Acceptance Tests: Formal tests conducted to verify whether or not a system

meets its requirements:

1) Volume data: Ensures the system performs within its requirements when

processes are subjected to large volumes of data

2) Simulated data: Tests the performance of systems under simulated

operational conditions, allowing an evaluation of the systems performance to

be completed under a variety of scenarios

3) Live data: Takes place once a system has been installed to ensure that the

system is operating as expected, and that it operates under real conditions

Evaluation/Evaluating

Evaluation is the process of examining a system to determine the extent to

which it meets its requirements

Evaluation is ONGOING

IF the new system is not performing, chances will need to be made, AND the

SDLC will start again!

Technical Performance Monitoring aims to evaluate the continuing

achievement of the systems evolving requirements some old requirements

may go down in priority over time, or even become irrelevant

Financial Performance Monitoring is largely about evaluating the accuracy

of the real economic situation against the economic predictions made in the

feasibility study

Maintenance/Maintaining

Maintenance is any modification to the system by making minor

improvements

Maintenance may involve installation of new hardware and software


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Involves: 1. Regular Maintenance, 2. Repairs when faults occur

For each modification, the SDLC commences AGAIN!

This occurs because it is necessary to ensure the modification works correctly

with all parts of the existing system, and also to ensure all documentation is

updated (Any changes MUST be documented!)

Examples of Maintenance:

Perform regular backups of the systems data, and ensure these backups are

secured in a safe location

Maintain hardware by carrying out all recommended cleaning, as well as other

maintenance tasks

Protect against viruses by ensuring virus protection software is used and

updated

An OPERATIONSManual is created to detail the procedures which the

PARTICIPANTS must follow in using the new system

The Operations Manual should (3):

1) Be in a user-friendly format

2) Have clear and concise instructions

3) Contain Screen Dumps

Communication Systems

Communication systems enable people and systems to share and exchange

data and information electronically

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

IPT Presentation Level 7) Application Layer, 6) Presentation Layer

IPT Communication and Control Level 5) Session Layer, 4) Transport

Layer, 3) Network Layer

IPT Transmission Level 2) Data Link Layer, 1) Physical Layer

MAC Address: A hardware address that uniquely identifies each node on a

network

The message is created at the source using some type of software application

When a message is prepared for transmission, it descends the stack of

protocols from the Application Level, down to where it is ready for physical

transmission by the hardware operating at the IPT transmission level

The main task of the transmitter is to represent individual bits as a wave

this wave is the signal that is actually transmitted through the medium

Transmission occurs as a signal travels through the medium

To accurately decode a signal requires the receiver to sample the incomingsignal using precisely the same timing used by the transmitter during encoding


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During transmission data packets may pass through many different links, and

it is likely that packets forming part of a single file will travel over quite

different paths from the transmitter to the receiver

As messages descend the stack prior to transmission, many protocols calculate

checksums or CRC values for error detection and correction, and include

them within their header or footers

Many protocols restrict messages based on user names and passwords, and

others go a step further by encrypting messages during transmission

Protocol: A formal set of rules and procedures that must be observed for two

devices to transfer data efficiently and successfully

Handshaking: The process of negotiating and establishing the rules of

communication between two or more devices

HTTP: Operates within the PRESENTATION LAYER (layer 6), and is the

primary protocol used by web browsers to communicate and retrieve web

pages from web servers TCP: Operates within the TRANSPORT LAYER (layer 4), and together with

IP, it is responsible for the transmission of most data across the internet. Its

PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY is to ensure messages are delivered correctly

IP: Operates within the NETWORK LAYER (layer 3), and is the protocol that

causes data packets to move from sender and receiver

Each device on the internet must have at least one unique IP address, for

example: 140.123.54.67

Ethernet: Operates at DATA LINK LAYER (layer 2) and the PHYSICAL

LAYER (layer 1), and because it operates at a physical level, it must be built

into the various hardware devices used to transmit and receive

Bits Per Second: The number of bits transferred each second the speed of

BINARY data transmission

Baud Rate: The number of signal events occurring each second along a

communication channel

Bandwidth: The difference between the highest and lowest frequencies in a

transmission channel, expressed in Hertz (Hz)

Parity bit check: Seven bits represent the normal ASCII character set when

an eight-bit byte is used in a computer. The eighth bit can be used to checkwhether that byte has been received correctly by counting the number of 1s

making it odd or even.

Example of ^: If the number of 1s is three, which is odd, we add 0 as the

parity bit to maintain odd parity checking: 01010010

Checksums: All the 1s and 0s in a block of data are summed to make a total

and the receiver calculates a checksum value. If the sent value does not agree,

then an error is detected. The position of the error is unknown

Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC): The checksum number is substituted

into a formula, and a 16-bit remainder is calculated. Once it has reached its

destination, the received checksum is put through the same process. If the

remainder produced is identical to the one received, then it has been correctlyreceived


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EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Internet: The internet is a worldwide packet switched public network based

on the internet protocol

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): is the network of the world's

public circuit switched telephone networks

An Intranet is a private network maintained by a company or government

organization, and is based on the Internet Protocol

Extranets are an extension of an intranet to allow access to customers and

other users outside the organization

Teleconferencing is the live exchange of information among several people

and machines remote from one another, but linked by a single

telecommunications system

A rotary dial telephone is activated by rotating the numeric dial instead of

activating push buttons. Its an old fashioned and traditional telephone

A fax is a telecommunications technology used to transfer copies ofdocuments using affordable devices operating over the telephone network

Voice mail is a computerised method of storing and forwarding spoken

messages

Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP) refers to communications services that

are transported via the Internet rather than the public switched telephone

network(PSTN)

