it's still greek to me: an easy-to-understand guide to intermediate greek
TRANSCRIPT
copy1998byDavidAlanBlack
PublishedbyBakerAcademicadivisionofBakerPublishingGroupPOBox6287GrandRapidsMI49516-6287wwwbakeracademiccom
Ebookeditioncreated2012AllrightsreservedNopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedstoredinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeansmdashforexampleelectronicphotocopyrecordingmdashwithoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisherTheonlyexceptionisbriefquotationsinprintedreviews
ISBN978-1-5855-8316-4
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataisonfileattheLibraryofCongressWashingtonDC
ToMyGreekStudents
Contents
CoverTitlePageCopyrightPageDedicationPrefaceAWordtotheTeacherAcknowledgmentsListofAbbreviations
PART1UptheGreekwithoutaPaddleThisThingCalledGrammar
1TherersquosNoPlacelikeRomeThePartsofSpeechandTheirFunctionThePartsofSpeechNOUNSADJECTIVESPRONOUNSVERBSADVERBSPARTICIPLESPREPOSITIONSCONJUNCTIONSINTERJECTIONSOrganizingtheGreekPartsofSpeechAWordaboutWordsConclusionForPracticeKeyTerms
2GroupTherapyTheSentenceandItsPartsTheSentenceSubjectandPredicateTypesofVerbsModifiersClassesofSentences
PhrasesPREPOSITIONALPHRASESVERBALPHRASESClausesNOUNCLAUSESADJECTIVALCLAUSESADVERBIALCLAUSESHowtoAnalyzeaSentenceConclusionForPracticeKeyTerms
PART2TheGreeksHadaWordforItTheGreekNounSystem
3JustinCaseOvercomingDeclensionApprehensionTheUsesoftheGreekCasesNominativeCaseVocativeCaseGenitiveCaseDativeCaseAccusativeCaseConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
4TheGoodtheBadandtheUglyAdjectivesLargeandSmallTheFunctionofAdjectivesUsesoftheGreekAdjectiveTheComparisonofAdjectivesPOSITIVEADJECTIVESCOMPARATIVEADJECTIVESSUPERLATIVEADJECTIVESNumeralsasAdjectives
AdjectivesatPlayConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
5WoeIsIOvercomingPronounParanoiaTheBasicsofPronounUsagePersonalPronounsPossessivePronounsReflexivePronounsReciprocalPronounsRelativePronounsInterrogativePronounsIndefinitePronounsDemonstrativePronounsConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
6HaveMercyonMetheSinnerThoseArticulateArticlesGeneralUsesoftheArticleSpecialRulesfortheArticleConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
7UpUpandAwayThosePreposterousPrepositionsTheGeneralUseofPrepositionsProperPrepositionsImproperPrepositions
TheCharacterofPrepositionsConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
PART3RhoRhoRhoYourBoatTheGreekVerbSystem
8TenseTimeswithVerbs(1)AnOverviewofGreekInflectionsHowtheGreekVerbWorksPersonNumberVoiceAspectMoodINDICATIVEMOODSUBJUNCTIVEMOODOPTATIVEMOODIMPERATIVEMOODTime(Tense)ConclusionKeyTermsForFurtherReading
9TenseTimeswithVerbs(2)InterpretingtheGreekTensesActioninPastTimeAORISTTENSEIMPERFECTTENSEPLUPERFECTTENSEActioninPresentTimePRESENTTENSEPERFECTTENSEActioninFutureTimeFUTURETENSEFUTUREPERFECTTENSEPeriphrasticTenses
PrincipalPartsConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
10ToBeorNottoBeTheInfinitiveNatureoftheGreekInfinitiveMainUsesoftheInfinitiveObservingtheAspectoftheInfinitiveConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
