iranian operations in the iran iraq war

8/13/2019 Iranian Operations in the Iran Iraq War

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STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OFIN THE IRAN-IRAQ W A RI R A N I A N M I L I T A R Y OPERATIONS

A thesis presented to the Faculty of the U.S. ArmyCommand and General Staff College i n partialfulfillment of the requirements for thedegreeMASTER OF MILITARY A R T AND SCIENCE

DONALD H. ZACHERL, MAJ, USAR.S . , United States Military Academy, 1974M . A . , Hofstra University, 1980

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas19868 6 - 3 4 8 3

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.


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MASTER O F M I L I T A R Y A R T AND SCIENCETHESIS A P P R O V A L P A G E

Name o f C a n d i d a t e : Donald 11 Z a c h e r lT i t l e of T h e s i s : S t r a t c g i c a n d O p e r a t i n a lI m p l i c a t i o n s o f ; I ra n i i in N i l i t a r yO p e r a t i o n s i n the I r a n - I r a q iJar

Approved by :

, T h e s i s Com mi t t ee Chi ii rmdn

) m A , M em ber, G r a d u a t e F a c u l t yBobby L d C h i l d r e s s , Ph.D.A cce pc ed t h i s 6 t h d ay o f < J u n e 1 98 6 b y:

, D i r e c t o r , G r a d u d t e D eg re ePrograms

'The o p i n i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s e x p r e s s e d h e r e i n a r e t h o s eo f : t h e s t u d e n t a u t h o r a n d d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n tt h e v i ew s of t h e U.S. Army Command and G e n e r a l S t a f f r C o l l e g eo r any o t h e r g o ve rn m en t agency. ( R e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s s t u d ys h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e f o r e g o i n g s t a c e m e n t .


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ACKNOWLECGMEN'TCi

A s iwi th most. I - e s u a r c h t o p i c s r t h i s nrie e v o l v e d firm ag r a n d r ? r l more s w t ? e ~ : ~ i n c id e a , a n d WEIS r e d u c : c d by l i m i t a t i o n si n time, r e s o ~ r c e 5 ~n d b y s imple common sense . I m w ag r e a t d e a l t o D r . G L + w r y c h , o f the Cornbat S t u d i e s I 1 1 5 t i t L l t e ,w h o c o n e t a n t l y encui . i r7ed me, p a t i e n t l r corrected my r ep e . i to de r r o r s , .ind h e l p e d rrie n l a i n t a 11 my p e r s p e c t i v e . I a l s o [.)WE? adebt o f g r a t i t u d e t i 7 D r . C h i d r e s ~ , f the Departtnlent o fJ o i n t an d Co r r lh in ed f : lp e r a t io n s , who s i f t e d oiut rrwr n e t h o d r : i l c ~ ~ ~ ~ i c a lr r ( . : ) rs , n d p r e s s e d me t o d e f e n d each l o ~ ~ j . c : ~ i ls t e p . Without t h e i r e f f o r t s a n d e n coi.iraqenlmit:, the t h e s i rwoi . i td have been a d i f f e r e n t , an d f a r p o o r e r , p r o d u c t .

I a l s n w o u ld l i k t o a c k n o w l e d g e thc h e l p o f t l i m other5c:holars: C a r l ('on C l a u s e w i t z a n d M a r t i n Van Cre3.,,F?ldr I-Iyr e s e a r c h a n d a n a l y s i s d i d not: C O c 3 l e s c e u n t i l I r e a d r a n dt h e n re-read, t h e i r u j r i t i n g s . T o the e::tent: I h a v ea ck ?q i. ia te ly a p p l i e d C l a u s e w i t : a n d a d a p t e d V a n C r c v e l d , amore comp 1e t E? [..inder st d n i 11 '3 n f co n t:ernp o r a r y e v e n t 5 i n I r a ni s p o s s i b l e .

F i n a l l u , b u t most i m p o r t a n t l y l I owe a g r e a t a n dc o n t i n u i n g d e b t t o IIIY w i f e , M a r ia n ne , who made i t p o s s i b l ef n r me to h a v e the time t o w o r k .

Any e r r o r s i n the thes i s a r e e n t i r e l y my own.

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STRATEGIC A N D OPERATIONAL IMPLICATIONSOF I R A N I A N MIL I TARY,APLRAT IONS

--N THE IRA N-IRAQ WAR.By D o n a l d H. Z a c h e r l , M A J , USA

Ctlapter O n e

T h e s i s I n e n t , A n a l r t i ca 1 F r a m e w o r k ,C h a p t e r Organ i - a t i o n ,a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e

"War is more t h a n c7 t r u e c h a m e l e o n t h a t s l i g h t l y a d a p t si t 5 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o the g i v e n c a s e . As a t o t a l p h e n o m e n o ni t s d o m i n a n t t e n d e n c i e s a l w a y s make war a p a r a d o x i c a lt r n i t y - - c o n p o s e d o f pr i moor d i a1 v i o l e n c e , h a t r e d a n d enm i t y ,w h i c h a r e t o be r e g a r d e d a 5 b l i n d n a t u r a l f o r c e ; o f t h e p l a yo f c h a n c e a n d p r o b a b i l i t y w i t h i n w h i c h t h e c r e a t i v e s p i r i ti s f r e e t o roam; a n d o f i t s e l e m e n t o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n , a 5 a ni n s t r u m e n t g f p o l i c y , w h i c h m a k e s i t s u b j e c t t o r e a s o na lone .

C a r l Von C l a u s e w i t z

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I . T h e s i s I n t e n t .I i n t e n d t o shoirr t h a t I r a n i a n armys M i l i t a r y Worth was

s i s n i f i c a n t l y c ha ng ed by the I s l a m i c r e v o l u t i o n . T h e n a t u r eo f t h i s c h a n g e , I s u g g e s t , w as a f u n d a m e n ta l r e a l i g n m e n t n fthe t h ree elements o f war: the p e o p l e , the a r m y , a nd theg n v e r n m e n t . A s a r e s u l t , the m i l i t a r y b a l a n c e o f power h a sr a d i c a l l y a l t e r e d w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t o n the s t r a t e g i cs i t u a t i o n i n the P e r s i a n G ul f r e g i o n .

T h e t h e s i s h a s f o u r s t e p s . T h e f i r s t s t e p w i l 1 showt h a t the M i l i t a r y Worth, a 5 d e f i n e d by Mal-tin V a n C r e v e l d ,of the p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y army war, weaker t h a n i t a p p e a r e db e c a u s e of the weak l i n k a g e be t w e e n the t h r e e funda r r len ta le len len t5 . T h e s e c o n d s t e p a n a l y z e s the p e r f o r m a n c e o f theI r a n i a n a r m y i n the I r a n - I r a q War, d e m o n s t r a t i n g i t s h i g hl e v e l of m i l i t a r y p e r fo r ma nc e . T h e t h i r d s t e p i d e n t i f i e s theI s l a m i c r e v o l u t i o n a 5 the proximate c a u s e o f thes t r e n g t h e n e d p e o p l e - a r m ~ - g o v e r n m e n t 1 i n k a g e . T h e f o u r t h s t e pw i l l s p e c u l a t e o n the s t r a t e g i c a n d o p e r a t i o n a l i n r . r l i c d t i o nsf o r the use o f l a n d p o w e r i n the r e g i o n .

1 1 . A n a l y t i c a l Fr am ew or k.I t was n e c e s s a r y t o a d o p t a n e w a n a l y t i c a l framework

for. t w o r e a s o n s . F i r s t , m i l i t a r y e v e n t s i n I r a n were, a n da r c , u n p r e d i c t a b l e . A t the time o f the R e v o l u t i o n , f o rexample , the I m p e r i a l I r a n i a n Armed F o r c e s w e r e f i f t h

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l a r g e s t i n t h e w o r l d a n d l a r g e s t i n the r e g i o n . m o d e r n i z a t i o n program c o n t i n u e d LIP t o the Shahs d e p a r t u r e ,a n d i n c l u d e d 12 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n p u r c h a s e s f ro m the U n i t e dS t a t e s alone. N e i t h e r was the S h a h s army i n e x p e r i e n c e d i ni n t e r n a l c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s . I n f a c t , i t was i t s p r i m a r yuse . 4 Y e t , o u t s i d e o b s e r v e r s , c o u n t i n g the s i z e a n d q u a l i t yof the m i l i t a r y eqi.iippnlent i n the I r a n i a n army, weres u r p r i z e d by i t s f a i l u r e t o s u c c e s s f u l l y oppose ther e v o l u t i o n .

A m i l i t a r y

T h e p e r s c v e r e n c c of the I r a n i a n armed f o r c e s i n theI r a n - I r a q War was e q u a l l y u n e xp e ct e d. A n a l y s t s , i n a n do u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n , i n c l u d i n g Saddaa H u s s e i n , wereu n p l e a s a n t l y s c i r p r i ze d by I r a n s r e s i s t a n c e t o the i n v a s i o na n d i t s s u b s e q u e n t s u c c e 5 s e s o n the b a t t l e f i e l d . Soc o n f i d e n t w a s Saddam H us se in , i n f a c t , t h a t he was on thev e r g e o f a n n o u n c i n g the a n n e x a t i o n o f K h u ze s t an s h o r t l ya f t e r t h e i n v a s i o n b e g a n . 5 The shock of the s u c c e s s f u lI r a n i a n c o u n t e r o f f e n s i v e i n 1982 c a u s e d a major s t r a t e g i cs h i f t by t h e G u l f Coopera t ion C o u n c i l from s u p p o r t i n g I r a qto p r e s s i n g for a easef fire.^ Most r e c e n t l y , the r e n e w e dI r a n i a n o f f e n s i v e once a g a i n c a u g h t the w o r l d by s u r p r i i l e .Up u n t i l the r e c e n t l a r g e s c a l e a t t a c k s , i t was assumed t h a tI r a n was t o o e x h a ~ i s t e d o c a r r y on the war. 7

S e c o n d l y , t he I s l a m i c R e v o l u t i o n i n I r a n wa5 a p r o f o u n da n d g e n u i n e l v u n i q u e p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , a nd r e l i g i o u s e v e n tw h i c h may p r o v e t i 2 he on t h e same s c a l e a n d i m p o r t a n c e a 5


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t h e F r e nc h a n d R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i ~ n s . ~f r a m e w o r k s h a v e n o t a d d r e s s e d the c o m b i n e d e f f e c t o n t h ep e o p l e , army, g o v e r n m e n t 1 n k a g e .

P r e v i o u s a n a l y t i c a l

The a n a l y t i c a l f ramework a d o p t e d i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o ft w o r e l a t e d , a n d s i m p l e , p a r a d i g m s : Car l V o n C l a u s e w i t z ' smodel o f t h e n a t u r e of war a n d Martin Van C r e v e l d ' sf o r m u l a t i o n o f M i l i t a r y Worth. A l t h o u g h e a c h f r a m e w o r k iss i m p l e , sometimes " t h e s i m p l e t h i n g s a r e d i f f i c u l t " . 9

A c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the l i n k a g e b e t w e e n them i sv i t a l . I w i l l c l a r i f y the r e l a t i o n s h i p by f i r s t e x p l a i n i n gVan C r e v e l d ' 5 f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e n Von C l a u s e w i t z ' s model , a n df i n a l l y t h e w a y I h a v e l i n k e d t h e m i n t h e t hes i s .

Van C r e v e l d d e f i n e s the M i l i t a r y W o r t h ( W m ) o f a n armya 5 equal t o t h e Q u a l i t y Q 1 ) a n d Q u a n t i t sr ( Q 2 ) f ise qu i pm en t m u l i t p l i e d by i t s F i g h t i n g Power ( P f ) . I havee x p r e s s e d t h i s a s fOllOW5:

T h e Q u a l i t y a n d Q u a n i t r o f e qu i pm en t a r e a d d i t i v e : b ot h t h en umb er o f t a n k s a n d t h e i r e x c e l l e n c e a s t a n k s a r e v i t a l .P u t a n o t h e r w a y , a 5IT1al e r number of exce l l e n t Americant a n k s a r e o f t e n e q u a t e d t o l a r ge r n u m b e r s o f poorer q u a l i t yS o v i e t t a n k s . T h e s e two f a c t o r s a r e m e a s u r a b l e , a n d a r m i e ss p e n d e n o r m o ~ i s resource^, a n d e f f o r t f r ~e as ur i ng he s i z e a n dq u a l i t y o f o p p os in g f o r c e s m i l i t a r y e q u i p m e n t .