E-mail is a method of exchanging digital messages. E-mail systems are based

on a store-and-forward model in which e-mail computer server systems

accept, forward, deliver and store messages on behalf of users E-mail uses two different APPLICATION level protocols SMTP, and

either POP or IMP

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME): The protocol used to code

non-textual data and attachments into ASCII so that it can be transmitted

within e-mail messages

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): The protocol used to send e-mails

from an e-mail client, to an SMTP server, and also to transfer e-mail between

SMTP servers

Automatic Teller Machines (ATM): is a computerised telecommunicationsdevice that provides the clients of a financial institution with access to

financial transactions in a public space without the need for a cashier or a bank

teller

Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS) works through the

customers card details being swiped in a magnetic strip reader, and this then

allows the direct transfer of the necessary funds from the customers account

into the retailers account

Internet Banking: allows customers to pay bills, transfer money between

accounts and perform various other functions from the comfort of their home

or office


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Trading over the Internet has become very popular as individuals and small

businesses are able to sell items worldwide with little initial startup costs.

Trading over the internet has created systems such as eBay and PayPal

Virtual Organisation: an organisation whose members are geographically

separated

NETWORK COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS

Client-server architecture: servers provide specific processing services for

clients. Clients request the service, and wait for a response while the server

processes their request

Authentication: the process of determining is someone is who they claim to

be

Physical Topology: the physical layout of devices on a network, and how the

cables and wires connect these devices

Logical Topology: show how data is transmitted and received between

devices REGARDLESS of their physical connections Bus Topology: One of the simplest designs in networking, where a common

cable (known as the bus) connects all the nodes in a bus topology. All nodes

on the network receive data transmitted on a bus network, but only the node to

which it is ADDRESSED accepts and processes the data

+ Easy to expand the network and add new nodes

- If one node fails, the rest of the network will fail

Star Topology: All nodes connect to a central node via their own dedicated

cable. Today the star topology is used on almost all LANs

+ Each node has its own cable, and can easily be removed without

affecting any other nodes

- Lots of cabling, if the central node fails the whole system fails


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Ring Topology: Each node connects to exactly two other nodes. Data packets

circulate the ring in just one direction - meaning each node receives the datafrom one node, and then transmits the data to another node. It is the least

commonly used topology in LANs today

+ Least data collisions as data packets circulate the ring in one direction

- If one node fails, then the entire ring is broken, and data stops

transferring

Mesh Topology: Include more than one physical path between the pair of

nodes. This is the primary topology of the internet, where IP data packets can

travel different paths from the transmitter to the receiver


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Hybrid Topology: Hybrid topologies use a combination of connected bus,

star and ring topologies. Hybrid topologies are the primary topology of most

organisations networks

Converting analog data to digital data is done using an analog to digital

converter (ADC), and converting digital data to analog data is done using a

digital to analog converter (DAC)

NETWORK HARDWARE

Twisted Pair: Consists of a pair of shielded copper wires twisted together.Electrical interference is minimised, and makes it less vulnerable to signal


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loss. Suited for very high bit rates over short distances, and lower bit rates

over longer distances

Coaxial Cable: Was designed to transmit analog broadcast TV from antennas

on Television sets, support high frequencies, and provide extra protection from

electromagnetic interference. There are two types:

1) Thinnet Max Distance 185M

2) Thicknet Max Distance 500M

Optic Fibre Cable: Able to support far higher data transfer rates over much

greater distances than either twisted pair OR coaxial cable. Completely

immune to outside electrical interference, and the majority of major

communication links connecting major cities and continents use optical fibre

Optic Fibre Cables consist of a light-transmitting glass core surrounded by a

reflective cladding layer

Wireless Transmission Media: Use the atmosphere as the medium to carry

electromagnetic waves between nodes E.g. 1 Terrestrial Microwave Used to relay wireless signals over large

distances

E.g. 2 Satellite Use microwaves to carry digital signals from and to both

ground based stations, and also between satellites

E.g. 3 Wireless LANs Communicate using microwaves with frequencies

in the vicinity of 2.4 GHz

E.g. 4 Bluetooth Communication system for short-range transmission, and

operates within the vicinity of 2.4 GHz. It was designed to replace cables that

connect portable devices

E.g. 5 Infrared Used over short distances, these infrared waves occur withfrequencies of above microwaves and below invisible light in communication

systems

E.g. 6 Mobile Phones Automatically adjust the power of their transmitters

based on the signal level received from their current base station - reducing

electromagnetic radiation, and extending battery life

Network Interface Card (NIC): converts data in between the computer into a

form suitable for transmission across the network

Repeater: Any device that receives a signal, amplifies it and then transmits

the amplified signal down another link increasing the physical range of

transmission media

HUB: Amplifies the packet of data, and it simply amplifies and retransmits

the packet to all attached nodes


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Bridge: Separates a network into different segments at the data link layer

Switch: An intelligent device for connecting nodes on a LAN. The message is

directed to the intended receiver


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Gateway: Connects two networks together

Wireless Access Points: The central nodes on wireless LANs, and these

central nodes broadcast to all wireless nodes within the coverage area

Modulation: The process of encoding digital information onto an analog

wave

Demodulation: The process of decoding modulated analog wave back into its

original digital signal

ADSL Modems: Use existing copper telephone lines to transfer broadband

signals

Cable Modems: Connect to the internet via coaxial cables; usually the same

cable that transmits cable TV stations

Servers: Provide specific processing services to other nodes (clients)

