issues in social science reseaech-revised

8/19/2019 Issues in Social Science Reseaech-revised

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Issues in Social ScienceResearch


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Introduction

8-Sep-15

Research ought to culminate into philosophy thatwould guide action and practice. But seldom weaddress to the philosophy of research and hence

hardly arrive at any philosophy. Of course, nophilosophy is nal. But, the pursuit of ultimatephilosophy is a never ending process, whichresearch consistently pursues. In this process,

however, certain issues crop up. This addressattempts to highlight them.


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8-Sep-15

Issues• Ontological Issues

a) Factual Vs Phenomenological

b) Realism Vs Relativism

• Epistemological Issues

• ethodological Issues

a) Monism Vs Dualism

b) Eclecticismc) Positivism Vs Anti-Positivism

d) Empirical Vs Interpretive

e) Obective Vs !ubective

") #uantitative Vs #ualitative

• !onstructivism as a dilemma "etween theory andpractice

• Ethnography #s multiculturalism

• Ethical Issues

• Research $esign and Report %riting


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Ontological Issues

8-Sep-15

• The state of &"eing' is a (uestion "y itself in research. It

cuts across a myriad of possi"ilities a"out reality, factand truth. In essence all researches are meant to ndwhat e)ists. Therefore, there is nothing called invent,and everything is &attempted' to "e discovered.

• %hat we state as real, fact, and truth is not thea"solute or o"vious. It is the way one sees andcomprehends them, claiming a su"*ective discovery,which is held as valid until proved to the contrary. Truthcan "e untrue+ fact can "e nonfact, reality can "ereally not real. Therefore, that which apparently &e)ists'need constant pro"ing.


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Ontological Issues

8-Sep-15

It is &dou"t' and not &faith' which sows the seed ofontological (uestioning. Shall we "e dou"tingthomases always deconstructing the esta"lishedphilosophy or repose faith in the e)isting facts,

truths and realities constructed over a period oftime as accepted -nowledge sometimes claimedto "e common sense+ which in fact is uncommon/0

%here the severance from the e)isting shall "egin

and why and how and what the new e)istence oneis searching for 1 are all ontological issues.


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Ontological Issues !ontd..

8-Sep-15

2ny true research pro"ing into the &"eing' shallloo- into the philosophical moorings, physiologicale)istence, and di3erent contours as di3erently

viewed "y fellow researchers of the past andpresent. This is the rst purpose of any Review of4iterature, which gives rise to the epistemologicalissues "ehind research.


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5actual #s 6henomenological

8-Sep-15

6henomenon and fact get distinguished on the"asis of o"servation and e)istence. 2nd thisdistinction also gets "lurred on the same "asis.

That which e)ists only can "e o"served. But whatis o"served may not e)ist truly. This is where thedilemma emerges "etween fact andphenomena.

Therefore in research, phenomena is pro"ed and

interpreted as a means to analy7e facts+ "ut, thefact never gets captured in its conclusive andnal shape.


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5actual #s 6henomenological

!ontd..

8-Sep-15

This distortion, deviance and detraction of factfrom o"served phenomena su"scri"es torelentless and new endeavor for research.

The ontological dilemma emerges from this issue

and epistemological evidences are constantlysearched for esta"lishing the elusive truth.

$ialectics, deconstruction theorists, in their&thesisantithesissynthesis' model and &linguistic

trap' model respectively have captured the factversus phenomena structure.


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Realism #s Relativism

8-Sep-15

E)tended from the previous logic, this dimension alsoaddresses to the (uestion of the degree up to whichrelativity in8uences the understanding andinterpretation of the reality.

The reality has no other option than to su"*ect itself tothe su"*ective perception of the o"server. 6erceptionsdi3er due to the cognitive and intellectualidiosyncrasies typical to each individual organism inthe situation of reality.

9evertheless, the ultimate goal of research "eing thesearch for truth, the relativistic interpretation of thereal is pro*ected as truth, though tentatively.


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Realism #s Relativism !ontd..

8-Sep-15

$ou"t on what is &found' and on the so called&esta"lished truth'+ and not faith in it, is theseed of consistent research.

Relativism in fact is the main propeller of

research, to whose forces realism spontaneouslysu"*ects itself.

Behind these analyses the triumph of truth islimited to the acceptance of the relativemindset.