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F i g h t i n g P owe r is d e f i n e d a s " t h e sum t o t a l o f the

mental s ~ i a l i t i e s h a t make a n a r m f i g h t " . 1 ' I t m a n i f e s t s i ts e l f i n d i s c i p l i n e , c o h e s i o n , morale, i n i t i a t i v e , co ur ag e ,t o ~ i g h n e 5 s ~n d the w i l l i n g n e s s t o f i g h t a n d d i e . F i g h t i n gP o w e r is m u l t i p l i c a t i v e a n d h a s g r e a t e r immediate e f f e c tt h an t h e Q u a l i t y a n d Q u a n t i t y o f equ ipment . However , a v e r yh i g h l e v e l o f F i g h t i n g P o w e r can n o t overcome v e r y low

. . l e v e l s o f poor e q u i p m e n t . I f e i t h e r se t o f c o m p o n e n t s a re. .r e d u c e d t o n e a r z e r o , the M i l i t a r y Worth i s n e a r z e r o ,r e g a r d l e s s o f the e l e m e n t s w h e n s e p a r a t e l y v a l u e d .

F i g h t i n g power i s more d i f f i c u l t t o m e a s u r e t h a n t h eQ u a l i t y a n d Q u a n t i t y o f e q u i p m e n t . D e t a i l e d o b j e c t i v e d a t aon the I r a n i a n a r m y ' s d i s c i p l i n e , c o h es i o n , a nd morale, i sv i r t u a l l y i ~ ~ p o s s i t i l eo o b t a i n a n d w h a t l i t t l e e x i s t s i s o fl i m i t e d v a l u e i n a n y case . However, Van C r e v e l d p r o v i d e s a ni n s i y h t i n t o the niecret o f F i g h t i n g Pow er . T h e s e c r e t o fF i g h t i n g P o w e r l i e 5 i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b et we en the a r m edf o r c e s a nd s o c i e t y , the p o we r fu l i n f l u e n c e o f r e l i g i o u s a n di d e o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s , a n d p r i m a r y g r o u p cohes ion . 1 1 1 ~V o nC l a u s e w i t z ' s m o d e ' l o f the n a t u r e o f war w i l l p r o v i d e thetool t o u n l o c k t h t s s e c r e t .

C l a u s e w i tz r e d u c e s the n a t u r e of war t o " a r e m a r k a b l et r i n i t r " : a n i m u s , es t im a tes , a n d p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s .Animus, which m a i n l y c o n c e r n s the p e o p l e , i s b l i n d , v i o l e n th a t r e d a 5 a n a t u r a l f o r c e . E s t i ma t e s , w h i c h a r e the p r o v i n c eo f the commander and h i s a r m y , i s the p l a y of c h a n c e a n d

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p r o b a b i l i t y . P o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s , which i s the concern o fthe government a l o n e , i s t h e realm o f reason a n d p o l i c y . Ware x i s t s i n a ba l a nc e b e t w e e n these t h r e e t e n d e n c i e s , " l i k e a no b j e c t s u s p e n d e d b e w t e e n three magnets" . 14

" T h e se t h r e e t e n d e n c i e s are l i k e three d i f f e r e n t c o d e s o fl a w , d e ep r o o t e d i n t he i r s u b j e c t a nd y e t v a r i a b l e i n t h e i rr e l a t i o n s h i p t o one ano ther . m 15

V a n C r e v e l d ' s s e c r e t o f F i g h t i n g P ow er ; r e s t i n g on t her e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the a rm ed f o r c e s , s o c i e t y , a n d p e r s o n a lb e l i e f s , echoes the r e l a t i o n s h i p i n Von C l a u s e w i t z ' sr e m a r k a b l e t r i n i t y . By e x a m i n i n g the I r a n i a n p e o p l e , armya n d G o v e rn m e n t, ( t h e C l a ~ i s e w i t z e a ne l e m e n t s ) , I c a nd e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f I r a n i a n F i g h t i n g P ower , ( i n VanC r e v e l d ' s f o r m u l a t i o n ) . A p p l y i n g F i g h t i n g Power t o t h eQ u a l i t y a n d Q u a n t i t y o f e q u i p r r l e n t , I can t h e n es t imate theI r a n i a n a r my ' s M i l i t a r y Horth. An a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e o f theI r a n i a n a r m ~ y ' s M i l i t a r y Worth a l l o w s more a c c u r a t e a n a l y s i so f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the r e g i o n .

I I I . O r s a n i z a t o n .C h a p t e r o n e , which is the c u r r e n t c h a p t e r , a d d r e s s e s

t he t hes i 5 i n e n t , ana 1y t i c a l f ranlework , o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n ds i g n i f i c a n c e .


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T h e p u r p o s e o f C h a p t e r two i s t o exarrline theP r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y I r a n i a n army u s i n g t tie m e t h o d o l o g yo u t l i n e d . C h a p t e r two 5 e t s t h e h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d of t h eP r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y army b e g i n n i n g w i t h i t s b i r t h u n d e r Re-aS h a h a n d i t s d e ve l op m en t u n d e r h i s s o n , Mohhanmed Reza S h a h .I t c o n c l u d e s w i t h a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r ya r m y s M i l i t a r y W or th ; the q u a l i t y a nd q u a n i t i t y o feq i . . i i pment a n d a n e s t i m a t e o f i t s f i g n t i n g power b a s e d o n a na n a l y s i s o f t h e p e o p l e , arrrly, g o v e rn m e nt r e l a t i o n s h i p .

C h a p t e r t h r e e e x a m i ne s t he m i l i t a r y pe r f o r m a nc :e of theI r a n i a n army d u r i n g the I r a n - I r a q war. C h a p t e r t h r ee showst h a t t h e I r a n i a n a r m y s M i l i t a r y W o r t h s i g n i f i c a n t l yi m p r o v e d d e s p i t e a s t e a d y d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e Q u a l i t y a n dQ u a n t i t y of e q u i p m e n t ; t h e i n e s c a p a b l e c o n c l u s i o n i s t h eF i g h t i n g P o w e r has s i s n i f i c a n t l ~ ~n l p r u v e d .

I f t h e I r a n i a n armys M i l i t a r y W or th h a s i m p r o v e d a5 ar e s u l t o f a s i g n i f i c a n t l y i mp ro ve d F i g h t i n g Po we r , w ha t wast h e c a u s e ? ChaptEvr f o u r e :: am ~i ne s the army from the time oft h e R e v o l u t i o n L I P t o t h e I r a q i i n v a s i o n t o d e t e r m i n e i f theb on d b e t w ee n t h e p e o p l e , t h e army, a n d the S t a t e , c h a ns e d i nsuch a way t h a t F i g h t i n g P o w e r was e n h a n c e d .

C h a p t e r f i v e s u r r ~ a r i z e s he t h e s i s c o n c l u s i o n s a n ds p e c u l a t e s o n t h e s t r a t e g i c use o f l a r i d p o w e r i n the r e g i o n .

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I V . S i g n i f i c a n c e .There a re f o u r p r i n s a r y r e a s o n s f o r the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f

t h e r e g i o n a n d h en ce the t he s i s : o i l , g e o p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n ,s u p e r p o w e r i n t e r e s t , a n d the war i t s e l f ( b o t h i n r e s p e c t t othe o t he r t h r e e f a c t o r s and f o r p u r e l y p r o f e s s i o n a l a n di n t e l l e c t ~ i a l e a s o n s ) .

T h e impor tance of o i l a n d the P e r s i a n G ul f does n o tappeal- t o r e q u i r e s t r e n o u s j u s t i f i c a t i o n . T h e m a j o r i t y o fthe r e g i o n s p e t r o l e u m e x p o r t s s t i l l e x i t t h r o u g h the G u l fa ] . t h o u g h t h i s has d i m i n i s h e d a 5 a r e s u l t o f the war. Never -t h e - l e s s , 58 : ; o f the wor ld s known o i l r e s e r v e s a r e i n t heG u l f R e g i o n . Of that:, 16% a r e i n I r a n , a s well as 20% nf thew o r l d s k n o w n n a t i . . i r a l g a s r e s e r v e s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y o n p t h i r do f the w o r l d s F e tr o le u rn p r o d u c t i o n a n d 30Z o f t h e U Spe t ro leums i m p o r t s a r e from the G u lf r e g i o n . E u r o p e a n d J a p a nimport 70% o f t h e i r p e tr o le u ni p r o d u c t s f r o m the G u l f .A l t ho uy h c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t by p e t ro l e um importers h a s y o n ei n t o r e d u c i n g t h e i r d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e r e g i o n , the 1011s termi m p o r t a n c e n f the r e q i o n i s c l e a r .

l h

Oil i s even msore i m p o r t a n t t o the G u l f e x p o r t e r s .G r e a t e r t h a t 82 o f the GNP o f the G u l f s t a t e s i s made u p o fo i l r e ve n ue s . ,I r a n s GNP b e f o r e the war. A s r e s u l t , I r a n may t:re 1R55c o n c e r n e d o ve r o i l r e ve n ue a n d , t h e r e f o r e , Gu l f s t a b i l i t yt h a n tier n e i gh boi.irs .

a l t h o u g h o i l r e v e n ~ i e smade LI P o n l g 22 of


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f i e l d s a n d p o r t s . l 8 I n a d d i t i o n , I r a nT u r k e y , Rus si a , R f c3 han i s t a n , and Pal: i 5P e r s i a n G u l f i s l a n d s a s t r i d e the t r a f f

I r a n ' s g e o p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n j u s t i f i e s i t 5s i s n i f i c a n c e , e ve n w i t h o u t the impor tance o f o i l . I r a n s i t sa t the c o n j u n c t i o n o f the A s i a n a n d A r ab w o r l d a n d i sa t h w a r t v i t a l petroleum t r a d e r o u t e s . A 500 mile r a d i u s ofher b o r d e r s , r e a c h a b l e by mo d ern comb a t a i r c r a f t , i n c l u d e sv i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e C a s p i a n Sea , the P e r s i a n g u l f , Onlan,Kt.wai t , the s n l a l l e r G u l f s t a t e s , a n d S a u di A r a b i a ' s o i l

b o r d e r s o n I r a q ,a n a n d c o n t r o l s thec l a n e s f o r o i l

t a n k e r s . S h o u l d I r a n a c h i e v e s ci ff i c i e n t mi 1 i t a r y poiuer a n dm o t i v e , i t impac t w o u l d b e e n o r ~ o ~ i s .

T e r r a i n a n d t h e presence of r e s o ~ i r c e sa r e no t r e l e v a n tu n l e s s the p 0 1 i c i ~ ' sof the powers i n the r e g i o n a r e t a k e ni n t o a c o u n t . T he r e g i o n i s o f p a r t i c u l a r a n d a c u t e i n t e r e s tto b o %h the s u p e r ~ o w e r s . I r a n i n h i g h among S o v i e te x t r a n a t i o n a l p r i c i r i t i e s a n d is a n a r e a o f h i s t o r i c a lRussian s t r a t e g i c i n t e r e s t . l 9P e r s i a n G ul f a 5 among the S o v i e t U ni on a two h i g h e s tex t r a n a i ona 1 p r i cir i t i e s .1921n1 a " t r e a t y o f f r i e n d s h i p " which r e q u i r e s I r a n t op r e v e n t " a n t i - s o v i e t " a c t i v i t i e s i n I r a n i n e x c h a n g e f o r ap r o m i se o f non- i n t e r v e n t i on . 21

P r em i er Br ez hn ev l i s t e d the

T he S o v i e t U ni on h a s h ad , s i n c e

T h e USSR h a s s u p p o r t e ds t movements i n I r a n , i s i n v o l v e d i n the Tudeh

p a r t y . A d d i t i o n a l l y , the S o v i e t U n i o n r e c e n t l ys e p a r a t(Masses

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b e g a n a p r o gr a m d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e s e her power p r o j e c t i o ni n t o t h e r e g i o n . 22

A d d i t i o n a l l y , I r a n i s s p e c i f i c a l l y c o v e r e d tw theC ar t e r d o c t r i n e , which e s t a b l i s h e d the r e g i o n a 5 a n a r e a ofv i t a l US i n t e r e s t s . I t i 5 a n a r e a o f s p e c i f i c c :o n t in ge nc yo p e r a t i o n s by USCENTCOM US C e n t r a l Command) and USREDCOM (1)sR c a d i n e s s Co mm an d). T h e US has r e s p o n d e d t o t h r e a t s t n Closet he G u l f by m i l i t a r y r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d a promise t o k e e p theG ul f o pe n an d f r e e t o t r a f f i c .