Fault Tolerance: The ability of a system to continue operating despite the

failure of one or more of its components

File Servers: Manages storage and retrieval of files, and also application

software in response to client requests

Print Servers: Controls access to one or more printers for many clients

Database Servers: A database server executes SQL statements on behalf of

the client applications, and database management system software (DBMS)

provides the connection to the database, and ensures the rules defined for the

database are maintained

Mail Servers: Use two different protocols SMTP, and either POP or IMAP,

and these protocols run on servers associated with these protocols. E-mail

clients, such as Microsoft Outlook, must communicate using these protocols

Web Servers: Essentially a web server provides services to web browsers

they retrieve web pages and transmit them back to the requesting client web

browser

Proxy Servers: Sits between the clients and real servers, and tries to perform

the request itself without bothering the real server


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NETWORK SOFTWARE

Network Operating Systems (NOS): Installed on one or more servers where

it provides various services to secure and support the networks resources and

users one vital service being the authentication of users based on their

usernames and passwords

Network Administrators: The personnel responsible for the ongoing

maintenance of network hardware and software

Task 1 Adding and Removing Users: Each new user has an individual

account created that includes their username and password, together with the

details of any assigned policies and privileges

Task 2 Assigning Printers: It makes sense to assign printers to

workstations rather than users, as users will have access to a printer that is

physically close to the workstations where they are currently logged on

Task 3 Assigning file access rights: Also known as PERMISSIONS. File

access rights determine the processes a user can perform on a file or directoryat the file level:

Directory (Folder) Permissions (6): Full Control, Modify, Read and Execute,

List Folder Contents, Read, Write

File Permissions (5): Full Control, Modify, Read and Execute, Read, Write

Task 4 Installation of software and sharing with users: It is the network

administrator who must ensure that software applications are installed on

individual client workstations - making them available for use by any user that

logs onto the workstation. NOS are able to automate this process saving

considerable time for network administrators

Task 5 Client installation and protocol assignment: Every network will

have a different specific set of steps for installing new clients, and it is

commonly the network administrator who performs these installation steps.


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For example: 1) Ensuring the new machine has a compatible NIC installed,

and 2) Ensuring the clients operating system is compatible with the NOS etc.

ISSUES

Internet Fraud: Some kind of deception that includes false statements that

intentionally aim to cause another person to suffer a loss (e.g. Spam, Phishingand Identity Theft)

Power and Control: Those who control access to information are placed in a

position of power over the users whose access they control. Not only can

access be restricted, but the activities of users can also be MONITORED (e.g.

Internet Filtering, Employers can watch internet sessions of employees etc.)

Removal of Physical Boundaries: In cyberspace, ones physical location is

of little or no relevance, and individuals and organisations can trade across the

globe (e.g. Virtual organisations and communities are created as needs arise)

Interpersonal Issues: Electronic communication systems have changed the

way many people have formed relationships. Ideas delivered electronically canoften appear less forceful and caring when compared to face-to-face

communication (e.g. Online Dating Sites)

Work and Employment Issues: Electronic communication systems have

changed the way many people work and where they complete their work.

They have provided the means for many people to work from home, or

virtually any other location. Most research shows that people who work from

home are more productive, and work longer hours. However, working from

home can also present problems as people must find the balance between work

and their personal lives

Multimedia Systems Multimedia systems combine different types of media into interactive

information systems

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MULTIMEDIA AND PRINT

Mode of Display Print media is hard copy, Multimedia can be implemented

for computer use

Interactivity The user is able to make an immediate response to what is

happening in multimedia

Dynamic Nature Once a book is published, it cannot change. A multimedia

product can change either by the user (preferences), or the author (edit, newversions)

Ease of Distribution Multimedia is easy to distribute between other

computers, making it very convenient. Printing requires scanning the

document onto the computer using a scanner

CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH OF THE MEDIA TYPES

Text and Numbers: Two most common methods of digitally representing

texts are ASCII and EBCDIC

In multimedia systems, both texts and numbers are displayed as IMAGES

using FONTS Raster Fonts: store a bitmap of each character


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Outline Fonts: describe characters using mathematical descriptions

Hyperlinks: The organisation ofhypertext and hypermedia is based on

hyperlinks. In everyday usage, the word hypertext has taken the same meaning

as hypermedia!

Hypertext: Bodies of text that are linked in a non-sequential manner

Hypermedia: Extension of hypertext to include links to a variety of different

media types, e.g. Sound and Images

Within Multimedia systems, hyperlinks are routinely constructed to transfer

the user to other parts of the PRESENTATION

Audio: All waves have two essential components frequency and amplitude

Frequency: measured in HERTZ (Hz) and is the number of times per second

that a COMPLETE WAVELENGTH occurs

Amplitude: measured in DECIBELS (db) and determines the volume or

level of sound. Very low amplitude waves cannot be heard, whereas very highlevels can damage hearing

Sampled Audio: The level of an audio signal recorded at precise intervals

Individual Notes: Represented digitally as a series of individual notes

Images: Two different techniques for representing images BITMAP and

VECTOR

Bitmap: Represent each element or dot in the picture separately. Each dot

(pixel) can be a different colour represented by a binary number

8 Bits are required for EACH PIXEL (1 byte = 8 bits)

Vector: Represent each portion of the image mathematically, just like

OUTLINE FONTS

Each shape within the vector image is a separate object, and can be altered

without affecting other objects

Animation: Displaying a sequence of images one after another

Cel-based animation: A sequence of images (cel) with small changes

between each cel an illusion of movement is created

Path-based animation: A line (path) is drawn for each character to follow

the character moves along the line when the animation is playing

Animated Gifs = Cel-Based and Flash .SWF Format = Both (Animation isorganised as VECTOR images)