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Epistemological Issues

8-Sep-15

It is the science of -nowledge ac(uisition, dissemination,and development. It entails to -now what we -now andhow we came to -now. It is an attempt to nd the&meaning' "ehind the so called reality. There could "e

many meanings of the same or similar loo-ingphenomena, there "y opening many frontiers of-nowledge.

O"*ectivist epistemology conceives of a reality "eyond theconscious. It "elieved that, nature e)isted even "efore the

homo sapiens came into "eing or attached value loadedand relativist meaning to the already e)isting.


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Epistemological Issues !ontd..

8-Sep-15

!onstructionist epistemology, contradicts thea"ove "y strongly contending that there could"e no meaning without the mind. eaning is

not discovered "ut constructed. It is theoutcome of o"*ectsu"*ect interactive interplay.

Su"*ective epistemology is not same asconstructionist epistemology as it may emerge

out of dreams, superstitions, religious faith andsuch other idiosyncrasies typical to a person.


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Epistemological Issues !ontd..

8-Sep-15

These types however cannot "e compartmentali7edas -nowledge can ultimately "e gained, tested,revised, and accepted "y the interplay "etween thethree approaches.

:nowledge need not "e always tested on novelty,nor "y its a"solute precision and o"viousness.

There could "e humanly fashioned ways ofac(uiring, disseminating and developing

-nowledge. This is where the research has a role.


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ethodological Issues

8-Sep-15

ethods are many "ut not foolproof as they aredeveloped "y human -nowledge which could "eerroneous and myopic to certain realities.Researchers tend to see, listen and record whatthey want to see, listen and record.

But it shall not discourage us to developmethods as they are essential for any organi7edactivity including research as a -nowledgepursuing e3ort.

ethods cut across sources of data for pro"inginto the present ontology and availa"le as wellas possi"le epistemology.


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ethodological Issues !ontd..

8-Sep-15

!ase study, survey, e)ploratory, e)perimental,empirical, in situ, e) postfacto methods areavaila"le for use depending on the nature ofresearch pro"lem and design.

Research pro"lem is the "eginning of anyscientic research where the (uestions forpro"ing are identied "y com"ining ontologicalcontours and conte)ts and epistemologicalconcepts. O"*ectives and hypotheses emerge

from e)tensive and intensive review ofliterature.


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ethodological Issues !ontd..

8-Sep-15

Research design helps in locating the sources ofdata, identifying the sample structure, developingthe tools of data collection, and adopting theframewor- for (ualitative and (uantitativeanalysis.

Research results culminate into a reportcomprising the purpose, scope, analysis andndings of the study. 2ny good research shall "efactual leading to philosophical and theoreticalconstructs for further testing.


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onism #s $ualism

8-Sep-15

%ith distinctions "etween physical;natural

sciences and social;human sciences the so

called Sciences #s 2rts/, the issues of monism

and dualism and positivism and anti

positivism have "een cropping up.

2ugust !omte advocated for monism meaning

methodology is one for all sciences. a)

%e"er on the contrary vouched for dualismmeaning two sets of methodology for natural

and human sciences.


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onism #s $ualism !ontd..

8-Sep-15

Ontological )ity and epistemological precision

are considered more stronger in physical;natural

sciences than in human;social sciences.

The multidisciplinary approach, as has "ecomethe order of the day due to mutuality found in

social and physical sciences, the pluralist

methodology has emerged setting aside monism

and dualism. Eclecticism is thus the emergingresearch method.


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Eclecticism

8-Sep-15

Research (uestions are multidimensionalre(uiring multifarious investigations+ for which

multiple methods are often re(uired.

Eclecticism addresses to the *udicious use of

multiple methods in investigation, analyses, andreporting.

It logically "elieves in the contention that there is

no one "est way of researching. Therefore, case

study, survey, e)perimental, e)ploratory designscould "e used in com"ination of one another+

there "y resulting into eclectic method.