F i n a l l y , t h e c u r r e n t g o ve rn m en t i n I r a n i 5 l a r g e l yu n a f f e c t e d by a t t e n ~ p t s o m o d i f y i t s f o r e i g n p n l i c y . I t sopen t i o s t i 1 i . t ~ o the " G r e a t S a t a n " ( t h e US) , a n d the"L.esser S a t a n " ( t h e USSR), has m e a n t t h a t i t owes noa l l e g i a n c e to e i t h e r S u p er p ow e r . F u r t h e r , i t s p o s i t i o n a 5 a ne n e r g y s u p p l i e r g i v e s i t more e c o n o m i c f l e a i b i l i t q than i t 5n e i g h b o i i r s a n d a l l o w s i t r e l a t i v e e co n o m ic i nd ep en de nc :e . I t5 ~ 1 p p o r t f t e r ro r i sm a n d r e f u s a l t o a c t i n c o n c e r t : w i t ho t h e r r e g i o n a l n a t i o n s h a s f u r t h e r i s o l a t e d i t p o l i t i c a l l q .I n s ~ m , i t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y , r e g i o n a l l y a nd s l o b a l l s j , i sr e l a t i v e l y e nc u m b e re d a n d u n p r e d i c t a b l e .

T h e d a n g e r i s t h a t t h e P e r s i a n Gulf R e g i o n , w h i c h i sv i t a l t o b o t h the S u p e r p o w e r s , i s i n d a n g e r o f d o m i n a t i o n bya h o s t i l e n a t i o n t h a t i s l a r g e l y b ey on d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e .

T h e war i t s e l f i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r p o l i c y a n dp r o f e s s i o n a l r e a s o n s . F i r s t , the s t r o n g I r a n i a n r e s i s t e n c ea n d s u b s e q u e n t s t u n n i n g s ~ i c c e s s e swere c o m p l e t e l y

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pr of 85sto hi ghsequent

t he

we 1

unexpec t ed, a5 wa5 ear l i er r el at ed. Addi t i onal l y , thet ac t i cal , oper at i onal , and s t r at egi c a spec t s ar e not: wel lknown or under st ood. Unt i l I r ani an m l i t ar y power and theI r an- I r aq war i s mor e adequat el y under st ood, r e1 i abl ees t i mat es a r e unachi evabl e. As a r e5ul t . pol i cy r egar di ngI r an i s l i kel y t o be i nef f ect i ve.

Second, t he war i s or ought t o be, of i nt enseonal i nt er e st . I t i s a maj or , moder n, sust ai ned m di nt ens i t y c onf l i c t whi c h has i nc l uded r epet i t i ve,a l l mul t i - di vi s i on oper a t i ons , and t ac t i c al

i - nnovat i on. I t i nc l uded t he heavy use of chem cal weaponsand s t r at egi c r ock et s , and convent i onal s t r i k es on nuc l eart ar get s . F ur t her , the l essons o f t he war ar e unt ai nt ed bySuper power 1ogi s. t c l sponser sh i p, un i k e the Ar ab- I s r aelWar s , and i s a bet t er har bi nger of f ut ur e c onf l i c t s of thi st ype. Addi t i onal l y, i t al l ows an i ns i ght i nt o t he I r ani anand I s l am c m l i t ar y t r adi t i on, t he I s l am c r evol ut i on and

I r ani an m i t ar y l eader .Gi ven I r a n s pot ent i al a 5 an aggr es s i v e, m l i t ant , andr esour ced f or ce, a r eal unders t andi ng o f the war i s

es sent i al . A new ar my, and a new l eader shi p, bor n i nr evol ut i on, f i r ed by r el i gi ous zeal , and t emper ed by war , i sar i s i ng. The f or ces t hat have shaped and are shapi ng thi spot ent i al m l i t ar j power i n one of the most vol at i l e andvi t al ar ea5 of Superpower i nt erest ar e of gl obals i gni f i c anc e.

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1. R o b e r t

ENDNOTESCHAPTER ONE

G. Ncurnarin, Foreward t o I r a n - I r a q War.:.S t e p h e n R . Grummon, (Wash ing ton , D . C . :1982), p. v i i i .

2. N ad er E n t e s s a r , " M i l i t a r r a n d P o l i t i c s i n theI s l a m i c R e p u b l i c o f I r a n , " ( S p r i n g H i l l C o l l e g e , Depar tment o fP o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e , M o b i l e , A l ab am a , 1985) . p. 2 . ( P a p e rp r e p a r e d f o r 1 9 t h A n n u a l Meet inq o f the M i d d l e E a s t S t u d i e sA s s o c i a t i o n , N o ve mb er , 1985. )

3. J o h n M. S m i t h , "Where w a s the S h a h ' s A r m y ? , " ( F t .L e a v e n w o r t h , K a n s a s , 1980) , p. 2 . (Master o f M i l i t a r y A r t a n dS c i e n c e T h e s i s , PO R e y i s t r N19052.421-31)4 R i c h a r d F. N y i - o ~ , e d . , Lran: R Cot n_t:rcl S t u d v , DAParn 550-68, ( W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . : U.S. G o v e r n m e n t : P r i n t i n gO f f i c e r 1978) , p. 399.5. A n t h u n y H. C o r d e s n ~ a n , T h e G u l f a n d t he Search fc lyS t r a t e s i c S t a b i l i t y : S a u d i A r a b i a , the M i l i t a r r B a l a n c e i n theG u l f , a n d T r e n d s i n t h e A r a b - I s r a e l i M i l i t a r r r E a l a n c c ,( P a u l d e r , C o l o r a do : W ee tv ie w P r e s s , 1 9 8 4 ) - p. 648.6 . I b i d . , p . 679.7. R a r r y R u b i n , " M i d d l e E a s t : Search f o r P e ac e , "

F o r e i g n A f f a i r s : America a n d the W o r l d , ( L o c a t i o n : P ~ i b l i s h w ,1 9 8 6 ) ~ . 599.8. George W . G a w r y c h , " T h e I r a n i a n R e v o l u t i o n " ,Le c t u re P r e s e n t e d t o U S Army Command a n d G e n e r a l S t a f fC ol l e ge as p a r t o f I n d i v i d u a l D e ve l op m en t C o u r s e M i 1 i ta rr .HJstorr o f t h e M i d d l e E a s t , F e b r u a r y , 1986.9. C a r l Von C l a u s e w i t z , On War, t r a n s . a n d e d . byMichae l Howard a n d P e t e r P a r e t , ( P r i n c e t o n , N e w J e r s ey :P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s r 1984) , p . 119.10. M a r t i n Van C r e v e l d . F i y h t i n g P ow er : G e r m a n

M i l i t a r r P e r f o r m a n c e , 1914-1945, ( C a r l i s l e B a r r a c k s ,P e n n s g l v a n n i a : A r t of War C o l l o q i u n l P u b l i c a t i o n , 19133)~ PP.1-2.11. I b i d .12. I b i d .13. I b i d . . PP. l-''L

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14. C l a u s e w i t z . , On War, p. 89.1 5. I b i d .16 . " J e e r s f o r C he a p Oil," T h e Econom~ist,,March,

1 9 8 6 , P . 66.1 7 . Anthony H. Cordcsnlan , ' T h e G u l f a n d the S ea rchf o r S t r a t e g i c Stab-, p. 42.18. CIA Map 503828 12-78, Iran C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c eAqencg, Decem ber , 1978.19 . John C. Camp b e l l . " S o v i e t S t r a t e g y i n the M i d d l eE a s t , " American-Ar-ffairs , S p r i n g , 1984, PP. 74-82.20 . J o i n t S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s Agencg l e c t u r e Y i v e n a tUS Comlmland a n d General S t a f f Col lege , f e b u r a r y , 1986.2 1 . R i c h a r d F. Nyr op , ed., I r a n : A S t u d L k p . 52 .22. A n t h o n y H. C ordesm an ," The G u l f a n d the Searchf o r S t r a t e g i c S t a b i l i t u , P. 58.

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C h a P t: e r Two

T h e E v o l u t i o n o f t h e Modern I r a n i a n Armyf r o m Reza S h a h t o the I s l a m i c Revolu t ion

" T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e t h r e e a s p e c t s m a i n l y c o n c e r n thep e o p l e ; t h e s e c o n d the commander a n d h i s a r m y ; the t h i r d t heg o v e r n m e n t . . .These t h ree t e n d e n c i e s a r e l i k e t h r e e d i f f e r e n tc o d e s of l a w , d e e p r o o t e d i n t h e i r s u b j e c t a n d y e t v a r i a b l ei n t he i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o n e a n o t h e r . A t h e o r y t h a t i g n o r e sa n y o n e o f t h e m or s e e k s t o f i x a n a r b i t r a r y r e l a t i o n s h i pb e t w e e n t h e m would c o n f l i c t w i t h r e a l i t y t o such a n e x t e n tt h a t f o r t h i 5 r e a s o n a l o n e i t w o u l d b e t o t a l l y u s e l e s s . "

Car l V o n C l a u s e w i t z .

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T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the p e o p l e , the army a n d theg o v e rn me n t , i s con ip le : . : and changeab le . To g a i n i n s i g h t i n t ot h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e m o d u r n I r a n i a n a r m y a n d i t s F i g h t i n gP o w er , I w i l l t r a c e the three C l a u s e w i tz e a n e l e m e n t s fromReza K h a n , t h r o u g h h i s son Reza Muhanmed Pah lav i , LIP t o theI s l a m i c r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s i s d o n e by d i v i d i n g the p r e -r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d i n t o two p a r t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o theP a h 1a v Shat15 .

F o ~ i n d a t i n n so f the I m p e r i a l I r a n i a n Army.Reza Khan, l a t e r Reza Shah, was a s e m i l i t e r a t e s o l d i e r

w h o came t o power throi.igh the army. H i 5 acco m p l i s h m ~ e n t swerec o n s i d e r a b l e . H e b u i l t a n a t i o n a l s t a n d i n g a r m y v i r t u a l l yfrom s c r a t c h , i n t r o d u c e d s o c i a l c h an g e, e x pa nd ed c i v i l law,a n d p ro mo te d e d u c a t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , a nd n a t i o n a l i s m .T h e army w h i c h he b u i l t w d 5 the m a i n s t a y o f h i s power . I tbecame his p e r s o n a l i n s t r ~ i n i e n ta n d was u s e d a g a i n s t hiso p p o n e n t s , i n c l u d i n g the I s l a m i c c l e r g y a n d the p e o p l e w h e nr e c a l c i r a n .

However , i n $.pi te o f r e m a r k a b l e i m p r o v e m e n t s i n thea r m y ' s s i z e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n , i t c o l l a p s e d i n 1941 whenf i r s t s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e d by a c o m p a r a t i v e f o r c e . So r a p i da n d comple te wa5 i t s c a p i t u l a t i o n t h a t F i e l d Marshall S i rWill iam Sl im L i e s c r i b e d i t a5 " o p e r a b o u f f e " . 1

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E e f o r e W or ld War I , I r a n h ad n o n a t i o n a l s t a n d i n g army.T h r e e n a t i v e armies , o f f i c e r e d by f o r e i g n e r s , p o l i c e d thec o u n t r y a n d a c t e d i n d e f e n s e o f t he f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s inI r a n . These were the Cossack b r i g a d e , l e a d by C z a r i s tR ~ i s s i a nO f f i c e r s , the S o u t h P e r s i a r i f l e s , l e a d by R r i t i s ho f f i c e r s , a n d the G e n d a r m e r i e , a n a t i o n a l p o l i c e , l e a d b yS we di sh o f f i c e r s .