Morphing: smooth and progressive transformation of one image into

another e.g. Transforming a photo of you into a LION

Video: Combines image and sound data together to create information for

humans in the form ofmovies

Like in animation , the illusion of movement is created by displaying images

one after another in sequence

HARDWARE FOR CREATING AND DISPLAYING MULTIMEDIA Video Cards: An interface between the system bus and a screen


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Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): Specialised vacuum tube in which images are

produced when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD): Electrical and Optical device used to display

digits, characters and images (Uses Light)

Plasma: Plasma is the fourth state of matter and it is formed when Gas is

heated (like Gas is formed when liquid is heated). Plasma Televisions consist

of this matter, and what is displayed in each pixel on the Plasma Television is

determined by the way this matter is being manipulated

Touch Screen: A computer display screen that is sensitive to human touch,

allowing a user to interact with the computer by touching pictures or words on

the screen (3 Types: Resistive, Surface Wave, Capacitive)

Digital Projectors: Use a strong light source to project images onto a screen

Sound Card: A device that converts digital sound into analog sound, and

vice versa

Speakers: Analog devices that convert an alternating current into sound

waves Headsets: A combination of a microphone and a speaker in a single device

Head-up Displays: A transparent screen where the user can view critical

information while keeping their head up and looking forward at what is going

on in front of them

Optical Storage: Retrieving data from an optical disk can be split into two

processesspinning the diskas the read head assembly is moving in, or

through reading and translating reflected light into electrical signals

SOFTWARE FOR CREATING AND DISPLAYING MULTIMEDIA

Presentation Software e.g. Microsoft PowerPoint Word Processors Including sound and video, such as through => embedding

and linking

Authoring Software e.g. Adobe Flash CS3 Professional

Animation Software e.g. Xara3D

HTML Editors and Web Browsers e.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer

EXAMPLES OF MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS

Education and Training e.g. Multimedia Tour of IE 7 Tabbed Browsing

Leisure and Entertainment e.g. MMO Games, Action Games

Provision of Information e.g. Information Kiosks

Virtual Reality and Simulation e.g. Aircraft Flight Simulators

EXPERTISE REQUIRED

Content Provides Provide content which is ready to be used

System Designers Work through the stages of the SDLC (e.g. Identify the

purpose, make decisions on the most feasible solution etc.)

Project Managers Develop the project plan and ensure it is followed during

development

Writers Produce textual content in multimedia systems, and create storylines


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Video Production Personnel Includes at least a director, camera operator,

sound engineer and a few actors. These videos are then used in presentations

Audio Production Personnel Specialise in the recording and editing audio,

including voice, music and special effects. These sounds are then used in

presentations

Illustrators and Animators Artists who draw figures and scenes

Graphic Designers Improve the readability of multimedia by enhancing the

visual appeal of the presentation

Technical Personnel Ensure the final system will operate correctly on the

users machines

INFORMATION PROCESSES

1) ORGANISING

Organising can be seen in multimedia systems in STORYBOARDS:

A storyboard is an illustrated scene-by-scene layout of the multimedia

presentation. There are 4 main types:

Linear Storyboard: sequential movement through the project

Hierarchical Storyboard: top down approach - users have multiple choices at

some stages

Non-Linear: the user can choose the path of the navigation through the

project NO restrictions!


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Composite: aspects of all three types (shown above) are incorporated

2) COLLECTING

Collecting can be seen in multimedia systems through collecting the raw

analog data, and then converting it into digital data

Flatbed Scanner: Collect light as their raw analog data, and transform it intobinary digital data Also involves ANALYSING, ORGANISING AND

PROCESSING

Digital Camera: Combine image collection with audio collection, and have

transformed the photographic process since recording has been replaced by

electronic and digital processes

Microphone: Collects data in the form of sound waves, and converts these

waves into electrical energy

Video Camera: Combine image collection with audio collection, using

traditional mechanical and chemical processes

Analog to Digital Conversion: Repeatedly sample the magnitude of incomingelectrical current, and convert these samples to binary digital numbers


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3) STORING AND RETRIEVING

Storing and retrieving can be seen in multimedia systems through the number

of different file formats which are used to store information in multimedia

production:

Note: There is NO compression in Vector Images (e.g. PDF, SWF, WMF

etc.) => ONLY in Bitmap Images

AUDIO: MP3 (lossy), MIDI (lossless or none), WAV (either, or none)

VIDEO/ANIMATION: AVI (usually lossy), MPEG (lossy), Animated GIF

(lossless), FLV (lossy)

BITMAP IMAGE: JPG (lossy), TIFF (lossless), BMP (lossless), GIF

(lossless)

4) PROCESSING

Processing can be seen in multimedia systems through the creation of the final

multimedia presentation using a suitable software application

Software such as Microsoft PowerPoint would be used to produce slideshow

presentations, and can combine, manipulate and link multimedia content

(processing is the manipulation of data), e.g.:

1) Import existing content into the application (through a library, or a

collection of media created by the application)

2) Create screens, add and format content, and create hyperlinks

3) Create the final file or files for distribution and display

ISSUES

Copyright: Copyright laws are used to protect the legal rights of authors of

original work

Integrity: It is common in multimedia systems to have content derived from a

variety of sources, and makes the job of verifying the correctness of

presented information more difficult. As a result, it is important to reference

all data to ensure its accuracy

Emerging Trends: Virtual worlds is a good example an online simulated

environment where people take on another persona using avatars

Information Systems and Databases - *Syllabus Notes

Information systems

Characteristics

Organisation of data into meaningful information

Analysing information to gain knowledge

Types & purposes

Transaction processing systems (TPS)

Collects, stores & modifies transactions of an organisation Provides data to other systems


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E.g. credit card systems, EFTPOS, POS terminals

Management information systems (MIS)

Takes data & organises it into information reports (usually from TPS)