11GoingGoingGoneTheParticipleUsesoftheParticipleTheMeaningofTenseintheParticipleConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
12ItrsquosaSmallWordafterAllAdverbsConjunctionsandParticlesAdverbsConjunctionsCOORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONSUBORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONSParticlesNEGATIVEPARTICLESEMPHATICPARTICLESConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
PART4FromAlphatoOmegaFinishingTouches
13ACureforClausetrophobiaGreekClausesTemporalClausesRelativeClausesComparativeClausesCausalClausesLocalClausesPurposeClausesResultClausesContentClausesConditionalClausesConclusionForPracticeKeyTermsForFurtherReading
14ToKoinePhraseTheGreekoftheNewTestamentTheLanguageoftheNewTestamentNewTestamentSemitismsConclusionForFurtherReading
PostscriptKeytotheExercisesAppendix1GreekVerbConjugations
RegularOmegaVerbsFIRSTPRINCIPALPARTSECONDANDTHIRDPRINCIPALPARTSFOURTHPRINCIPALPARTFIFTHPRINCIPALPARTSIXTHPRINCIPALPARTContractVerbsΤιμάω
ΦιλέωΔηλόωLiquidVerbsΜιVerbsΔίδωμιΤίθημιἽστημιΕἰμί
Appendix2PrincipalPartsofSelectedVerbsSummaryofTopicsSubjectIndexGreekWordIndexScriptureIndexNotesAbouttheAuthorOtherBooksbyAuthor
P
Preface
eoplewhoteachorwriteaboutGreekgrammartendtotreatthesubjectasthoughitwereagreenvegetableyoumaynot
likegrammarbutitrsquosgoodforyouThereasonitrsquosgoodforyouofcourseisthatthedepthofyourpreachingorteachingfromtheNewTestamentdependsinlargepartonhowwellyouhandletheoriginalGreekAsafriendonceputitldquoAgoodpreacherislikeanicebergyouseeonly10percentbutunderneathyousensetheother90percentrdquoWhathemeantwasthatthekeytoeffectivepreachingistheabilitytosimplifywithoutbecomingsimplisticOnlyasolidunderstandingofNewTestamentGreekgrammarcangiveyouthisabilityandmotivatingyoutocontinueyourGreekstudiesisoneofthemainpurposesofthisbookevenifgrammarisnotyourcupofteaButenoughlecturingIlearnedveryquicklywhenIfirst
beganteachingGreekmorethantwentyyearsagothatyoudonrsquothavetodomuchsermonizingabouttheimportanceofGreekgrammartopeoplewhoselivelihoodsdependinlargepartonhowwelltheycommunicatetheWordofGodAndIdonrsquotthinkitrsquosnecessarytodomuchpreachingintheintroductiontothisbookThefactthatyoueitherhaveboughtorarethinkingaboutbuyingthisbooksuggeststhatyoudonotneedtobesoldontheideaofbecomingmoreconversantwithGreekgrammarWhatyouneedtoknowiswhetherItrsquosStillGreektoMeoffersyousomethingyoucanrsquotgetfromthescoresofothergrammarbooksnowonthemarketIthinkitdoesItrsquosStillGreektoMeevolvedoutofaseriesofGreekcourses
IhavetaughttomanyhundredsofstudentsincollegesandseminariesintheUnitedStatesGermanyKoreaandIndiaInthesecoursesmyobjectiveistoteachpeoplehowtouseGreekeffectivelyintheirpersonallivesandministriesWhatmakesthesecoursesdifferenthoweveristheapproachIdonrsquotthink
itrsquosagoodpolicytomakeadultsfeelasiftheyrsquorebackinthirdgradeandsoIgooutofmywaytomakesurethetopicsIcoverarerelevanttoadultsinparticulartoadultswhosebusinessistheministryoftheWordofGodIalsogooutofmywaytopresenttheprinciplesofgrammarinamannerthatislivelychallengingandevenfunWhatIhavetriedtodomdashandthinkIhavedonemdashinItrsquosStill