T h e Pbol s h e v i k r ev ol i. it i o n u p s e t the R u s s i a n - R r i t i shb a l a n c e i n I r a n , a s w e l l a s c a u s e d the w i t h d r a w 1 of theR u s s i a n o f f i c e r s . T h i s d e p a r t u r e g a v e R ez a Kha n, w h o was a no f f iccr. i n t he C o 5 s a c k P , r i g a d e , to ass1.1ne Command o f t heh r j . g a d e which was g a r r i s o n e d a r o u n d T e h er a n . T h e P e r s i a nQ a j a r reqime, i n an at terr1p.t b a l a n c e the u nm at ch cd P r i t s hpower, a p p e a l e d to the n e w S o v i e t U ni o n f o r s i . i p p o r t . I n19'21, i n the m i ds t o f n e g o t i a t i o n o v e r the " T r e a t 2 o fF r i . e n d s h i p " , a r e v o l u t i o n , s u p p o r t e d by H e z a titoan and theC o ss a ck B r i g a d e , s e i z e d p ow er . ( T h e 1921 T r e a t y o fF r i e n d s h i p i s o f t e n c i t e d by t h e S o v i e t U n io n a 5 l e g i t m i z i n qi t s i n t e r e s t i n the i n t e r n a l e v e n t s i n I r a n . No modernI r a n i a n g ov er nm en t r e c o g n i z e s i t , w h i c h i s n a t u r a lc o n s i d e r i n g the c i r c u m s t a n c e s d e s c r i b e d ) .

R eza K h a n , w h o was made m i n i s t e r o f war, p r o v e dr e s o u r c e f u l a n d e f f e c t i v e . H e moved tn f o r m a s i n g l en a t i o n a l army by u n i f y i n g t h e s e p a r a t e f o r c e s ; i t was thef i r s t s i n g l e a rmy i n I r a n ' s l o n g h i s t o r y . tie p u r g e df o r e i g n e r s a n d r e d u c e d f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e i n army

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o r g a n i z a t i o n , c u l t u r e a n d l an g u a g e w i t h a n u n c o m p r o m i s i n gz e a l .

However , i n s p i t e o f h i s promotion o f n a t i o n a l i s tc at .. 15 es i n e v e r y a s p e c t o f I r a n i a n l i f e , he v a l u e d thek n o w l e d g e o f the west a n d e d u c a t e d h i s s o n a n d h i s b e s to f f i c e r s a br oa d. I n 1925, h e p e r s u a d e d the M a j l i s , theI r a n a i n p a r l i a m e n t , t o i n t r o d u c e u n i v e r s a l c o n s c r i p t i o n . T h eS a m e y e a r he was proclairrled Shah.

Over the n e : : t f i f t e e n y e a r s , o f f i c e r s l o y a l t o h i m werep l a c e d in i n f l n e n t i a l g ov er nm en t p o s i t i o n s . D u r i n g the samep e r i o d t h e ,army w a s e x p a n d e d f r o m 4 0 , 0 0 0 t o 1 2 5 , 0 0 0 . I tbecame h i g h l y c e n t r a l i z e d u n d e r the d i r e c t c o n t r o l o f t h eS h a h a s the Commander i n C h i e f . P r o mo t i on , e d u c a t i o n , a n dp e r q u i s i t e s were b a s e d o n the S h a h s e v a l u a t i o n o f t h eo f f i c e r s p e r s o n a l l o y a l t y . D i s l o y a l t y w a s h a r s h l ypun i s h e d .

2

3

I n i t i a l l y , c o n s e r v a t i v e e l e m e n t s o f the M e j l i s a n dr e l i g i o u s l e a d e r 5 were a l l i e d w i t h h s pr og r a m s , which t h e yc o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s n a t i o n a l i s t c a n d o p p o s e d t of o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e . H ow ev er , n o t a l l of the regimes r e fo rmswere w e l l r e c e i v e d . Many o f Reid S h a h s n a t i o n a l i s t g o a l swere a t o d d s w i t h the I s l a m i c c l e r g y . W i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o no f a c o d i f i e d j u d . i c i a l s y s t e m , the c l e r g y l o s t i t s a u t h o r i t yo v e r c i v i l law a n d r e l i g i o u s t r u s t f u n ds .4 Marr iage a n dd i v o r c e c i v i l codis+ r e p r e s e n t e d a t t e m p t s t o r e d u c e c l e r i c a lp o w e r , a 5 d i d a c t i v e programs t o promote western d r e s s a n d

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r e s t r i c t i o n s o n w e a r i n g c l e r i c a l g a r b . R e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c : t i o nwas p l a c e d u n d e r c o n t r o l o f the g o ve r nm e nt : e d c i c a t i u n s y s t e m .W e a ri n g o f a v e i l b y women was f o r b i d d e n .

P.oth the Reza Shah a n d the I s l a m i c c l e r g y i n t e n d e d t oi n f l u e n c e the b e h a v i o r o f the p e o p l e . T h e c l e r g y , however,had a d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e i n t h e i r a c c e s s t o the p e o p l e .F r e q u e n t a t t e n d a n c e a t s e r v i c e s a s s u r e d t h a t the f a i t h f u lh e a r d the c l e r i c a l v i e w p o i n t f a r more o f t e n t h a n theg o v e rn m e n t s . P k l i e v i n g i n the K o r a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n anda c l n l i n i s t r a t i o n o f c i v i l l aw by I s l a m i c c l e r g y , ttleg ov er nn 1e nt 5 c r e d i b i l i t y i n the e y e 5 o f the p e o p l e w a sg r a d u a l l y w ea ke ne d , a s was the p e o p l e - g o v e r n m e n tr e l a t i o n s h i P. C o r r e s p o n d i n g 1y , the 1 i n k a g e b e t w e e n thec l e r g y a n d the p e o p l e g r e w 5 t r o n g e r .

O p p o s i t i o n t o the S h a h w a s r e p r e s s e d r e g a r d l e s s of thes o u r c e . I n c r e a s i n g l y a l a r m e d by the S o v i e t I Jn io n sr e v o l u t i o n a r y i n f l u e n c e , he e v e n t u a l l y o u t l a w e d thec o m n ~ un i s t p a r t g . R e b e l l i o n , whether t r i b a l , p o l i t i c a l , o rr e 1 g i o u s , w a 5 h a r s h l y r e p r e s s e d . T h e a r m y, o s t e n s i b l yd e s i g n e d t o d e f e a t f o r e i g n a g g r e s s i o n , w a 5 p r i m a r i l y u s e d i na n i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y r o l e , f u r t h e r w e ak in g the p e o p l e - a r m y1i n k a g e .

T h e a r m y t h a t R e z a Shah d e v e l o p e d wa5 p u t t o the testi n 1741 w h e n I r a n was i n v a d e d by B r i t a i n a n d the S o v i e tU n i o n . P u r s ~ i i n g e u t r a l l i t y a 5 the s a f e s t c o ~ i r s e , b u ta c c e p t i n g German t e c h n i c a l a d v i s e r s , Rc:a Shah w o ~ i l dn o t

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a l l o w the t r a n s p o r t o f a l l i e d m a t e r i a l t o the S o v i e t U n i o nt o c r o 5 s I r a n . As C h u r c h i l l n o t e d i n d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i se v e n t , " I n t e r A r n l a , s i l e n t l e g e s . " - - ( b e t w e e n Armies, law5a r e s i l e n t ) .T h e B r i t i s h a t t a c k e d o n the 25 th o f Augr. ist i n the s o u t hf r o m the I r a q i c i t y o f Bas ra w i t h one d i v i s i o n t o c a p t u r eAb ad an an d Khor ran~shahr , a n d i n the w e s t w i t h o n e d i v i s i o nfrom G as r -e -Sh ir in to wa rd Kermanshah. A l t h o ~ i g ho n e b r i g a d ea n d o n e r e g i m e n t waz a r m o r e d , the9 may h a v e b e e n lesse f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e o t he r a t t a c k i n g u n i t s , s i n c e t h e y werer o a d b o u n d .

T h e o b j e c t i v e was t o c a p t u r e the Abadan o i l f i e l d s ,c o n t r o l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , a n d s ecu re a r o u t e t o the C a s p i a n5ea. T h i s p l a n w t % s r e p e a t e d v i r t u a l l y w i t h o u t c ha i iy e by t h eI r a q i ' s almost 40 y e a r s l a t e r . T h e S o v i e t s , f i g h t i n gd e s p e r a t e l y w i t h t h e N a z i ' s o n t h e i r w e s t , d i d n o t p u t t h e i rb e s t t r o o p s i n t h i ? s o u t h t o i n v a d e I r a n . N e ve r the l e s s ,t h e y e n t e r e d A z e r b a i j a n , i n t e n d i n g t o p u s h t o T e h e r a n . T h et o t a l i n v a d i n g f o r c e , B r i t i s h a n d S o v i e t , was n o t more thans e v e n d i v i s i o n e q u i v a l e n t s ; f i v e Ru s s i a n a nd twoA n g l o - I n d i a n . I r a n was d e fe n d e d by f i v e d i v i s i o n s .

Reza Shah was c l e a r l y d e pe n d in g on the M i l i t a r y Wortho f h i s army t o r e s i s t t h e A n g l o - R u s s i a n i n v a s i o n . I n aspeech t o the M a j l i s c o n c e r n i n g p o s s i b l e i n v a s i o n by R us s i a na n d B r i t i s h f o r c e s , he s t a t e d " C e r t a i n l y w e c a n c o u n t o n o u rd i s c i p l i n e d f o r c e s . ..". I n a d d i t i o n , he o r d e r e d the p r e s s

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ar id t h e Government : p r op a g a n d a a ~ p a r a t ~ i so c o n c e n t r a t e o ni n f o r m i n g t h e p e o p l e o n t he w o r l d s i t u a t i o n a n d the n e e d f o ps t r e n g t h a n d r e s i s t a n c e . b

A d d i t i o n a l l y , tie r e f u s e d a m pl e o p p o r t u n i t y t o complyw i t h a l l i e d demtands a n d r e m a i n e d i n c a l c i t r a n t l p r e f e r r i n g t oo f f e r b a t t l e i n c t e a d . D e f e n d i n g w i t h f i v e I r a n i a n d i v i s i o n sa g a i n s t a c o a l i t i o n o f s e v e n R u s s i a n a n d A n gl o - I n d i and i v i s i o n s i s p e r f e c t l y r e a s o n a b l e , i f the d i v i s i o n s a r e ofc o m p a r a b l e M i l i t a r i j Wortrh. Reza S ha h c l e a r l y t h o u g h t so,s i n c e h e ha d c o n f i d e n c e i n h i s arfrty, w h i c h he h a d e x p a n d e df r o m 40 ,00B t o 1ZOrQQ0, n d h a d u s e d i t s ~ ~ c c e s s f t . ~ l l ~s hisp e r s o n a l i n s t r ~ i m e n t

T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t o s u q r e s t t h a t R e z a Shah t hoc iq t l tC h u r c h i l l was b l u f f i n g . ' G i v e n the e v i d e n t B r i t i s h a n dR u s s i a n n e e d , c on tm it me nt a n d c a p a b i l i t r l i t w o u l d have b e e nu n r e a s o n a b l e t o t h i n k the A n g l o - R u s s i a n u l t i m a t u m was aruse . Howeverl e v e n i f t h e Reza S h a h h a d t h o u y h t so1 i tc o u l d n o t have b e e n h i s i n t e n t t o o f f e r n o r e s i s t a n c e s h o u l da n i n v a s i o n oc c u r . H i s a rmy c o l l a p s e d o n c o n t a c t w i t h i t se ne m y, d e s p i t e Rera S h a h ' s t w e n t y year e f f o r t t o s t r e n g t h e ni t .

No s e r i o u s r e s i s t a n c e wa5 e n c o u n t e r e d a n d c o n r j c r i p t sd e s e r t e d i n t he t h o u s a n d s . I n ttte soc i t tt , o n e i n f a n t r yb r i g a d e c a p t u r e d Ab a d a n l w h i l e " t h e m a j o r i t y o f P e r s i a nf o r c e s e s c a p e d i n l o r r i e s " I n ttte c e n t r a l s e c t o r newK e r m a n s h a h l the d e f e n d e r s " a b an do ne d t h e i r p o s i t i o n s

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h a s t i l y " . On t h e 28thr J u s t a5 a c o n t i n u e d a t t a c k was a b o u tto b e l a u n c h e d , the I r a n i a n commander s u r r e n d e r e d . T h e t o t a lnumber o f R r i t i s h c a s u a l t i e s f o r the whole o p e r a t i o n was 22k i 1 l e d a n d 42 wounded.