Provides information on the performance of an organisation

E.g. Execute information systems (EIS) strategic issues

Decision support systems (DSS)

Takes data (usually from TPS, MIS & external sources) to assist in decision

making

Provides analysis tools, information & models

E.g. in statistical analysis, stock market, trade figures

Office Automation System (OAS)

Manages vast quantities of data within an organisation

Improves efficiency, effectiveness in completing administrative tasks

Software & communication technology e.g. voicemail, word processors,

spreadsheets

Database Information Systems

School databases

Environment

School community (students, staff, parents)

Authorities e.g. BOS, government

Any organisation, business, or individual that receives information generated

by the school or supplies data for the system

Purpose

To maintain the efficient operation of the school, personnel, resources &

administration tasks

To provide information on student enrolments, subject selections &

assessments for both school staff & educational authorities

Data/Information

Information on people, resources & processes

Equipment registers, finance & purchase orders, library loans, staff

information, timetables, student marks & grades

Participants

Office & library staff who enter data

Teachers

Information technology

Computers

Barcode readers

Scanners

Software- spreadsheet applications

RTA systems

Environment

Drivers, instructors, examiners


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Vehicle owners, vehicle inspectors

Gov departments e.g. NSW department of transport

Police & courts

Purpose

To manage registration of all drivers & motor vehicles in NSW

To provide information to drivers/applicants on matters such as licensing,

vehicle registration etc as well as statistical information to government &

other authorities

Data/information

Drivers details contact, payment, driving history, license information

Vehicle owner details registration numbers, payment, inspection records

Participants

Data entry operators

Administration staff at offices

Inspectors

Police department- traffic branch


Computers

Cameras

Barcode scanners

Networking between computers

Video stores systems

Environment

Customers & staff

Suppliers

Other chain stores, head office

Purpose

To keep accurate records of the stock (rental & sales)

To collect data for further analysis by store management

Data/Information

Customer details (current loans, overdue items)

Rental records (in stock/on loans)

Saleable item records (videos, snacks)

Rental/Sales figuresParticipants

Staff who check out videos & other products, process returns, authorise orders

for new stock

Head management


Computers

Barcode scanners

WAN link from head office (update new rental titles)

DB management & sales software

Network communication software


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Organisation

Non-computer methods of organising

Examples

Filing cabinet e.g. small businesses

Telephone books

Card catalogues e.g. libraries

Reference books e.g. encyclopaedias

Advantages

No specific skills or training required

Inexpensive

Highly portable & lightweight

Dont require power supply/batteries

Disadvantages

Access/organisation is usually by one method (e.g. alphabetical)

Inflexible layout

1 person only can access at one time

Easily misplaced

Computer-based methods of organising

Examples

Flat file systems

Database management systems

Hypermedia

Advantages

Easily exchanged between applications & over networks

Easily edited

Much faster processing

Large storage of data

Disadvantages

Costly

Exchange of data on a network creates security & confidentiality problems

Logical organisation of flat file databases

Single table of data stored as a single file

All rows (records) are composed of the same sequence of fields (attributes)

Allows you to use & manage 1 database at a time

Files

Block of data which is divided into a set of related records

Records

Collection of facts about one specific entry in a database

Organised in rows

Divided into 1 or more related fieldsFields


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Specific category of data in a database

Made up of characters

Organised in columns (attributes)

Key fields

Used to uniquely identify a record in each file

Used to sort & retrieve information

Usually, each key holds a unique item that applies to only one record

Convenient- when sorted not all data has to be read/retrieved

Characters

Single unit of data used in a database

E.g. letter or symbol

Logical organisation of relational databases

Organises data using a series of related tables, linked by common keys

Draws information from one or more additional filesSchemas

Organised plan of the entire database

Shows how & where data is found, description of data, data relationships

Entities- specific title of which attributes are detailed under e.g. customer,

orders

Attributes- Defined property of an entity e.g. CustID, Firstname

Field names, same as fields in a flat file database

Relationships- the way entities relate to each other

One to many: one record in the 1st entity relates to many records in the 2nd

entityOne to one: one record in the 1st entity relates to 1 record in the 2nd

Many to many: each record in the 1st entity relates to many records in the 2nd

Tables

Implementation of entities

Attributes

Records

Linking tables

- Primary key: uniquely identifies a record (field or combination of fields)- Foreign key: Attribute of a table that is a primary key of another table

Data modelling tools (for organising databases)

Data dictionaries

Describes characteristics of data- metadata

Field name

Data type

-Alphanumeric: letters/numbers/symbols

-Numeric: numbers & numeric symbols

-Boolean/logical: true/false, yes/no

-Date data: dd/mm/yy

-Time data: hh/mm

Data format Field size- number of characters allowed in the field


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Description- explains contents of the field

Example- illustrates content

Schematic diagrams

Graphical tools that help define the database

E.g. ERD determines data to be included/excluded

Normalisation

Reduces data redundancy by removing repeating fields or reorganising data

where needed, hence improving performance

Avoids inconsistencies among values

Analysing data to create the most efficient database structure

Logical organisation of hypermedia

Storage/linking of media & documents

May contain text, numbers, images, audio, animation & video

Each document is independent & can be retrieved electronically using

hypertext

Nodes & links

Nodes: Computer that has destination of the link

Links: Links nodes in a hyper document- associated with bookmarks &

anchors

Uniform resource locators (URL)

Address of file/resource on the web

Protocol: allows access to web pages based on hypertext- http

Domain name: address of specific computer where resource is located

www.whatever.com

File path: path followed to the file being retrieved

HTML tags (hypertext markup language)