GreektoMeistowriteaguidetogrammarthatdoesmorethansimplyrehashthesamelitanyofldquorulesrdquoandldquoprinciplesrdquothathavebeentalkedaboutwrittenaboutarguedaboutandsweatedoverforcenturiesIhavetriedtoorganizethebookinamannergearedtothewaypeopleactuallyusethelanguageandIhavedonemyutmosttomakethisbooknotonlyaccuratebuteasytounderstandandenjoyabletoreadIhavetriedinshorttoproduceatrueuserrsquosguidetoNewTestamentGreekforthetwenty-firstcenturyTheonlyprerequisitesonyourpartareabasicknowledgeofGreekmdashandahealthysenseofhumorHavingsaidallthisletmepointoutquicklythatneitherthis
booknoranyofthecoursesonwhichitisbasedaremeanttobethedefinitiveworkonGreekgrammarandusageGreekgrammarisahugesprawlingsubjectandifyouweresoinclinedyoucoulddevotethebetterpartofyourlifetostudyingatinysegmentofitmdashtheparticipleletrsquossayOnthereasonablysafeassumptionthatyouarenotsoinclinedIhavefocusedmyattentioninthisbookonthosespecificgrammarandusageissuesthatarethemostrelevanttoeverydayBiblestudyandsermonpreparationmdashandjustasimportantlyonthosemisconceptionsofgrammarthatcanreallyhurtyourpreachingandteachingEachofthefollowingchapterstellsyousomethingaboutthe
nutsandboltsofGreekgrammarhowthepiecesmaybeputtogetherandtakenapartagainandtowhatendsIhaveputmoreemphasisinthisbookonwhatyoushoulddoifyouwanttouseGreekeffectivelyinyourministryandlessonwhyitisgrammaticallyincumbentuponyoutodosoYesmanyoftheguidelinesinthisbookaresupportedbyexplanationsthatinvolveagrammaticalprincipleButwheneverIhavefeltthe
needtoclarifyagrammaticalguidelineIhavedonemybesttokeeptheexplanationbriefandtothepointmdashldquolessismorerdquobeingafundamentallawofwritingaswellasofteachingandpublicspeakingInanyeventifthisbookdoesnothingelseitwillgiveyoua
betterunderstandingofthosegrammarandusagestandardsthatmostministersandeducatedlaypeoplecanbeexpectedtosubscribetointhetwenty-firstcenturyanditwillgiveyoutheknowledgeandtheunderstandingyouneedtoincorporatethosestandardsintoyourownministryForthisreasonaloneIthinkyouwillfindItrsquosStillGreektoMeavaluablebookSoifyoursquoveeverhadtoadmitldquoItrsquosstillGreektomerdquowhen
askedaboutsomepointofGreekgrammarthenthisbookisforyouAsyoubrushuponyourGreekyouwillnotonlyreacquaintyourselfwiththeenduringsignificanceoftheGreekNewTestamentbutalsorediscovertheindispensableroleGreekplaysininterpretationandpreachingOncethatknowledgeispartofyourconsciousnessIamsureyouwillfindthelanguageoftheNewTestamentacircusringofexcitementaslongasyoulive
T
AWordtotheTeacher
hisbookoffersyouandyourstudentsasuccinctexplanationofthemostimportantgrammaticalconstructionsand
categoriesofNewTestamentGreekAssuchitcanbeusedasatextbookfordirectinstructionItisintendedprimarilyforthosewhohavefinishedoneyearofinstructioninGreekandisthusbestsuitedforthefirsthalfofsecond-yearGreekItsfourteenchapterscaneasilybecoveredinaone-semestercoursewithampletimeforreviewandtestingOncethecontentsofthisbookhavebeendigestedstudentsshouldbeencouragedtoacquireanadvancedreferencegrammarofNewTestamentGreekaswellasothernecessarystudytoolsIhavemaderecommendationsalongtheselinesinthepostscriptItishopedthatstudentswhohaveworkedcarefullythrough