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6ositivism #s 2nti6ositivism

8-Sep-15

The same method that studies natural sciences can

"e adopted for creating &a science of society'

!omte/ is the essence of positivism. !ontrarily,

there could "e no )ed laws of the society and actorsin the society are the impacting force on the society

is the ma*or theme of anti positivism.%e"er's

verstehen meaning intuitive understanding/


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6ositivism #s 2nti6ositivism <

8-Sep-15

The verstehen thesis is challenged "y 9agel,=amel and Scult7 when they argue that theparticipants' covert mindset and overt "ehavior ina social phenomena may not "e the real response

of the actors, rather they could "e the re8ectionof the o"server's perception.

eaning to a situation and actors' "ehavior isattri"uted "y the researcher's own idiosyncrasies

in understanding and interpreting the laws of thesituation and the actors' "ehavior patterns.


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6ositivism #s 2nti6ositivism

!ontd..

8-Sep-15

Even empirical evidences are not free from su"*ectivityas stated in &Emic' and &Etic' principles. Emic means theway culture is seen "y the mem"ers of the culturegroup may su3er from narcissism/. Etic means

o"servation of the same "y outsiders may su3er fromo"server's "ias/.

>et there shall "e stata"le propositions "ased oncontrolled inferences even though the full truth is neverrevealed. The social in(uiry, therefore shall have its

own methodology com"ining e)periential, empirical,o"*ective o"servation and su"*ective interpretations.


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Empirical #s Interpretive

8-Sep-15

$eriving from the a"ove analogy, the issue of

empiricism and interpretivism engage the de"ate.Empirical approach suggests that the phenomenao"served shall "e "ased on real life e)posure andshall e)press the reality to the closest possi"leprecision.

Interpretive approach, on the other hand, acceptsresearchers' interpretation of the reality in the lightof e)isting ontological and epistemologicalevidences.

To what e)tent the empirical data remains value free

is a "ig (uestion. In fact all o"servations, datacollections ultimately ta-e shape only when rened"y logical and meaningful interpretations.


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Empirical #s Interpretive !ontd..

8-Sep-15

Interpretations then can "e construed as amethodology for putting dis*ointed empiricaldata into high order analysis.

But, the de"ate is inconclusive as, for certain, noone can say where empiricism shall end andwhere interpretations shall "egin as "oth are inthe su"*ective domain of a person.


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Objective Vs Subjective

8-Sep-15

2rising out of the previous discussion, theo"*ective and su"*ective parameters of scienticresearch come to the (uesting mind.

The search for truth, fact, and reality, if is themain stay of any research, then o"*ectivity,veria"ility, and testa"ility are its primaryfeatures.

But in social science research these featuresalways do not hold good "ecause of researchers'

su"*ective "iases. To what e)tent one can "eo"*ective again is matter of su"*ective choice.


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O"*ective #s Su"*ective !ontd..

8-Sep-15

=awthorne e3ect i.e. o"server's "ias and notion that,?6eople under controlled o"servation tend to sti8enatural "ehavior@ are serious wea-nesses of socialscience research which is reduced to a large e)tent inphysical;natural sciences.

Su"*ective interpretations of o"*ects, matters and otherinanimate "odies have culminated into time tested andconclusive theories for which the scientic nature of thehuman civili7ation is -nown.

Therefore, it would "e a fallacy to infer that su"*ectivityand scientic authenticity are poles apart. 2ny science,in fact is found and derived in the minds of people, acapa"ility that distinguishes the homo sapiens from therest of the animal -ingdom.


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Quantitative Vs Qualitative

8-Sep-15

6recision is (uality and (uantication is the"est method of precision. So, in

(uantication itself lies the pursuit for(uality.

Aualitative analysis is more descriptive andsocial phenomena is "etter captured "y thisanalysis. eorge !. =omans o"serves thatsocial data need not "e no"ler simply"ecause they are mathematical.


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Quantitative Vs Qualitative

8-Sep-15

That which cannot "e measured cannot "e managedis a philosophy that vouches for measuring socialand organi7ational phenomena. But too mucha"straction and mathematical formulation of cause

e3ect varia"les and their associations appear sometime intelligi"le and preclude the ner nuances ofsocial and human "ehavior.

2 *udicious com"ination of (ualitative descriptionand (uantitative presentation would "est suit forany analysis. These two are the ways of analysisand they in stead of attempting to su"stitute oneanother shall supplement one another.


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Constructivism as a dilemmabetween theory and practice

8-Sep-15

!onstructivism is a psychological theory of-nowledge, which argues that humans generate-nowledge and meaning from their e)periences.Cean 6iaget/

4earning is an active social process+ learner is auni(ue person+ -nowledge shall "e discovered asan integrated whole are all features ofconstructivism.