Metadata- information about data

Indicates how parts of a document are displayed & navigated

Viewed as pages in web browsers

Tools for organising hypermedia

Storyboards

Series of frames, each representing a different action or screen image

Consists of navigation paths, information & graphics

Linear: sequential path

Hierarchical: choices branch off into further choices, based on navigation

Non-linear: no structure- free navigation

Composite: mix of all layers

Webpage creation software

Allows text, graphics & sounds to be hyperlinked

HTML tags inserted automatically by the software

Storage & retrieval

Database management systems (DBMS)


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Software application that allows the entry, manipulation & storage of data in a

database

Handles access to the database- establishes & maintains data security by

restricting access to authorised personnel

Carries out validation & verification of data

Independence of data from the DBMS

Access of data

Sequential

Each record must be accessed in a linear progression, from 1 st to last

E.g. accessing data on magnetic tape

Direct

Data is accessed in any order i.e. without accessing previous data items

E.g. storing data on disc & logical location of data within a database

StorageOnline

Storage device permanently positioned

Available immediately to connected computers

E.g. hard drive, CD & DVD juke boxes

Offline

External devices used to store data

Cannot be accessed until storage media is mounted into a drive

E.g. USB, CD ROM, DVD, memory cards, magnetic tape

Storage media

Hard discs

Stores data magnetically on precision aluminium or glass platters

Direct access

CD-ROMs

Data is read & written using laser technology

Direct access

Cartridges

Magnetic tape encased in a cartridge

If it is linear -> sequential

If it is non-linear -> direct

Magnetic tape

Stores large amounts of data inexpensively

Used for backup

Sequential access

Erasable, reusable

Encryption/decryption

Encryption

Process of encoding data -> maintains confidentiality & security


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Algorithm or key is required to encode the data

Involves manipulations of bit patterns

Decryption

Process of decoding data -> receiver can translate

Reverse algorithm or key is required to decode the data

Asymmetric

Requires public key for encryption & a private key for decryption

Symmetric

Same key required for encryption & decryption e.g. DES

Backup & security procedures

Storing/copying data to another permanent storage device

Physical security measures- locking rooms/buildings

Usernames & passwords

Encryption/decryption

Restricting access using DBMS views

Record locking

Centralised & distributed databases

Centralised

Accessed through a single DBMS server

Single database

All users connect directly to DBMS

Decentralised/distributed

Set of connected databases stored on multiple computers

Appears as 1 large database to users

Tools for database storage & retrieval

Searching & sorting

Carried out on a field alphabetically, numerically or chronologically ->

relevant information is extracted

Query by example (QBE)

Operator enters criteria against a field

Records meeting specific conditions are displayed

Structured query language

Specialised language designed to search a database

Manipulates display of data in a search- more specific

Commands

- Select: fields i.e. data to be displayed- From: tables i.e. source of data- Where: criteria i.e. query- Order by: fields i.e. order in which fields are to be displayed

Tools for hypermedia search & retrieval

Free text searching


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Technique for searching a computer based document or database for

characters or words

Search engine searches all words and tries to match search words supplied by

the user

Search engines

Indexing- databases of indexed websites that can be searched using keywords

Search robots- programs that facilitate indexing by accessing websites &

gathering information

Metadata

Reporting on data found in hypermedia systems

Web browsers

Stand alone applications

Media players

Other information processes for databases

Displaying

Reporting- formatted & organised presentation of information

E.g. mailing labels, invoices, sales summaries & telephone lists

Constructing different views of a database for different purposes e.g. form-

used to enter, view & edit data

Issues related to information systems & databases

Acknowledgement of data sources

Permission from source to use data before publication

Data source acknowledged

Ensures justification of outputs e.g. results from surveys

Provides a mechanism for tracking & auditing data -> determines accuracy of

data

Requirements of source organisation

Legal requirements- copyright

Gives company credibility

Access to, ownership & control of data

Limited access to authorised personnel only -> control over data

Prevents: unauthorised access, alteration/destruction of data or programs,

unauthorised use of resources & release of information

Freedom of Information Act (Federal)

Allows individuals to obtain access to information held as records by the

government, request amendments to records, appeal against decisions not to

grant access to information or to amend personal records

Information such as school, health, superannuation records (personal)

government policy documents, research materials, product testing records


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Agencies/public bodies- unis, public hospitals, ministers, government

departments

Exempt information- personal affairs of another person/business, the

economy, law enforcement

Privacy principles

Protects an individuals personal information e.g. health, racial, criminal,

financial

Security measures to prevent unauthorised access into the system & the

release of personal information

Organisations/corporations must abide by these principles to maintain legal

compliance and ethical reputation

Accuracy & reliability of data

System must be able to resist user mistakes, system malfunctions, deliberate &

accidental alteration Error detection & correction methods

Data bias- the way the data is collected, interpreted & manipulated

Accuracy of data sources e.g. Wikipedia very unreliable, BOM reliable

Quality of data

Data must be fit for its intended use i.e. to fulfil the needs of its users as well

as suitability for applications

Data matching to crosslink data across multiple databases

Current & emerging trends (organisation, processing, storage/retrieval)Data warehouses

Stores raw data which is collected electronically from a variety of sources

Data may be available for sale to interested parties -> privacy issue e.g.

medical records, credit cards etc

E.g. real estate agency may buy information from council

Data mining

Process of searching through data, trying to match any patterns e.g. customers

with common interest

Security issue e.g. centralising personal information into 1 warehouseOnline analytical processing (OLAP)

Provides statistical evidence to corporations -> assists in decision making

Transaction Processing Systems - *Syllabus Notes

4.1 Characteristics of TPSsA Transaction Processing System is a system that collects, stores, modifies and

retrieves the transactions of organisations. A transaction is an event that generates or

modifies data that is eventually.