thisbookwillbeabletoreadtheGreekNewTestamentwithgreaterfacilityThewordsusedinthetranslationexercisesarethosethatoccurfrequentlyintheNewTestamentandmanysentencesaretakenverbatimfromtheGreekNewTestamentHowevernoGreek-to-EnglishdictionaryisincludedatthebackofthebookandthereferencesoftheBiblepassagesintheexercisesareforthemostpartnotgivenThispreventsstudentsfromrelyingtooheavilyontheirGreektext(ortheirEnglishtranslations)andforcesthemtobecomeacquaintedwiththebasictoolsofNewTestamentexegesis(Obviouslystudentsshouldbediscouragedfromconsultingtheanswerkeyuntilaftertheyhavecompletedtheirowntranslations)Nospecialinstructionisgivenhereintheareasoflinguistics
(includingdiscourseanalysis)exegesisortextualcriticismTheseessentialmattershavealreadybeentreatedinmyotherBakervolumesLinguisticsforStudentsofNewTestamentGreekUsingNewTestamentGreekinMinistryandNewTestamentTextualCriticismThesebooksalsohavean
intentionallighttouchandmayprofitablybeusedalongsidethepresentvolumeinasecond-yearclassTothoseteacherswhoelecttouseItrsquosStillGreektoMeasa
textIoffermythanksandinvitecommentsandsuggestionsaboutanyaspectofthisbookthatmaybenefitfuturereadersoneithersideofthedesk
T
Acknowledgments
houghIneverplanneditthiswaymostofmybookshavedealtinsomewaywithNewTestamentGreekdespitethe
factthatIhavealwaysconsideredmyselfmoreastudentofthelanguagethananexpertIempathizewiththeauthorwhocomplainedtoacriticldquoIhavewrittentenbooksandeachgrowsworsethantheonebeforerdquoldquoNotatallrdquorejoinedthecriticldquoitissimplythatyourtasteisimprovingrdquoThoughmyliterarytastemayhaveimprovedthroughthe
yearsIremainpainfullyawareoftheshortcomingsinthisbookItwouldhavebeenafarlessadequatevolumehoweverhaditnotbeenforthehelpofasupportingcastofmentorsandguidesTheseincludethelateDrHarrySturzofBiolaUniversityunderwhomIbeganmyGreekstudiesandwithwhomIhadtheprivilegeofworkingforseveralwonderfulyearsbeforehisuntimelydeaththelateProfessorBoReickeoftheUniversityofBaselwhomadehishaplessdoctoralstudentsundergooralexamsinbothGreekandLatinandwhoconstantlyproddedustoreadthetextwiththatrarestofallscholarlyattainmentscommonsenseDrBernhardWyssprofessoremeritusofGreekphilologyatthesameuniversitywhoseexpertiseinGreekgrammarmadealastingandpositiveimpressiononmeJimWeaverandWellsTurnermyexceedinglycapableeditorsatBakerBooksandfinallythecountlessnumberofGreekstudentsIhavehadthehonorofservinginawidevarietyofsettingsthroughtheyearsTothesestudentsandtotheirsuccessorsthisbookis
dedicatedwithloveandaffectionIhopethatallofyouwillemergefromreadingitaglowinheadandheartfreshfromahoneymoonwiththeGreeklanguageandthatyourreadingandstudyoftheGreekNewTestamentwillbeevermoreenjoyableforyouintheyearsahead
Abbreviations
BDF FBlassandADebrunnerAGreekGrammaroftheNewTestamentandOtherEarlyChristianLiteraturetransRobertWFunk(ChicagoUniversityofChicagoPress1961)
DanaandMantey
HEDanaandJuliusRManteyAManualGrammaroftheGreekNewTestament(NewYorkMacmillan1957)
Robertson ATRobertsonAGrammaroftheGreekNewTestamentintheLightofHistoricalResearch(NashvilleBroadman1934)
Wallace DanielBWallaceGreekGrammarbeyondtheBasicsAnExegeticalSyntaxoftheNewTestament(GrandRapidsZondervan1996)
Zerwick MaximilianZerwickBiblicalGreekIllustratedbyExamplestransJosephSmith(RomeScriptaPontificiiInstitutiBiblici1963)