1GlThere was n o p o p u la r r e s i s t a n c e , i n s p i t e o f a y e a r

l o n g program by Rera S h a h t o impress the p e o p l e w i t h then e e d t o r e s i s t a p o s s i b l e i n v a s i o n . l 1c o l l a p s e o f t h e army, the co i n p l acen cy of the p e o p l e , a n d t h el a c k o f q o v e r n a c n t r e s o l v e , Reza Shah o r d e r e d a c e a s e f i r e o nthe 2 5 t h r t h r e e d ay s a f t e r the i n v a s i o n a n d b e f o r e a n y majorb a t t l e w a s f o u g h t or o f f e r e d by the I r a n i a n s .

F a c e d w i t h the

Mohammed Reia Shah, Reza S h a h ' s s o n , p r o v i d e s the f i n a le v i d e n c e r e g ar d i n cr the poor M i l i t a r y Worth of 1941 I r a n i a nA r m y . ' . . . ex cep t for a f ew i s o l a t e d e n g a ge m e n ts , ther e s i s t a n c e o f the I r a n i a n a r me d f o r c e s was c o m p l e t e l yi n e f f e c t i v e . " 1 ' T h e I r a n i a n a rm y w a s o v e r w h e l m ed , n o tb e c a u s e o f i n f e r i c i r n n mb er s, b u t b e c a u s e o f i t chose n o t t o

p l i n e dY . T h ewas of

lower M i l i t a r y Worth t h a n i t s s i z e w o u l d i n d i c a t e . U si ng V a nC r e v e l d ' s f o rn l ul a , t h i s can o n l y o c c u r i f the F i g h t i n g P o w e r

r e s i s t . Eve n i f t r i t a l l y o ve r m at c h e d, a c o h e s i v e , d i s carmy w i l l r e s i s t v i o l e n t l y , a n d many t i n e s s c i c c e s s f ~ i lI r a n i a n army, i n , s p i t e o f i t 5 n u m er i c a l i ~ ~ p r o v e n ~ e n t s ,

is low.R eza Shah 's

i t s low F i g h t i n go f a n i n t b a l a n c e

army was o f low M i l t a r y Worth b e c a u s e o fP o w er , an d h ad low F i g h t i n g P owe r becausen the r e l a t i o n s h i p s among the e l e m e n t s of

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Von C l a ~ i s e w i t z ' s " r e m a r k a b l e t r i n i t y " . T h e arrrly had a w e a kr e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the I r a n i a n p e o p l e an d r i g i d r e l a t i o n s h i pw i t h t he g o v e r n m e n t , i n the f o r m o f the Reza S h a h as h e a d o fs t a t e a n d d e s p o t . T h e p e o p l e , g ov er n me nt r e l a t i o n s h i p was ar e f l e c t i o n the p e o p l e , a rmy r e l a t i o n s h i p , a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e da 5 w e a k . T h e F i g h t i n g P o w e r o f the a rm y was l o w a 5 a d i r e c tr e s u l t o f the p o o r l y b a l a n c e d peop le , a r m y , g o v e r n m e n tt r i n i t y .

B r i t i s h f o r c e s w i th d re w o n the 1 9 t h o f O c t o b e r ,a l t h o u g h S o v i e t f o r c e s r e m a in e d p a s t the e n d of t h e war.RE ::a S h ah d i d n o t r e s i s t B r i t i s h d e m a n d s f n r h i s a b d i c a t i o n ,a n d i n f a c t p r e f e r r e d i t t o " t a k i n g o r d e r s from some R r i t i s hC a p t a i n " . T h e MaJl i s a p p o i n t e d h i s s o n , Reza MuhammedP a h l a v i , the n e w Shah. R e z a Shah w e n t i n t o e x i l e , i.il tirrmt:e l di n S o u t h A f r i c a . T h e n e w Shah v e r y y o un g , u n p r e p a r e d t or u l e , a n d d e p e n d e n t u po n h i 5 a d v i s o r s . 13

Reia Shah h a d r e a s s e r t e d I r a n ' s i n t e n t t o c o n t r o l i t 5own d e s t i n y . A u t h o r i t a r i a n a nd n a t i o n a l i s t i c , he e x p a n d e dthe a r m y a n d e l e v a t e d the a r my ' s i n f l u e n c e t o the p o i n t t h a ti t was the s i n g l e most i m p o r t a n t g o v e r n m e n t b o d y . H e u n i f i e da n d e x p a n d e d the a r m y , u s e d i t e x t e n s i v e l y f o r e n f o r c i n gs o c i a l c h an g e , a n d e l e v a t e d the w e a l t h a n d s o c i a l s t a t : u s ofl o y a l m g i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s . H ow ev er , he n e g l e c t e d the p r i m a r yr e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw ee n I r a n ' s p e o p l e , i t 5 a r m y , a n d i t sg o v e r n m e n t . T h e r e s u l t wa5 a n army o f lo w F i g h t i n g P o we r,a n d q u e s t i o n a b l e M i l i t a r y Worth. H o w the new Shah w o u l d

.-,-,


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h a n d l e t h e i m b a l a n c e s wo ul d d e t e r m i n e the f u t u r e o f I r a n i a na r ~ r ~ y ' s i l i t a r y W o r t h , a n d u l t i m a t e l y the f u t u r e o f I r a n .

A blew Shah, A n O ld P a t t e r n .Reza Motlaanled Ptialavi the ShahanShah, s u d d e n l y a n d

u n e x p e c t e d l g o c c u p i e d the P e a c o c k T h r o n e a t the age oft w e n t y t w o . H i s m i l i t a r y e d u c a t i o n i n I r a n a n d S w i t z e r l a n dwas t h a t o f a n i m p e r i a l o f f i c e r c a d e t , a n d h a s f a t h e r h a dt a k e n w e a t c a r e t o i n s t i l l the mo n arch y i n r o y a l p r i n c e .

H i s f a t h e r , i n e x i l e i n S o u t h A f r i c a , d i e d t h r e e y e a r sa f t e r h i s a b d i c a t i o n . Muhaninied Re z a P a h l a v i h a d t o d e p e n d o nthe a d v i c e o f r e l a t i v e s , a l l i e s a n d s e n i o r m i l i t a r y a n ds o v er n m en t o f f i c i a l s . Powe r becam e more d e f u s e d a n d the rewas conipetion f o r g r e a t e r sha r e s o f the I m p e r i a l power.

T h e M a j l i s , f e a r i n g t h a t the n e w Shah w o u l d use theA r m e d f o r c e s t o e n f o r c e a despot sin^ s i m i l i a r t o h i sf a t h e r ' s , i n i t i a l l y g a i n e d more a u t h o r i t y o v e r the Armedf o r c e s throush i t s c o n t r o l o f the m i l i t a r y b u d g e t . A g e n e r a lr o l l b a c k o f Reza S h a h ' s r ef or m1 5 o c c u r r e d i n other a r e a s .r e l i g i o u s an d t r i b a l l e a d e r s r e a s s e r t e d c o n t r o l , moret r a d i t i o n a l d r e s 5 a nd anguage r e a p p e a r e d , a s w e l l a 5f a s c i s t , commcinis-t, re i g i o u s an d n a t i o n a l i s t p o l i t i c a l~ a r t i e 5 . l ~owevei-, i t wa5 the c h a l l e n g e o f a n o t h e r w ou ld bed e s p o t t h a t was t i 2 s h a p e S h a h P a h l a v i ' s a t t i t u d e a 5 r u l e r ;t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r , Mohammed Mossadeq. 15

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M o s s a d e q h a d f o r m e d a coal tp a r t i e s o f e v e r y s t r i p e , f o c u s i n go i l . He was i n i t i a l l y w i d e l y POPLI

o n o f n a t i o n a l i s t i co n the c o n t r o l o f I r a n ' sa r a n d was a p p o i n t e d P r i m e

Minsterl a t the d eman d o f the M a j l i s , i n 1951. As the o i lc r i s i s l w h i c h he h a d h e l p e d t o p r e c i p i t a t e , w o r s en ed ,M o s s a d e q d e m a n d e d more a n d more c o n t r o l . H e e v e n t u a l l y lc n n s o l i d a t e d h i s c o n t r o l by a s s u m i n g t he r o l e o f m i n i s t e r ofwar, a n d t h o u g h c h a l l e n g e d by the Shah, was s u p p o r t e d i n thes t i- e et : s by r a d i c a l r e l i g io1 .15 c l e r g y .

M o ss ad eq a t t e m p t e d t o t u r n the a r m y i n t o h i s p o l i t i c a li n E t r u n i e n t , a 5 h a d Reza Shah. H e p u r g e d the a r w o f o f f i c e r sl o y a l t o the Shah a n d p r o m o t e d those l o y a l t o h i m . T h ed e p e n d a b i l i t y o f these o f f i c e r s , h ow ev er , p ro v e d u n r e l i a b l e .

T h e p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s w o r s e n e d as M o s s a d e q l o s t s u p p o r ta n d more d i r e c t l y c h a l l e n s e d the Shah, e v e n t u a l l y d e p o s i n gh i m . I n 19531 i n a s h o r t f o u r d ay p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h theS h a h l e f t the c o u n t r y , M o s s a d e q was o v e r t h r o w n i n a co u p b yarmy o f f i c e r s he h a d p u r g e d .

T h e c h a l l e n g e p o s e d by M o s s a d e q was a f o r m a t i v e o n e f o rt he S h a h . Where the Shah h a d r e i g n e d b e f o r e , now he w o u l dru le ." T h i s was e + p e c i a l l r t r u e i n the armyl which M o s s a d e ?h a d t r i e d t o use a g a i n s t : t he Shah, b u t h ad u l t i m a t e l y p r o v edt he S h a h ' s b a s i s o f power. C l e a r l y , the army was t o b e h i sm a i n s t : a y . H o w e v e r , t h i s v i e w p o i n t was s h o r t s i g h t e d , a n d thes h i s m b e t w e e n t h e p e o p l e l the a r m y , a n d the g o v e r n m e n t l

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e v i d e n t d u r in g the r u l e o f h i s f a t h e r , a l t h o u g h i n i t i a l l ya b a t e d m , w o u ld s o o n r e 5 ~ 1 ~ 1 et s growth.

T h e S h a h b e e a n by p u r g i n g o f f i c e r s a f f i l i a t e d w i t h thec o m n ~ n n i s tTudeh (Masses ) p a r t y a n d o u t l a w e d +:he p a r t yi t s e l f , as h a d his f a t h e r . He tool:: s t e p s t o r e d u c e the powero f the M a j l i s by c.L.ipervising the n o m i n a t i o n o f c a n d i d a t e Ea n d e l e c t i o n s . He c r e a t e d s e v e r a l i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t go r g a n i z a t i o n s , the most n o t : o r i o u s o f w h i c h was SAVAb:( Sa zn la n- i I t t i l a a t v a A mn iy at -- i t i e s h v a r ; N a t - io n a lI n t e 1 1 i g e n c e a n d Cwcur i t y ( h g a n z a t o n )

SAVAK was c l o s e l r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e mi1 t a r y a n d was17

r u n ti9 h i g h r a n k i n g m i l i t a r y o f f i c c r s . These o r g a n i - a t i o n sw m - e a r r a n g e d i n EI b e w i l d e r i n g s y s t e m 5 0 t h a t e v e r y b o d y wasw a t c hi n g s om eb od r e l s e . A S a n example, a s u p e r s e c r e to r g a n i z a t i o n e n t i t l e d the S p e c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e P u re a uo p e r a t e d ou t of the S h a h s p a l a c e with the 5 0 le aim ofw o rk i ng i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f S A V A h , p r e s ~ i r r ~ a b l yo a c t a 5 t h eS h a h s w a t c h d o g o f SAVAK i t s e l f . l 9 A c o m l p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y o fthese o r g a n i z a t i o n s is w o r t h y o f a t h e s i s i n i t s e l f . S u f f i c ei t t o s a y , t h a t t h e y were a n outgrowth of the S h a h s c o n c e r nf o r i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y an d l ac k o f t r u s t .

