Three distinct regions: a) Industrial & Wealthy Northb) Administrative & Roman Center, c)Agricultural & Poor South

Majority of population was rural High emigration in late 1800s The Pope opposed the new liberal,

united nation Large debt, high taxes on poor, periodic

bouts of unrest Limited suffrage (most males by 1912) Politicians seen as corrupt

4 kings 29 prime ministers, 1869-1922 Limited suffrage meant government officials

not responsive to people—deal makers inside government structures & corruption

Development & growth of Socialist Party (>20% of vote by 1913)—party divided along three lines

1911 Italian Nationalist Union (Nationalists) established—Italy’s foreign & domestic policies weak; wanted authoritarian govt; “Our country is nothing without conquest.”

Rapid industrialization of north after 1900 increased traditional economic divide between north & south

Huge debts led to major tax increases hitting poorest the hardest

Labor & wage strikes opposed by the govt

“Nation states are… very rare beasts indeed, and certainly pre-1914 Italy was not one. There was… no Liberal hegemony, no agreement on basic ideological or social aims. Most people still spoke only dialect; nearly 40% of adults were illiterate. A popular press barely existed… The social and economic gap between North and South was all too evident; so too was the chasm between town and country… Italy was still run by a small elite, with little title to rule except its belligerent patriotism and its historical myths.”

--M. Clark, Modern Italy, 1871-1982

“Companions, here is the dawn. Our vigil is over. Our gaiety begins… After so much wavering the incredible has happened. We shall now fight our war, and blood will flow from the veins of Italy. We are the last to enter the struggle but will be among the first to find glory. Here is the dawn. Let us kiss one another and take leave…”

--Gabriele D’Annunzio, nationalist poet

MILITARY:

5 million conscripted 11 offensives in 2 ½ years Maximum advance = 12 miles (20 km) 600,000 killed 1,000,000 wounded c. 290,000 deserters

POLITICAL:

govt power Parliament became a rubber stamp (no

democracy) links between govt & industry Promise of social reforms Socialist Party advocated ‘neither

support nor sabotage’ Pope & Catholic Church criticized the

deaths

ECONOMIC:

Massive govt spending National debt more than 400% Inflation quadruples (1914 price index =

100; 1918 price index = 413)

SOCIAL:

Strict discipline in industry Long work hours: up to 75 hours/week employment of women Real wages c. 25% Rents frozen Some peasants paid of debts Bread riots in Summer 1917 killed 50

“The Italians had been divided before, but by November 1919 they were more divided than ever: ‘combatants’ against ‘shirkers’, peasants against workers, patriots against defeatists. No conceivable form of government could suit them all.

The war left other major legacies. They included a thirst for justice (‘land for the peasants’) and a transformed industrial economy. The war also produced tens of thousands of new officers, drunk with patriotism and greedy to command. They had won the war, and did not intend to let anyone forget it.”

--Clark

“[T]he Great War did not bring national integration and unity. There was no… temporary national and political truce… Italy’s wartime experience was extremely divisive; it increased popular alienation from the Liberal parliamentary state while heightening expectations of transforming it. Italy’s national war was ‘waged in an atmosphere of civil war.’”

--P. Morgan, Italian Fascism, 1919-1945

Italy’s ClaimsTreaty of London Promised (1915)

Treaty of St. Germain (1919) Granted

South Tryol yes yes

Trentino yes yes

Istria yes yes

Fiume no no

Dalmatia yes no

Colonies yes no

Gabriele d’Annunzio:

Nationalist poet Glorifier of Italy’s past Italy’s political system: “a heap of filth

which cannot even serve to manure the nation’s cabbage”

WW I hero: air raids, lost an eye, over 50 yrs old

Famous: Commander of Fiume Considered marching on Rome to overthrow

the decadent govt.s

Sept. 1919: d’Annunzio seizes control of the Adriatic port of Fiume

Italy had claimed Fiume Denied by British & Paris Peace Nationalist d’Annunzio sees Fiume as

example of ‘mutilated victory’ “In this made, vile world, Fiume is the

symbol of liberty.” Italian government did nothing in

response to this action What impressions of Italian government

developed?

Would d’Annunzio use his popularity to seize power in Rome?

Dec. 1920: PM Giolitti sent troops to Fiume and the Italian Army took control

Italy & Yugoslavia had agreed that Fiume should be a free international city—until 1923 when Mussolini seized it for Italy

What impressions did d’Annunzio’s actions in Fiume have upon the Italian populace?

What impressions did it have on groups or individuals seeking a role in Italian politics?