2ccommodation and 2ssimilation are the twomethods of constructivist learning. #on lasersfeldemphasi7es that learners construct their own

understanding and that they do not simply mirrorand re8ect what they see and read.


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Constructivism as a dilemmabetween theory and practice

8-Sep-15

4earners loo- for meaning and will try to ndregularity and order in the events of the world even inthe a"sence of full or complete information.

Social constructivist paradigm views the dilemma

"etween conte)t and concept. !onte)t as given andconcept as varied as the viewers, provide elasticity tothe process of research and -nowledge

!ompetitive and colla"orative constructivism sharpenthe theory which can guide the practice. But, whatremains unresolved is that, whether more mundanepractices provide the much re(uired e)periences orthe theoretical constructs as essence of time testedpractices shape the &e)periencing process'


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Ethnography Vs multiculturalism

8-Sep-15

Even though ethnic origins of culture specic-nowledge has "een the main source of generating-nowledge+ -nowledge once generated tends totranscend ethnic D cultural "oundaries.

In the wa-e of glo"ali7ation, the meltdown ofcultures has posed challenges to ethnographicorientation in research. ulticultural dimensionsand identity issues are emerging as (uestions for

research.


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Ethnography Vs

multiculturalism

8-Sep-15

Research, as an instrument of -nowledgeac(uisition and dissemination, is gettingin8uenced "y ethnographic issues of identity in aforced multicultural scenario.

!ommonalities in terms of human consumptions,aspirations and "ehaviors are found to "e the logic"ehind multicultural studies+ while the logic is alsochallenged "y ethnic identities and individualities.

Research has to nd answers for such parado)es isnow reali7ed as never "efore.


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Ethical Issues

8-Sep-15

This is a serious issue as the research today is accusedof plagiarism. The researchers are accused of violatingintellectual property rights.

6atenting, protecting the -nowledge from "eing hac-edthrough cryptography are assuming importance.

These are "ecoming possi"le, "ecause the research

designs are not tested on ontological andepistemological parameters "efore they are approved.

Research has an ethical responsi"ility towards the

respondents whose information is used in the report+ asmuch as towards the recipients of research in terms ofauthenticity of information.


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Ethical Issues Contd..

8-Sep-15

Research is not for the sa-e of research. Rather, it

is for the society that needs independent andoriginal -nowledge, where competitors andcolla"orators function in a -nowledge permeatedworld order.

Research output is for the social good, and it is atthis point that the ethical issues emerge as animportant issue. 5or e)ample Bio sociology as anew avatar of -nowledge is raising (uestionsa"out cloning, genetic reproduction and suchother "iotechnological e)periments as achallenge to the natural order and selection.


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Research esign and Report!riting

8-Sep-15

Research design is com"ined product of theontological, epistemological, and methodologicalstructures, processes and outcomes, controlled "ylogical purposes and o"*ectives.

It em"odies the research (uestion+ indenties the

cause and e3ect varia"les+ reviews the literaturefor prevailing -nowledge and sets areas of dou"t+and outlines the methodological rigors to which itis going to su"*ect itself+ and a"ove all to testtentative generali7ations for creating new

(uestions. The research report is a structural presentation of

scientically collected, collated , interpreted andanaly7ed data contri"uting to epistemologicalrenement.


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Research esign and Report!riting

8-Sep-15

Report writing though could "e a creativepursuit, the discretion of the researcher in termsof organi7ing the data, presentation of citationsetc is limited "y glo"ally accepted practices.

9o research shall ever try to conclude, "ecause

there is no conclusion to -nowledge. OnlySummary of ndings need to "e highlightedfocusing on the philosophy pro*ected, which can"e further tested.

The "est research is one which can arousedou"ts and does not profess faith.


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8 Sep 15

Re"erences#

Cerry %. %illis+ ?5oundations of Aualitative

Research@+ 9ew $elhi+ Sage 6u"lication, FFG

2drian =olliday+ ?$oing and writing (ualitativeresearch@+ 9ew $elhi+ Sage 6u"lication, FFG

2lan Bryman+ ?Social Research ethods@+ 9ew$elhi+ O)ford Hniversity 6ress+ FF

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