A n o t h e r f e a t u r e o f the S h ah s l a ck o f t r u s t was thec o n t r o l o f h i s m i 1 , i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e G e ne r a l S t a f fa c t e d a5 a p l a n n i n g a nd c o o r d i n a t i n g ag e nc y , b u t n o t a s acommand b o dy . S e r v i c e C h i e f s o f S t a f f , major s u b o r d i n a t e

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c o r n n ~ a n d e r sa n d s e c u r i t y o r e a n i - a t i o n s were e n c o u r i i q e d t or e po r t : d i r e c t l y t o the Shah. ZP)

T h e r e s ~ i l t , n terms o f the C l a u s e w i t z e a n t r i n i t y , werep o t e n t : i a l l y i : a t a s t r o p h i c . A v i c i o u s c y c l e o f b r u t a lr e p r e s s i o n a n d r e s i s t a n c e f u r t h e r s e p a r a t e d the g o v e r n m e n t ,i n the p e r s o n of the Shah, f r o m the p e o p l e , a n d the p e o p l efrom the army a s the t o o l o f his o p p r e s s i o n . T h e Shah p u t ac o n s i d e r a b l e s t r a i n o n the p e o p l e , a r m y, g o v e r n m e n tr e 1a t o n 5 h i p t 1 1 a t e v e n t u a I 1y p r o d u c e d a r n aj r r e v o 11.it i on .H o w e v e r , these t r e n d s a r e n o t a comple t e a n a l ~ s i s a n dF i g h t i n g Power o f the I r a n i a n army a n d i t s M i l i t a i - y Worthr e q u i r e s a more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s .

1075 was a w a t e r s h e d y e a r f o r the I r a n i a n army.N a t i o n a l weal th s u d d e n l y i n c r e a s e d a 5 r e s u l t o f a s u s t a i n e do i l r e v e n u e w i n d f a l l s , a nd the m i l i t a r y b u d g e t d r a m a t i c a l l yi n c r e a s e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y . T h e r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n the Wual i t ya n d Q u a n t i t r of e q u i p m en t p r o v i d e s an e x c e l l e n t o p p o r t u n i t yt o e v a l u a t e the I r a n i a n a rm y i n Van C r e v e l d s t e r n ~ s , a n dw i l l p r o v i d e g r e a t e r i n s i g h t i n t o the a r m y s F i g h t i n g Po wer .

From 1973 t o 1075 I r a n i a n Gross N a t i o n a l P r o d u c t moret h a n d o u b le d a 5 a r e s u l t o f i n c r e a s e d o i l reveni . ies . D e f e n s ee x p e n d i t u r e s i n c r e a s e d more t h a n f i v e f o l d a n d d o u b le d as ap e r c e n t a g e o f the GNP i n the same p e r i o d . Most o f thee x p e n d i t u r e s were o n e q ui p m en t a n d m m d e r n iz a t i o n , s i n c em a n p o w e r r e m a i n e d aln105t c o n s t a n t . 2 1 T h e s u d d e n i n f l u : : o f


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e q u i p m e n t was i m p o s s i b l e t o a b s o r b w i t h o u t was te a n dti.irmoi 1 .

I n a d d i t i o n , the r a p i d m o d e r n i z a t i o n b r ou g h t w i t h i t ag r o w i n g d e p e n d e n c e o n f o r e i g n s o u r c e s f o r war m a t e r i e l , ac r i t i c a l w e a k n e s s i n a p r o t r a c t e d war. A l t h o ~ i g hp r o d u c t i o nof small arnls h ad b e r un a n d p l a n s f o r p r o d u c t i o n o f o t he rt ~ w 5 f e q u i p m e n t were l a i d o u t , a t the time o f ther e v o l u t i o n , I r a n was s t i l l a l n l o s t c o m p l e t e l y d e p e n d e n t ono u t s i d e 50 u r c e s f o r major items a n d t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e .

T h i s w a s f u r t h e r c o n ~ p l i c a t e d y a d e l i b e r a t e g o ve rn me ntd e c i s i o n t o p u r c ha s e e qu ip me nt f rom d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s . I nsome c a s e s , the t a n k of one c o u n t r y w a 5 mlatched w i t h them a i n gun of a n o t h e r . T h e r e 5 i . i l t i n g mi:.: o f weapons, c a l i b e r s ,a n d r e p a i r items t o s u p p o r t them was a l o g i s t i c a l n i g h t m a r e .

T h e r e 5 p o n s e r a c o m p u te r i z e d l o g i s t i c a l s y s t e m ,e x a c e r b a t e d the problem by i n c r e a s i n g the f o r e i g nd e pe n de n ce . I n a d d i t i o n , the s o p h i s t i c a t e d e l e c t r o n i c s wereeven more l i k e l y t o f a i l and 1135.5 l i k e l y t o b e i m m e d i a t e l yo r l o c a l l y r e p a i r a b l e .

I n a d d i t i o n , the c r i t i c a l s h o r t a g e o f t r a i n e d p e r s o nn e lt h r o u g h o u t the c o u n t r y was e r o d i n g a rm y morale a n d c o h e s i o n ,v i t a l e l e m e n t s o f F i g h t i n g Power. T h e e x p l o d i n g e co no my h a dc r e a t e d a w i d e s p r e a d demand f o r a l l t e c h n i c a l S k i l l s . As theg r o w i n g d e m a n d f o r c e d the C i v i l i a n wage s c a l e s u p , o f f i c e r se i t h e r l e f t the s e r v i c e , o r b e g a n t o c h a f e u n de r t her e l a t i v e l y low m i l i t a r y s a l a r i e s . - -12

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I n a n e f f o r t t o meet the s h o r t a g e , a new m i l i t a r y C l a s suias r a p i d l y e x pa n de d ; Wa r r a n t O f f i c e r s . C r i t i c a l l y i m po r t a n tto the m o d e r n i z i n g a r m y , t h e y were p r o m o t e d on the b a s i s o ft h e i r b a dl y n ee de d s k i 1 1 5 a nd t h e r e f o r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l yl o y a l t o the S h a h . As the army came t o d e p e n d more a n d moreon these t e c h n i c i a n s , t h e y b e g a n t o g a r n e r a n i m p or t a n ce f a rb e y o n d t h e i r r a n k i n c r i t i c a l t e c h n i c a l a r e a s ; n m i n t e n a n c e ,c o m p u t e r i z a t o n , c on mi .i nc at io ns , w e a po nr y a n d i n t c l l g c n c e .

T h i s c r t i c a l g r o u p was n o t p r o m o t e d o n the b a s i s o fl o y a l t y . T h e Shahr w h o r ev ie io ed a l l promot ions . t o Major, d i d3 a v e them no s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n , i n s p i t e o f t h e i r c r i t i c a li m p o r t a n c e t o t h e T h e y were a d i s t i n c t l r n e w f e a t u r ei n the I r a n i a n army a n d a f u r t h e r p o t e n t i a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n ;o f f i c e r s i n c o n t r o l of c r i t c a l n od es w i t h no s p e c i f i cl o y a l t y t o ttie ~ t l a t s . ~ ~

T h e l o y a l t y a n d c o h e s i o n o f t he b u l k of the e n l i s t ef o r c e was e r o d i n g a 1 5 0 . L a r g e l y s h o r t term c o n s c r i p t s ,e n l i s t e d s o l d i e r s ha d s c a n t a f f e c t i o n f o r the regime t ob e q i n w i t h . '' Poor ly t r e a t e d a nd p o o r l y p a i d , e v en b e f o r ethe s u d d e n i n c r e a s e c i v i l i a n w a g e s , t h e i r m o r a l e , c o h e s i o na n d l o y a l t y s u f f e r e d e ve n more t h a n t he o f f i c e r C o r p s .

As an i r o n i c twis t , e f f o r t s t o make them more r e l i a b l ei n a n i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y r o l e h a d the o p p o s i t e e f f e c t .C c m s c r i p t s were r o u t i n e l y s t a t i o n e d i n a r e a s o u t s i d e t h e i rn a . t i v e r e g i o n . T h i s was t h o u g h t t o assure t h e i r l o y a l t y i nthe e v e n t o f a l o c a l i n s u r r e c t i o n . H ow eve r, the young

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s o l d i e r , l o n e l y a n d s e p a r a . t e d f ron t h i s f a m i l y , f r i e n d s , a n dc o r o a u n i t y , t u r n e d t o the l o c a l n105que a s the o n l y a r e a her e c o s n i z e d iand f e l t c o n l f o r t a b l e in ." H ow ev er , a s the c l e r g yi n c r e a s i n g l y o p p o se d the Shahr the yoLi i iy c o n s c r i p t e d s o l d i e rh e a r d an e v e r l o u d e r a n d more i n s i s t e n t b e a t o f c r i t c i s m a n dc o n d e m n a t i o n o f the S ha h ' s regime. When the R e v o l u t i o n came,many e n l i s t e d j o i n e d i n the r e v o l t , some t u r n i n g o n t h e i ro f f i c e r s a n d k i 1 1 n g them. - ',

B e t w e e n 1975 a n d the r e v o l u t i o n , these p r o b l e m s g r e wmoi-e p r o n o u n c e d . I n s p i t e o f e n o r m o u s i m p r o v e m e n t i n theQ u a l i t y a n d I j l u an t it y o f e q ci ip n le n t, i t c o u l d n o t r e s i s t ther e v o l u t i o n when i t came. When the S h a h ' s a r m y i s e v a l u a t e d ,i t b eco m es c l e a r t h a t i t s M i l i t a r y Worth was l o w e r than i ta p p e a r e d . I n V a n C r e v e l d ' s f o r n u l a t i o n , t h i s c a n o n l y o c c u rwhen t he F i g h t i n g P ower i s v e r y l o w .

T h e p e o p l e , a r m y , g ov cr nm te nt l i n k a g e was so w e a k a n d soi m b a l a n c e d t h a t v i o l e n t , t o t a l r e v o l u t i o n o c c u r r e d . T o thee x t e n t t h a t w e can g a i n i n s i g h t i n t o the F i g h t i n g Power o fa n army by a n a l y z i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w ee n the p e o p l e ,the a r m y , a n d the y o v e r n m e n t , the F i g h t i n g Power was a l s ov e r y low. I n the f i n a l a n a l y s i s , the arrrty d i d n o t o n l y n o to v e r c o m e the r e v o l u t i o n , b u t p a r t i c i p a t e d i n i t . T h e f i n a lm i l i t a r y d e c l a r a t i o n o f " n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e " m ar k ed the e n d o fthe P a h l a v i r e i g n a n d b e g i n i n g of the I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c . 28

U n d er d i f f e r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , c o u l d the I r r i p e r i a lI r a n i a n Grnirnd F o r c e s h a v e e x h i b i t e d g r e a t e r M i l i t a r y W o r t h ?

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S i n c e I i n t e n d t o c o m p a r e the M i l i t a r y Worth o f the S h a h ' sa rm y t o t h e army o f the I s l a r n i c R e p u b l i c , ttl qnes t io r i i s a ni m p o r t a n t o ne . I f I r a q h ad i n v a d ed b e f o r e t h e v e v o l u t i o n ,w o u l d the I r a n i a n arm y s t i l l h a v e b e e n so w e a k ?

T h e q u e s t i o n i s u n a n s w e r a b l e i n a n y m e a n i n g f u l way. T h er e a l e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s d i d n o t h a v e t h i s e f f e c t . I f o n e h a dm a t e r i a l i z e d , the s i h i s n ~ b e t w e e n the p e n p l e , the army, a n dthe q o v e r n m e n t w o u l d b e a s s e r i o u s a n d the w e a k n es s e s i nm i l i t a r y c o h e s i o n , mora le , a n d l o y a l t y w o u ld h a v e a l s or e m a i n e d . I t w o ul d b e n ec es 5a r- y t o as51..1rr1ewakj ther e v o l u t i o n a n d i t s c a ~ i s e s e f o r e we a g a i n h a v e a n I r a n i a narm y o f r e s p e c t a b l e F i g h t i n g Power a n d M i l i t a r y Worth. T h i sa s s u m p t i o n i s s u c h a d e p a r t u r e from r e a l i t y t h a t a n a l y s i sb ec om es s p e c : ~ i l a t i v e nessb io r k w i th o u t u t i l i t y .

A d d i t i o n a l l y , s uc h a p r o p o s a l b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n . I n thef i n a l a n a l y s i s the M i l i t a r y Worth o f t h e army was 5 0 lowt h a t i t c o u l d n o t r e s i s t t h e r e v o l u t i o n . I t w a s o f lowM i l i t a r y Worth i n s p i t e o f r ecen t l a v i s h a u g m w n ta t io n s i nQ u a l i t y a n d ( 3 u a n t i t y o f e q u ip n le n t a n d b e c a u s e o f poorF i g h t i n g Pow er . I t w a s of poor F i g h t i n g Powe r a s a r e s u l t ofb a s i c weaknesses i n t h e p e o p l e , a r n l y , g o v e r n m e n tr e l a t i o n s h i p a n d e r o s i o n i n mi 1 i t a r y c o h e s i o n , l o y a l t y a n dmora le .