Force could be used to achieve political goals

Govt. inadequacy: took over a year to act

d’Annunzio acted in Italy’s ‘interests’; Orlando failed to attain Italy’s goals at Paris Peace Conference

Why was there economic & political crisis in post-WW I Italy?

ANGER ABOUT:

‘mutilated victory’ pacifist Socialists weak govt.

Why was there economic & political crisis in post-WW I Italy?

FEARS OF SOCIALIST REVOLUTION:

govt. officials big business strikes & occupation of factories success of Socialist Party in elections Bolshevik Revolution in Russia

Why was there economic & political crisis in post-WW I Italy?

EXPECTATIONS OF:

new, dynamic Italy workers’ power land reform territorial aspirations (new lands &

colonies)

Why was there economic & political crisis in post-WW I Italy?

PROBLEMS:

unemployment demobilized soldiers (many w/out jobs) social & economic unrest (incl. fight

Socialists v. Fascists) govt. debt inflation discredited parliamentary system

Fascio di combattimento (Fascists)

est. March 1919

“There is a crisis which leaps to the eyes of all. Throughout the war we heard of the incompetence of the people who govern, and knew that if the war was won, it was solely by the virtue of the Italian people, not at all by the intelligence and the capacity of the governors. We must run… Therefore we create Fasci: organs of creation and agitation, capable of descending into the streets and crying: ‘We, we alone, have the right to the succession, because we , we were the men who forced the country into war and into victory…’”

--Benito Mussolini, Il Popolo d’Italia, 24 March 1919

Early ideas:

Nationalism Weak, ineffective govt. Evils of Socialism ‘Mutilated Victory’ Land to peasants Fair wages & prices Hostility to Church Still advocated republicanism

Supporters had desire to act & restore glory to Italy = more important than any unified ideas

Who supported the Fascist (early stages)?

ex-soldiers small portion of elite (industrial, agricultural,

& economic elite petty bourgeoisie—shopkeepers, artisans,

small merchants, small business owners, low level civil servants, teachers, small landowners: cannot move up & threatened from below by Socialists

students & youths seeking adventure & opportunity

anti-Socialists

Why did they support Mussilini?

exploited fears of middle- & upper-classes (respectable bourgeoisie & civil servants)

sense of economic & social insecurity (petty bourgeoisie, ex-soldiers

rural Socialist threats (rural lower-middle class farmers and agrari, large landowners)

Socialism & govt concessions to labor (industrialists )

Mussolini Offered:

1920: less radical restore Italian power & prestige develop economy through productivity eliminate harmful state controls on

economy strong leadership law & order: targeting left-wing

subversives Action: not politics & programs

Who supported the Fascist (1921)?

industrialists (3%) professionals, esp. teachers & students

(21%) small landowners, agricultural workers

(36%) petty bourgeoisie (24%) industrial & transport workers (16%)

FASCIST PROGRAM 1919 FASCIST PROGRAM 1921republic w/universal male suffrage

political structure to ensure Italy’s destiny—no specifics

8-hour work day; minimum wage

8-hour work day, w/exceptions for requirements

workers’ participation in mgt.corporations of nat’l solidarity & production

common education for allschools for governing elite; military train

freedom of opinionfreedoms limited to nat’l interests

abolition of mandatory military

military conscription

heavy & progressive tax on income

Taxes proportional to income

nationalization of arms factories; 85% confiscation of war profit

privatize nat’l firms; nat’l wealth via individual actions

confiscation of all religious property

no reference to Church property

foreign policy: peaceful competition among civilized world

complete unification for Italy; major role in the Mediterranean

violence from feelings of WW I & humiliations violence became part of the political process 1920-1922: c. 2,000 Socialists killed in

political violence (c. 200 Fascists) targeted the organizational structure of

Socialist Party party & union buildings attacked & set afire union members attacked End of 1921: Socialists practically ceased

exercising power in northern & central provinces

How could a movement that emphasized a return of law & order initiate so much violence and still gain popularity?

elite & govt. authorities supported the Fascists claims of restoring law & order

Fascist hooligans perfect tool to rid Italy of socialism (fear & hatred of Left more than support of Fascist Party for many)

elite & govt. authorities disgusted w/weakness of the liberal govt.—cooperation w/Fascists

1921: Fascists minor role in govt.—many local officials even more reluctant to act against them

Mussolini (April 1922)

“We Fascists have a clear program: we must move on led by a pillar of fire, because we are slandered and not understood. And, however much violence may be deplored, it is evident that we, in order to make our ideas understood, must beat refractory [obstinate] skulls… But we do not make a school, a system, or, worse still, an aesthetic of violence. We are violent because ti is necessary to be so.”