Cross-referencestothesesourcesarebypagenumber
I
1
TherersquosNoPlacelikeRome
ThePartsofSpeechandTheirFunctionfyouwereanarchitectyouwouldnrsquottalkaboutabuildingyoursquovedesignedwithoutmentioningitspartsmdashbricksgirdersglassandsoonInmuchthesamewaygrammariansdiscusssentencesintermsoftheirpartsandthefunctionsofthoseparts
BoththegrammarianandthearchitectfinditconvenienttouseaspecializedvocabularyindiscussingtheirsubjectsArchitectsspeakofjoistsandbearingwallsgrammariansspeakofverbsandparticiplesmdashthelanguageofgrammarWhenIleadworkshopsongrammarpeopleinvariablyask
mewheretheycanfindacomprehensivesimpleguidetotheterminologyofgrammarConsiderthefirsttwochaptersofthisbookassuchaguideHereyoursquollfindthebasicdefinitionsprinciplesandexamplesthatanyonemustunderstandtobegrammaticallyinformedSomereadersmayaskldquoDoIneedtoknowallthesetechnical
termsrdquoLetmeanswerthiswayhowwouldyouliketohaveyourcarservicedbythisteamofmechanics
ldquoThinkweoughttocheckthiswhatchamacallitrdquoldquoNothatdoodadoverthereseemstobetheproblemrdquoldquoOkayhandmethatthingamabobrdquoldquoThewhatrdquoldquoYouknowthedoohickeyrdquo
ldquoThisrdquoldquoNothegizmounderneathitrdquo
Yesyouneedtoknowthetermsinchapters1and2Theremainderofthisbookbuildsonthesefoundationalconcepts
ThePartsofSpeech
ThepartsofspeecharethepiecesyouusetoputsentencesandparagraphstogetherToputthemtogetherproperlyyouneedtoknowwhateachpieceiscalledandwhatroleitplaysForcenturieswordshavebeenputintoeightdifferent
categoriesdependingontheroletheyplayinsentencesThesecategoriesareallderivedfromLatinalanguagethatprovidesanincredibleportionofourminimumdailyrequirementofgrammaticalvocabularyTheLatingrammariansofcourseborrowedfreelyfromtheGreeksbutthatwashowtheRomansoperatedinthosedays(GreekandLatinsharethesameIndo-Europeanoriginandhaveagreatdealincommon)Theupshotwasageneralagreementonthefollowingpartsofspeech
nomen(noun)pronomen(pronoun)verbum(verb)adverbium(adverb)participium(participle)praepositio(preposition)conjunctio(conjunction)interjectio(interjection)
AllbutthelastofthesewereliftedvirtuallyinmintconditionfromtheGreeksandEnglishperhapsthemostnotoriouslanguageborrowerofalltimehasfollowedsuitbyliftingthemallAquicklookatthekindsofwordsthatbelongedtoeachcategorymaybehelpful
NounsNomenoriginallymeantldquonamerdquoAwordwasconsideredanomenifitldquonamedrdquoasubstanceorqualityThusbookhousetruthandwisewouldallhavebelongedtotheclassnomenSomemembersofthenomenfamilycouldbeusedtodescribeothermembersAnomenthatwasusedtodescribeanotherwascalledanomenadjectivumwhichmeansroughlyldquoanassistantnomenrdquoThusinthesentenceldquoshersquosawisepersonrdquowiseandpersonwouldeachhavebeenconsideredanomenWisewouldhavebeenanomenadjectivumwhilepersonwouldhavebeenarun-of-the-millnomenTodaywewouldclassifywiseasanadjectiveandpersonasanounAnypartofspeechthatfunctionsasanouniscalledasubstantiveOnereasontheearlygrammariansclassednounsand