4 main characteristics


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Components of TPS

o Purpose : What is its overall aim

o Data : Raw facts

o Information Technology: Hardware and Software

o Processes:

o Participants: People involved in the operation of a system

Batch Processing

o Batch Transaction Processing involves collection and storage of data

as a batch. The batch is then processed later at a scheduled time (i.e.

there is a time

delay)o Transactions

will be stored

(usually on

magnetic tape or

paper) until it is

convenient or

economical to

process them

Real Time Processing

(e.g. airline reservationsystems and banking

TSs)

o Real Time transaction processing is the immediate processing of data

o It provides instant confirmation of a transaction but does not require

access to an online database.

o Two main concerns

Concurrency

Ensures that no two users can change the same data at

the same time

e.g. if a ticket is starting to be reserved by an airline

agent, another agent cannot tell another passenger its

available


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Atomicity

Ensures that all the steps involved in a transaction are

completed successfully as a group. If any step fails no

other should be completed.

E.g. in a bank transfer, if the withdrawal succeeds, the

transfer must also succeed, otherwise the entire

transaction is abandoned.

Differences in Batch and Real Time

o Each transaction in real time is unique; it is not part of a group

o Real time requires the master file to be available more often for

updating

o Real time has fewer errors as data is validated and then entered

immediately

o With batch, errors can occur when data is organised and storedo More computer operators are required in real time

Data validation in TPSs

o Data validation involves checking of data as it is entered into a system

o Data validation is critical in transaction processing as inaccurate data

will have dire consequences on the completion of a transaction

o Methods of Validation

Range check (e.g. Date of birth from 1900 to current)

List check (e.g. drop down boxes)

Type check (e.g. Integer/Boolean)

Check digit (perform addition arithmetic, obtain chckdigt) Historical Significance of transaction processing systems as the first type

of information systems

o TPSs were used during the 1950s(UNIVAC was first one)

o These formed the basis for further development of TPSs

o Manual transaction systems are business systems that operate without

the use of machines

o Computerisation of manual transaction systems provided large benefits

4.2 Types of TPSs Users/Participants/People

o Users are people that receive an output from the TPS


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o Participants are people that conduct the information processing

o People from the environment are becoming participants as they

directly enter transactions and perform validation

Different types

o Web based

o Non Web based

o On-line Real Time

o Batch

Examples of RT systems

o Reservation system

o Point of Sale terminals

o Library loan system

Examples of Batch systems

o Cheque clearance

o Bill generation

o Credit card sales transactions

Systems that appear real time (respond as the transaction occurs) but are

actually updating in batch (EG Credit card transaction)

4.3 Storing and retrieving in TPSsA TPS requires an efficient method for the storage and retrieval of data. Data is

normally stored in a database or data warehouse and requires well designed backup

and recovery procedures.

Storage of digital data in databases and files

o A database is an organised collection of data

Hierarchical: Series of levels with a top down structure

Network: Series of nodes connected by branches

Relational: Uses related tables to build relationships

o Database Design Features

Good data placement: Place frequently accessed data close

Short transactions: short transactions enables quick processing

Real time backup: Do backups at low access times

High normalisation: Keep redundant data to a minimum

Archiving historical data: Archive rarely used data

Good hardware configuration: Good hardware = quick responseo A file is a block of data, which, in databases, is divided into related

records, fields and characters

Retrieval of stored data to conduct further processing (printing invoices)

Systems to store paper records of transactions


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Data backup (copy of data used to rebuild a system) and recovery

o Grandfather, Father, Son

Grandfather, father, son is a traditionalsystem of backups that stores the latest

backup and the two previous ones.

Each time a new backup is made it

becomes the son, and the previous

Son becomes the Father and the

previous Father becomes the

Grandfather and the previous

Grandfather is either archived or

recycled.

o Off site storage

Offsite refers to a location which is physically separated from

the main system, and hence, off-site storage is storage of data

on magnetic disks or Removable hard disks at an Employee

house etc.

o Secure on-site storage

On-site refers to a location is that is physically close to the

system, and hence, Secure on-site storage refers to the storageof data through the use of hard disks etc.


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Secure On site storage provides faster access to the backup data

but requires extra precaution and is more risky than off site

storage.

o Full and partial backups

A Full Backup involves copying all files. It is usually done

weekly or monthly

A partial backup involves copying files that have been created

or changed since the last backup, which reduces the backup

time tremendously and therefore can be done daily.

Partial backups are broken up into;

Differential: All the files that have changed since the

last full backup

Incremental: All the files that have changed since the

last full or partial backup

Backup Procedure Advantages Disadvantages

Incremental Faster, uses less space The full backup and thedaily backup has to be

loaded to restore all the data

Differential The full backup and only the

last daily backup have to be

loaded to store all the data

Slower than incremental,

each backup needs more

space

o Recovery testing

Recovery testing is the process of testing a backup after is has

been made by restoring files into a temporary directory

Backward recovery undoes unwanted changes

Forwards recovery beings with the backup copy and processesall transactions from the partial backups in order through to the

current.

o Suitable media

Storage media ranges from floppy disk to magnetic disks, to

CDs, DVDs, Hard disks and Zip disks etc

Even though magnetic tape is slow and sequential, it is

inexpensive and often used for backups

See table 4.5 Page 164 Jacaranda for more information

o Specialised backup software

Specialised backup software provides considerable control overthe backup and restoration processes by;

Combining full and partial backup procedures

Providing backups of selected files

Selecting files for backup by date/size/type

Providing optimal compression

Providing unattended backup

Scheduling backups, Encrypting backups, Logging

backups

o Transaction logs

Transaction logs record events that have occurredo Documenting backup and recovery procedures


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Recovery

o Mirroring

o Roll back

A roll back is the process of converting the current system back

to its old system, or going from a son backup and loading a

father.