Mussolini (April 1922)

“Our punitive expeditions… must always have the character of… legitimate reprisal: because we are the first to recognize that it is sad, after having fought the external enemy, to have to fight the enemy within… The Socialist had formed a state within a state… this state is more tyrannical, illiberal and overbearing than the old one; and for this reason what we are causing today is a revolution to break up the Bolshevist state, while waiting to settle our accounts with the Liberal state which remains.”

c. 500,000 party members c. 250,000 Blackshirts smashed much of Socialist’s power controlled several regions offered firm leadership, end to class

conflict, national greatness v. disillusionment brought by liberal govt.

presence (7%) in Parliament & role in govt. ras (local leader of Fascist squads) wanted

to seize power Mussolini sensed chance to gain legally—

due to support from elite

Weakness of the Enemies

ability of govt. to function in Rome & in provinces

govt. could not stand up to Fascist violence—attempt to bring ‘moderates’ into govt. control

Liberal, Social & Catholic opponents of Fascists could not cooperate

Liberal Govt. split by personal hatreds perception of Socialist threat– most

historians view 1920 as their peak

Italy, early October 1922

Fascists had gained control of local govts. Fascists squads in some areas had seized power

after expelling Socialists councils Mussolini, MP & Fascists had 35 seats in parliament Giolitti formed alliance w/Fascists (hopes to

transform them to be moderate) ras increasing pressure for Fascists to seize power Mussolini sees opportunity to take power legally rumors of Fascist march on Rome to take power govt. politicians seeking to include Mussolini &

Fascists into new govt. w/Fascists having cabinet seats

16 Oct. 1922: Mussolini & leading Fascists meet in Milan—time right to take power

24 Oct. 1922: Fascist Congress in Naples—40,000 blackshirts shouting “To Rome”—leaders announce intention to organize a March on Rome

27 Oct. 1922: Mussolini declares “Either the government will be given to us or we shall take it, descending upon Rome.”

March on Rome set 27 Oct. 1922

PLAN:

Fascist would seize control of key public buildings in North & Central

50,000 to assemble outside Rome & march on the govt., but to avoid trouble with army

Mussolini doubts, but had to -- appease aggressive elements in party & might intimidate king to appoint him PM

27 October 1922

during night mixed success taking control of key buildings—did frighten many prefects

reports sent to Rome of a Fascist advance on capitol

10,000 not 50,000 assemble c. 35 km from Rome

Rain

27 October 1922

PM Facta had decision to make: organize a resistance or surrender

Facta, like many senior politicians, had failed to take decisive actions against Fascists previously

Govt. resigned

27 October 1922

Facta asked to stay as PM during the crisis

Facta asked King Victor Emmanuel III to declare martial law

Victor Emmanuel: “The only man who could do anything was convinced of his impotence.”—A. Lyttleton, The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919-1929

28-29 October 1929

Victor Emmanuel: 1. overestimated strengths of Fascists (as had

many others); 2. mother & cousin, Duke of Aosta

sympathized w/Fascists; 3. king feared Fascists would replace him

w/Aosta; 4. his generals sent conflicting reports on the

attitude of army toward Fascists (some generals deeply involved w/Fascists);

5. army & country might split = civil war

28-29 October 1922

King hesitated

02:00 on 28 Oct. 1922: King declares martial law

by 10:00 on 28 Oct. 1922: c.12,000 troops deployed at key locations in Rome

about 10:00 on 28 Oct. 1922: King changes his mind about martial law & seeks compromise w/Mussolini

28-29 October 1922

28 Oct. 1922: Facta resigns as PM

ex-PM Salandra agrees to form govt. that included Mussolini

Salandra’s efforts fail to gain support

Mussolini refused to join Salandra

28-29 October 1922

Mussolini insists would be PM or nothing = potential vacuum & crisis

many business leaders had supported Mussolini as PM for some time—result of anti-Socialism

King faced w/limited options

29 October 1922

King Victor Emmanuel III sends a telegram asking Mussolini to meet him to discuss new govt.

instead of Switzerland, planned destination if he failed, Mussolini boarded a train to Rome

30 October 1922

10:42 Mussolini arrives in Rome

immediately goes to see king still wearing his blackshirt—“I have come straight from battle, which, fortunately, was won without bloodshed.”

Victor Emmanuel asks Mussolini to form a govt. and be its Prime Minister

31 October 1922

Mussolini, wearing formal wear, was sworn in as PM, as well as Foreign & Interior Minister

Blackshirts descended on Rome, 50,000 strong to parade in front of Mussolini & the King

Joined by significant number of regular army

Celebrate their Victory—myth of a heroic revolution—their March on Rome, after Mussolini was PM