T h e e f f e c t o f the r e v o l u t i o n o n the M i l i t a r y Worth oft h e I r a n i a n a r m y i s r e v e a l e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r on i t sp e r f o r m a n c e i n the I r a n - I r a q w a r .

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ENDNOTESCHAPTER TWO

1 . S i r W i l l i a m Sl im, D e f e a t I n t o Victorcr , ( N e w Y o r k :Da vid McKay , In c . , 19-51 ), p . 3.2. R i c h a r d F. N yr op , e d . , I r a n : A C o u n t r c r S t u d q , p .39m.3 . I b i d . , P. 5 4 .4. I b i d .5 . W i r i s t i m S p e n c e r C h u r c h i l l I T h e S e c o n d W o r l d War,

V o l 1 1 1 , 1);~ r an d A l l i a n c e , (Rostori: H ou qh to n M i f f l i n Co.,1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 4 8 2 - 4 8 3 .6. Georgi: L.enczo1~151:i, e d . , k a n u n d e r the P a h l a v i $ . ,( S t a n f o r d , C a l i f o r n i a : Hoover I n s t i t u t i o n P r e s s . , 1 9 7 8 ) , p .

49 .7. W i n s t o n S C h i . i r c h i 1 1 , Ihe S e c o g d W o r l d War, P.4 0 0 .8. R i c h a r d F. N yr op , e d . , I r a n : A S t u d c r , p . 3 9 19. W i n s t n n S. C t w r c h i l l , T h e S e c o n d W o r l d War, P .4 8 1 .10. I b i d , , , p . 4 8 3 .1 1 . Georqe L e n c z o w s k i , p a n Under. t h e P a t l l a v i 5 r P.49 .1 2 . Mohartmed Reia Shah P a h l a v i , , p m i i o r Mu.

C oun t rc r , ( N e w Y o r k : : Mcgraw h i l l . , 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 70.1 3. R i c h a r d F. N y r o p . , e d . , I r a n : A C oun t rc r S tudcr , P

5 51 4. I b i d . , P 60.1 5. I b i d .1 6. I b i d . , p. 62.1 7 . Er va nc J A b r a h a m i a n , I r a n : P e t i o e e n TWO R e v o I i . i t i o ~ ,( P r i n c e t o n , N e w J e r s e y : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press , 1 9 8 2 ) - PP.

4 19-420 .1 8. T h e c o n o m l i s t , 1 1 N ov em be r, 1 97 8 .9 P. 13 .

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19. R i c h a r d F. N y r o p , e d . , I ran: A Count:r l i Studl i , P.373.20. I b i d . , P. 401.21 . A n t h o n y H C o r d e a r n a n , " T h e Gcilfnd the S e a r c hf o r S t - r a t e g i c S t a b i l i t q , p . 726.2 2 . R i c h a r d F. F ly ro p, e d . , I r a n : A C O L I I ~ t c t dg , P.23. I b i d . , p . 401 .24. N i k k i R . K e d d i e , R o o t s o f R e v o l u t i o r p n n .

4 1 0 .

-n t e r p r A i v e His to r id o f M od er n I r a n , (New Haven, Coni iec t ic : t . i t :Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) , p . 6.2 5 J o h n M. S m i t h , "Where was the S h a h ' s A r m y ? " , p .

7 3 .2 6 . N i k k i R . K e d d i e , Roots o f R e v n l u t i a n , p . 7.27. J o h n . M . S mi t h , "Where was the S h a h ' s Arnl j ?" , PP.83-84.29. I b i d . , p . 90.

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C h a p t e r T h r e e

T he P o s t - r e v n l u t i o n a r y Army i n the I r a n - I r a q War

" I f y o u w a n t t o o v e r c o m e your enemy you must match y o u re f f o r t a g a i n s t h i 5 power o f r e s i s t a n c e , w h i c h can b ee x p r e s s e d a5 the p r o d u c t : o f two i n s e p a r a b l e f a c t o r s , v i z ,t h e t o t a l means a t h i s d i s p o s a l , a n d the s t r e n g t h o f h i sw i l l . T h e e x t e n t of the means a t h i 5 d i s p o s a l i s a rrlatter,tt1oLigt.l n o t e x c l ~ ~ ~ - i ~ v e l y ,f f i g u r e s , a n d s h o ~ ~ l dem e a s u r a b l e . P . u t the s t r e n g t h of h i s w i l l i s much l e s s easgt o d e t e r m i n e a n d c 4 3 n o n l y b e g a u g e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y by thes t r e n g t h o f the m o . t i v e a n i m a t i n g i t . "

C a r l V o n C l a u s e w i t -

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C h a p t e r th ree i s s u b d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u b s e c t i o n s ; as t r a t e g i c o v e r v i e w o f t h e c o n f l i c t , e v e n t s , a n d f a c t o r sl e a d i n g c i p t o t h e war, a n o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l a n a l r s i s o fs e l e c t e d I r a n i a n m i l i t a r y a c t i o n s , a n d a n o v e r v i e w a n da n a l y s i s o f t h e I r a n i a n a rmy5 p e r f o r m a n c e .

I t i s t h e i n t e n t o f C h a p t e r t h r e e t o s h o w t h a t thep e r f o r m a n c e of the I r a n i a n a rm y i n the I r a n - I r a q wari n d i c a t e s t h a t i t i s a n arrrly o f c o n s i d e r a b l e M i l i t a r y Worthi n s p i t e o f low l e v e l s o f t h e Q u a l i t y arid h a n k i t 3 ofe qc ii pf rl en t b u t b e c a u s e of c o n s i d e r a b l e F i g h t i n g P o w e r . I ft h i s i s s o , i t s t r o n g l y i m p l i e s t h a t the Revoli.i+:ion was +:hep r o x i m a t e cacise f o r t h e c h a n g e i n F i s h t i n s P ow e r . I t t h e nb ec om es t h e p u r p o s e of Chapter f o u r t o a n a l y z e theR e v o l u t i o n a n d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o n the a r m y .

T h e I r a q i d e c i s i o n t o go t o war was b a s e d o n thei n t e n t : t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e of t h e a p p a r e n t l y u n s t e a d yg o v e r n n e n t i n I r a n , g a i n c o n t r o l o f t h e S h a t t a 1 A r a b waterway ( c o n t r o l l e d by I r a n , a n d I r a q s s t r a t e g i c l i n k t o theP e r s i a n G u l f ) , a s s e r t i t 5 d o m i na n c e i n t h e r e g i o n , a n dp e r h a p s a nn e x t h e e t h n i c s 1 y Arab; o i l r i c h K h u z e s t a np r o v i n c e . She d l 5 0 e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n w ou l dd e s t a b i l i z e the r e a c t i o n a r y I s l a m i c r e p u b l i c a n d p u t a ne a r l y e n d t o t h e t h r e a t o f I s l a m i c f i. in da ni en ta l i 5 t r e v o l u t i o nt h r o u g h o u t : the Mos1er11w o r l d . T o h e l p c a r r y o u t i t s i n i t i a lm i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s , I r a q e l i c i t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i r e c t a nd

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m o n e t a r y s 1 . 1 ~ ~ 0 r tr o m the P e r s i a n G ~ i l f a n d o t he r A r a bn a t i o n s b ec a u s e , she p o i n t e d o u t w i t h r e g u l a r i t y , she f o u g h tan enemy t h a t t h r e a t e n e d thern a l l . A l t h o u q h no d i r e c te v i d e n c e e x i s t s t h a t Iraq was e n c o u ra g e d i n i t s a d v e n t u r i s mor s o ~ i g h ta d v i c e i n t h i s r e g a r d , i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e yc o n d o n e d t h c ? a c t i o n .

Iraq h s d a n o t h e r c l e a r i n t e n t w h i c h can o n l y b e t e rm e da n o v e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f i t s sense o f i t s r i g h t f u l d e s t i n r asl e a d e r o f the A r ab w o r ld . A f t e r the Camp D a v id a c c o r d s ,E g y p t , the p r e v i o i . . i s l e a d e r o f the A r a b s t a t e s , was r e j e c t e dw i t h o u t a c l e a r s ~ i c c : e s s o r . Here w as an o p p o r t u n i t y f o rSaddam H u s s e i n , p r e s i d e n t o f Iraq, t h a t s e e m e d t o h i m t o betoo g o o d t o miss: a w e a k , b e l l i g e r e n t , a n d t horoLigh1yd i s l i k e d n o n - -A rab n a t i o n ; a l o n g term a n d a r g u a b l yJ u s t i f i a b l e g ru d g e ; the p r o m i s e o f a p e r m a n e n t r e g i o n a lpower r e a l i g n m e n t i n I r a q s a d v a n t a g e ; a n d the g l i t t e r i n gp o s s i b i l i t y o f l e a d e r s h i p o f the Arab n a t i o n s on the w o r l ds t a g e .

A d d i t i o n a l l y , the a r e a o f p l a n n e d i n v a s i o n l o o k e de s p e c i a l l y v u l n e r a b l e . K h u z e s ta n , a l s o known d 5 A r a b i s t a n ,wa5 a t l e a s t Wi A r a b , a n d i t s o i l w o rk er s h a d r e c e n t l yr e a c t e d v i o l e n t l y i n o p p o s i t i o n t o the I s l a m i c g a v e r n m e n t sa t t e m p t s t o i n f l u e n c e o p e r a t i o n s i n the o i l f i e l d s a n dr e f i n e r i e s . Hi.issi?in m ad e much o f the r a c i a l f a c t o r i np u b l i c s t a t e m e n t s a n d m a y h a v e o v e r e s t i m a t e d i t 5 impact o ni d e o l i J g i c a 1 g roun d ;. That K h u z e s t a n w a s a l E o almost

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e x c l u s i v e l y S h i i t r . was d i s c o u n t e d , s i n c e i t wa5 f e l t thee t h n i c l o y a l t r w o u l d p r o vf ? d o m i n a n t . T h e r e was r,owe reasont o b e l i e v e t h i s . T he c o r r e s p o n d i n g b o r d e r a r e a o f I r a q wasa l s o S h i i t e as was the I r a q i e n l i s t e d f o r c e . I f r a c i a ll o r a l t y was the don1inan. t f a c t o r i n I r a q , t h e n , the i d e o l o g ys u g g e s t e d i t w o u l d b e d o m i n a n t i n K h i. i i es t a n.

I n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , H us se in r , r e a c h e x c e e d e d h i 5g r a s p . L i k e m a n q o t h e r d i c t a t o r s uihose sen se o f d e s t i n yd r o v e thew t o mi 1 i t a r y a d v e n t u r i 5 ~ 1 , e c o u l d n o t 1:uril dOwn as e e m i n g g n l d e n o p p o r t u n i t y .

I r a n w a 5 r e g j o n a l l r i s o l a t e d e ve n b e f o r c t:her e v o l u t i o n . I t s c l ~ i m s y a n d i n e f f e c t i v e use of power a g a i n s tt h e D h of a r r e b e l s i n On~ari a n d s u p p o r t of t h e K u r d i s h r e b e la g a i n s t I r a q , i t s h ea vy h a n d e d n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h I r a q o v e rt h e S h a t t e l A r a b i n 1975, a n d i t 5 p a t e r n a l i s t i c a t t i t u d etoward t h e G ul f v i r t u a l l y g u a r a n t e e d s u f f i c i e n t a n i n ~ o a i t y nthe r e g i o n .