Data warehousing

o A data warehouse is a database that stores large amounts of

information from

o Data mining is the process of analysing large amounts of data to reveal

hidden patterns or relationships

o

Updating in batch systems (no considerable user interaction)

o Historical significance

Paper record systems were collected in batch and transactions

were updated on a fixed basis.

When punched cards/tape was only available, updating was

considerably timely and expensive

o Limitations of batch processing

Usually time consuming due to the use of sequential storage

o Technology required

Hardware includes large storage capacity media (must be

sequential)

Software does not have to allow for online work or a simple

user interface as only well trained and experienced participants

use it.

o Steps in batch update

All changes are made to the transaction file and stored

The transaction file is sorted by a key field in the same

sequential order as the master file

The files are matched by the key field and the relevant records

in the master file are updated

o Suitable applications

Updating in on-line real time systems (requires considerable user

interaction)


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o Relevance and impact

o Technology required

Hardware includes large storage capacity media (must be direct

access so response time is very quick

Software must enable online work for multiple simultaneous

use (provide access to an online database)

Software must include a user friendly interface as many

participants will use it

o Steps in on-line real time processing

Read the key field from the transaction file record

Using a mathematical procedure or algorithm (such as the hash

storage calculation), the location of the same record in the

master file is found

If the master record Is being used, wait until it is finished

Update the master record by overwriting with the old record

o Notes

Requires considerable interaction with the user

Requires user friendly software (possibly online help)

Requires real time data validation

Requires direct access storage to access data quickly

4.4 Other information processes in TPSs Collecting

Collecting from a TPS involves generating the transaction data

o

Hardware MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition)

MICR systems are used by banks to read account

numbers on cheques

Characters are printed using magnetic ink that contains

magnetised particles

ATM (Automatic Teller Machine)

An ATM is a banking terminal for common transactions

Barcode Readers

Barcode readers are used in retail industries to collected

product information and point of sale The reflected light off the barcode lines identifies the

prod.

o From forms (Form: a document used to collect data from a person)

Paper Form: Written on to provide data and then processed

Onscreen Form: Usually completed for data entry to populate

DBs

Web Form: For users wanting to purchase products off the

internet

o Screen design for online data collection

Drop down menus, radio buttons, command buttons, checkboxes


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Use of colour, alignment, white space, images etc

Analysing data, in which output produced is used as input in other

systems

The results of processed transactions are stored in a database and are analysed in waysto meet the information needs of users.

o Decision support systems

DSSs assist people in making decisions by providing

information, models and other analysis tools.

For example, a business may use a TPS to process its sale

transaction, and then use a DSS to summarise its sales by

date/region/product. This information will then be used for

decisions

Data mining is used in DSSs to find relationships and patterns

in data stored in a databaseo Management Information Systems

MISs provides information about basic facts such as sales

performance, payroll, and budgets.

The MIS shares the data from a TPS, which is then manipulated

to create reports (Scheduled reports, forecast reports, on

demand)

4.5 Issues related to TPSsBoth positive and negative issues arise from TPSs

Changing nature of worko Automation of jobs once performed by clerks

Automation of jobs refers to the use of information technology

to perform tasks once done by people

Workers are required to learn new skills and complete ongoing

trainingor face being replaced by a more skilled worker

This can either result in extra stress on workers or increased

happiness

Information systems can expand the scope and significance of a

users job or they can reduce it (affects meaning of work)

o

Shifting of workload from clerks to members of the public TPSs allow every user with access to a terminal to enter and

retrieve data, which is what a clerk would have done

Need for alternative procedures when the TPS is unavailable

o Blackouts or breakdowns can completely disable some TPSs and

businesses must plan for such times.

o Non-computer procedures must be in place, and these must have been

checked and tested

Bias in data collection

Bias means that data is unfairly skewed to a particular result or direction.

o When establishing the system and deciding what data to collect

Data collection methods should be specified carefully


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Loaded questions must be avoided in questionnaires or web

forms

o When collecting the data

Adhere to protocols established earlier.

random sampling does not apply to web surveys as not

everyone has the internet

Importance of data in transaction processing

o Data security

Data security protects a systems data against accidental or

deliberate damage

Passwords and biometric methods (fingerprints etc)

Encryption

Firewalls

o Data accuracy

Data accuracy is the correctness of the data (extent to which it

is free of errors)

Errors can occur;

Data collection errors : Poor handwriting/badly worded

questions

Data entry errors: Typos

Out-of-date errors: Persons data changes (move etc)

Mismatching errors: Data relates to a similar person,

maybe with a different name

o Data integrity

Data integrity is the reliability of data, it involves accuracy,

currency and relevance of the data

In real time transaction processing, data integrity is achieved

when the ACID test is passed

Atomicity: All steps of a transaction are completed

together

Consistency: Correct programming, such as always

debiting and crediting the correct account

Isolation: Ability for transactions to be processed at the

same time as others, but still behave independently

Durability: Changes become permanent when

committed

Control in transaction processing and the implications for participants

o Controlling transaction processing starts with collecting and includes

the way the TPS manipulates the data and the way errors are corrected .

o People should not become completely dependent on a TPS. They need

to maintain control over their organisations operations

o Due to the immense volume of data errors are caused, and if no control

measures are taken these errors will be unnoticed and have dire effects

on the transaction, the transaction system and the organisation.

Current and emerging trends in transaction processing

End of Study Notes


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By Chromatic

ipt study notes - chromatic (2010)

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