S i n c e the I s l a m i c r e v o l u t i o n t h i n g s h a d g o t t e nd e c i d e d l y worse. I r a n h e l d , w i t h m a l i c i o u s i n t e n t , A m er ic anEmbassy a n d m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l f o r r a ns o m; the I r a n i a nR e v o l u t i o n a r y P a r t y ( I R F ) was e r r a t i c a l l g a n d b r u t a l l yr o o t i n g o u t o p p o s i t i o n w h i l e c o m p e t i t o r s f o r f o r I K Pl e a d e r s h i p f o u g h t a mo ng 5t them~selves. T h e I R P o p e n l y i n c i t e dI s l a m i c p e o p l e s e v e r y w h e r e , e s p e c i a l l y I r a q i s , t o r e v o l ta g a i n s t t h e i r c o r r u p t 1 e ~ i d e i - s . ~T o m a k e mat ters wor~c? , itsa nn o u n c e d i n t e n t i o n t o u s e o i l t o g a i n c o n c e s s i o n s a n d a s a

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t o o l o f i n f l r m c e i n i t s f o r e i g n p o l i c y a r s e n a l , a s s u r e dr e g i o n a l and g l o b a l e n m i t y . However, i t r e m a i n e d i n O PEC,a n d j o i n e d w i t h S y r i a , S o u t h Y e m e n , a n d L i b g a i n t h e" S t e a d f a s t n e s s f r o n t " , a g r o u p o f l i k e m in de d r a d i c a l5 t a t e s .

P o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y I r a n i a n i n t e n t t o wa r d I r a q i s mored i f f i c u l t to f a t h om . A l t h o u g h a low i n t e n s i t y b o r d e r war h a db e e n i n p r o g r e s s t h r o ug t l t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , t t le rc? was n ot r o o p r e d e p l o y m e n t o th e r t h a t f o r i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t r .

K h o m e i n i ' s s t r a t e g i c p e r s p e c t i v e a p p e a r s t o h a v e a nHominem q u a l i t y . He made a nu m b e r o f t h e a t e n i n g s t a t e m e n t sd i r e c t e d a t the p e r s o n o f S addam H ~ t s s e i n , c a l l i n y h im a t o n ep o i n t the " d w a r f p h a r o a t t " . 6 H e a l s o d i r e c t e d p e r s o n a la t t a c i : : s a t other l e a d e r s whom h e t h o u g h t o p p o s e d h i m, b o t he x t e r n a l l y a n d i n t e r n a l l y , i n c l u d i n g the S a u d i l e a d e r s a f t e r1982. ' K h o m e i n i ' s Ad Hornginem f o r e i g n p o l i c y a p p r o a c h wasl a t e r i l l u s t r a t e d d u r i n g t h e a t t empt t o n e g o t i a t e a t r u c eb e tm e en I r a n a n d I r a q : h e i n s i s t e d t h a t H u s s e i n b e p u t o nt r i a l a n d b e h e a d e d b e f o r e an a r m i s t i c e b e c o n c l u d e d . T h e k e yt o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f I r a n may be t h r o u g h a p e r s o n a l

ah .e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the A y a t o l

G e og r ap h y o f t h e B a t t l e a r e aT h e I r a q - I r a n b o r d e r s t r e t c h e s r o u g h l y 1500 tii lometer s

f r o n t the P e r s i a n G u l f i n t h e S o u t h t o the c om m on Tur k i shb o r d e r . I t t r a n s i t s s wa mp la n ds , p l a i n s , d e s e r t an d m ou n t a i n

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w a s t e l a n d . I n t h e s o u t h e r n b o r d e r r e g i o n t h a t has s e e n t h eg r e a t e s t f i g h t i n g , the t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s f r om j ~ ~ s telowf r e e z i n g i n J a n u a r y i n the a i d - n i n e t i e s i n J u l y . W i n t e rr a i n f a l l s a r e q u i t e s e v e r e , w i t h a n a n n u a l r a i n f a l l o f a b o u t20 i n c h e s . S i n c e t he T i g r i s and E u p h r a t e s , w h i c h d r a i n t h ec e n t r a l I r a q i b a s i n , a n d t h e K a ru n r i v e r , o u t of the I r a n i a nZaqros mounta in . . , d r a i n s i n t o the S h a t t a1 A r a b , the r i v e rr oi .. it in el j f l o o d s , c o v e r i n g a b r o a d e x p a n s e o f l o w l y i n gs wa mp la nd s . S e a s o n a l r a i n s c a n v a r y a 5 ~ I L I C ~ I s 40%, t lc .weverra n d d u r i n g t he f a l l o f 1980 r a i n s were u n u s u a l l y h e a v y . T h eI r a n i a n o i l f i e l d s a r e f i f t y t o 200 miles e a s t o f the b o r d e ri n the s o u t h of t < h u : : e = t a n p r o v i n c e ; t he I r a q i f i e l d 5 a r e 100t o 2012 miles w e s t o f t h e b o r d e r i n the N o r t h a t t i i r k u k .

I n t h e N o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l s e c t o r s l t h e Zagros r u n sa l o n g the I r a n i a n s i d e of the b o r d e r c r e a t i n g a f o r m i d a b l eo b s t a c l e . T h e I r a q i t e r r a i n i n t h e c e n t r a l s e c t o r i s rrlcichf l a t t e r a l l the way t o B ag h da d , a l t h o u g h i t is morem o u n t a i n ou s i n t c ~ i r d i s t a n a 5 c l o s e r t o T u r k e y . Thesea r e r e l a t i v e l y a r i d , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e w o o d l an d 5 i nhisher a l t i t u d e v a l l e y s a n d l a r g e c u l t i v a t e d a n d i r r

8a r e a s f r o m K i r k u i r to t he S y r i a n b o r d e r i n the west.

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T h e S h a t t a 1 A r a b l o r the Shore o f the A r a b s , ~ l a r j 5c e n t r a l r o l e i n the e v e n t s l e a d i n g LIP to t:he w a r . T h e S h a t t :i s a m e a n de r i n g c h a n n e l , c o m b i n i n g t h e T i g r i s , E u p h r a t e s a n dK ar un r i v e r s , a n d m a k e s LIP the lower b o r d e r b e tw e e n I r a n an d


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I r a q . I t i s f r o m o n q u a r t e r t o three q u a r t e r s of a m i l e w i d ea n d s i l t 5 LIP r a p i d l y i f i t i s n o t k e p t c l e a r .

P o s s e s s i o n a n d c o n t r o l o f the S h a t t h a s r e m a i n e d a b o n e; if c o n t e n t im i s i n c e i t wa5 u s e d as a d e m a r c a t i o n , l o w e v e r ,the c u r r e n t d e b a t e be ga n i n 1 9 1 4 . T h e 1 9 1 4 t r e a t y , c l a r i f i e di n 1 9 3 7 , g a v e the b u l k o f the S h a t t t o I r a q , t h e n u n d erB r i t i s h c o n t r o l . T h i s g a v e the I r a q i s the p o t e n t i a l o fs e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t i n s I r a n i a n p a s s a g e f r o m i t 5 m a j o r o i lr e f i n e r y i n Abadan t o t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . I r a n c o n t i n u e d t o~ i s e h e S h a t t w i t h o u t ch an ge , b u t a l s o p l an n ed a nd b u i l ts e v e r a l p i p e l i n e s t o p o i n t s lower on the G L I I ~ . n 1 9 6 9 , I r a qt o l d I r a n i t might c l o s e the S h a t t t o I r a n i a n s h i p p i n g . I n1 97 1, d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s were s e v e r e d a n d a p e r i o d ofr i .ii n g t e n s i o n e n su e d .

W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of a t e m p o r a r y r a p p r o a c h m e n t d u r i n gt h e 1 9 7 3 A r a b - I s r a e l i war, f o r c e s a nd a c t i o n s o n t h e b o r d e rc o n t i n u e d t o b u i l c l , c u l m i i n a t i o n g i n s e v e r a l b o r d er c l a s h e si n 1 97 4 a n d o v e r t 5 u p p o r t o f the K u r d i s h r e b e l s i n I r a q byI r a n . I n 1 9 75 , a t r e a t y was w o r k ed out u n d e r A l g e r i a na u s p i c e s d i v i d i n g the S h a t t a t the m i d p o i n t o f the d e e p e s tc h a n n e l , ( t h e tha lu ieg l i n e ) , a nd e n d i n g I r a n i a n s u p p o r t f o rthe T h e l r a q i n e g o t i a t o r was S a dd a a H ~ i s s e i n , l a t e rt o become the f iv -s t I r a q i c i v i l i a n h ea d o f s t a t e , a n di n i t i a t o r o f the I r a n - I r a q w a r.

F o l l o w i n g t h E s a c c o r d i n 1 9 7 5 , b o t h I r a q a nd I r a nc o n t i n u e d t o imprcrve t h e i r m i l i t a r y f o r c e s ; I r a q l a r g e l y

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b e c a u c c i t s poor p e r f o r m a n c e i n the 1973 A r a b - I s r a e l i wa r la n d I r a n as p a r t o f i t s e m e r g i n g a g e n d a of s e c u r i t y f o r theG ul f r e g i o n . A more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f the f o r c ec o n ~ p a r i s o n b e t w e e n the two p ow er s b e f o r e the war f o l l o w s .

B e f o r e t h e war c or rm en ce dl I r a q a p p e a r e d o n t he v e r g e o fa s c en d a n c y i n the P e r s i a n G u l f r e g i o n . I t h a d a w e l le q u i p p e d armq a n d A i r Force , p o w e r fu l a l l i e s , a nd ac e n t r a l i z e d g o ve rn m e n t i n f i r m c o n t r n l .

T h e I r a q i armg was c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e a g o o dc a p a b i l i t y l h a v i n q u n de r go n e i n t e n s e s c r u t i n y ,r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , a nd t r a i n i n g f o l l o w i n g i t s l a c l r l ~ i s t e rp e r f o r m a n c e i n the 1 97 3 A r a b - I s r a e l i War. By 1 9 8 0 +:he armyh a d more t h a n d o u b l e d i n s i z e . S p e c i a l e m p h a s i s IUAC g i v e n t oa r mo r e d a n d a r m or ed i n f a n t r y f o r c e s , a i r d e f e n s e l a n t i - t a n k lA i r F o r c e s a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n u n i t s . Saddanl H u s s e i n , ac i v i l i a n w h o had come t o power i n 1 9 79 t h r o u y h a p r o t r a c t e di n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e w i t h p o w e r fu l r e v o l u t i o n a r y m i l i t a r yl e a d e r s , h a d c o n s o l i d a t e d h i s c o n t r o l o v e r the m i l i t a r yf o r c e s .

T h e s e c u l a r R a a t h p a r t y h a d m a d e u s e o f the i n c r e a s e dp r o f i t a v a i l a b l e t h r ou g h o i l r e v e n u e s a n d the s t a n d a r d o fl i v i n g h ad i mp ro ve d. A d d i t i o n a l l y l the S o v i e t U n i o n was am i l i t a r y a l l y o f l o ng s t a n d i n g l h a v i n g s u p p l i e d the I r a q ia r r n y s i n c e the a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f the Hashemi te K i ng i n 1958.I t h a d f u l l y s u p p o r t e d I r a q s i n v o l v e m e n t i n t he 1 9 6 7 a n d1 9 7 3 wars w i t h I s r a e l a n d w a s c l o s e l y a l l i e d p o l i t i c a l l y

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w i t h t h e P e i ' a t h p a r t r a n d i t s g e n e r a l g o a l s : p a n - a r a b i s m ,s o c i a l ism, ; ~ n t i - c o l o i i i a l i s r r ~ , a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o fI s r a e l . 10

A c c u r a t e f o r c e c o m p a r i s o n s a r e a l w a y s d i f f i c u l t . T h i swas p a r t i c u l a r l y t rue i n I r a n i n 1980 w h i c h wa5 i n a s t a t eo f chaos a n d u n r e c e p t i v e t o i n q u i r i e s o f a n y k i n d . T h ef i q u r e s ~ i s e i j ere come f r o m the I n s t i t u t e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a la n d S t r a t e q i c S t u d i e s i n Lon d on a n d a r e t h e rr~ost r e l i a b l e ,a l t h o u g h d i f f i c u l t o f v e r i f y o u t s i d e of c l a s s i f i e d S O C ~ ~ C F S .A c , i l a u s e w i t z s t a t e s i n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y q u o t a t i o n , m e a n sa r e l a r g e l y a matter o f f i g u r e s a nd e a s i l y m e a s u r e d ; t h es t r e n g t h o f I r a n ' s w i l l , ( i n Van C r e v e l d ' s terms, " F i g h t i n sP o w e r " ) is . th e b a s i c t h e s i s q u e s t i o n .

T a b l e 3.1 shows s e l e c t e d e l e m e n t s f o r cornspar ison i n1900, 1981, a n d 1982. T h e s e f i g u r e s cover the p e r i o d Iw i l l f o c u s o n i n tmy a n a l y s i s o f the w a r .

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iranian operations in the iran iraq war

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