adjectivestogetherwastoavoidthequestionofwhattocallanadjectivethatisusedasanoun(asinldquoawordtothewiseissufficientrdquo)BesidesallthemembersofthenomenclasshadthesamestructureEachcouldbeseenasasequenceoftwoelementsastemfollowedbyanendingThestemcarriedthebasicmeaningofthewordwhiletheendingtoldyouwhetherthewordwassingularorpluralandgaveyousomeideaofwhatthewordwasdoinginthesentenceEnglishstillbearsafaintresemblancetothisIndo-EuropeantraitinsuchwordsasdogdogsdogrsquosanddogsrsquoInGreektherewerefivedifferentkindsofendingsthatall
membersofthenomenclasscarriedaroundwiththem(Latinnounshadsixsetsofendings)Thesedifferentkindsofendingsarecalledcasesandtheyarenominativevocativegenitivedativeandaccusative
NounsappearedinthenominativecasechieflywhentheywerethesubjectoftheverbInthesentenceldquoSamworksformerdquoSamwouldappearinthenominativecaseInthesentenceldquoSamyoursquorefiredrdquoSamwouldappearinthevocativecaseThegenitivecasewasfrequentlyusedtoexpresspossessionInthesentenceldquoSamrsquosfriendswerenot
surprisedrdquoSamrsquoswouldbeinthegenitivecaseAnounappearsinthedativecasewhenitisanindirectobjectInthesentenceldquoIgaveSamhisseverancepayrdquoSamwouldbeinthedativecaseFinallydirectobjectsappearedintheaccusativecaseasinldquoIstilllikeSamrdquowhereSamwouldbeintheaccusativecase
ThreemorethingsneedtobesaidaboutnounsFirsteachnouninGreekandLatinbelongedtooneofthreegendersmasculinefeminineorneuter(thetermneutersimplymeansldquoneitherrdquoinLatin)IfyoursquorenotusedtoitthismatterofgendercanbeabitdiscomfitingInhisfamousessayldquoTheAwfulGermanLanguagerdquoMarkTwainspoofstheconfusionproducedbyGermangenderbytranslatingliterallyaconversationinaGermanSunday-schoolbookGretchenWilhelmwhereistheturnipWilhelmShehasgonetothekitchenGretchenWhereistheaccomplishedandbeautifulEnglish
maidenWilhelmIthasgonetotheopera
ToGermansofcourseallofthismakesperfectlygoodsenseTheyknowthatatreeismasculineitsbudsarefeminineitsleavesareneuterthathorsesaresexlessclocksarefeminineandtablesaremasculineGreekworksinexactlythesamewayittoohasgrammaticalgendermdashtimeismasculinedayisfeminineandyearisneuterButkeepinmindthatthevastmajorityofnounsarenotputinthesethreeclassesbecausethereissomethingmasculinefeminineorneuteraboutthemTheendingofaGreeknounisoftenaguidetoitsgenderbut
gendermustusuallybelearnedbyobservationIngeneralthenamesofwindsriversandmonthsaremasculinethenamesofcountriesislandstownstreesandabstractnouns(liketruthorlove)arefeminineandthenamesoffruitsareneuterSomenounsmaybeeithermasculineorfeminine(egὁθεός
isgodbutἡθεόςisgoddess)ThesenounsaresaidtobeofcommongenderInadditiontoaskingaboutthegenderofanounyoualso
havetoaskwhichdeclensionthenounbelongstoAdeclensionofwhichtherearethreeinGreekandfiveinLatinisaspecificsetofcaseendingsInGreekthefirstdeclensionisusedalmostexclusivelyforfemininenounsthesecondisusedmostlyformasculineandneuternounswhilethethirdiscatch-as-catch-canFinallyGreeknounscanbesingularorpluralandthereare
differentendingsforeachAnouninthesingularnumberisthenameofasinglepersonorthingunlessitisacollectivenounmdashthenameofanumberofpersonsorthingsformingonebody(committeejuryarmyetc)AnouninthepluralnumberisthenameofmorethanonepersonorthingAtonetimeGreekhadaspecialgrammaticalcategorycalled
thedualIfyouwantedtotalkaboutsomethingsingularlikeMaryoradogyouusedtheappropriatesingularformsandifyouwantedtotalkaboutthreeormoreyouusedthepluralButifitwasaquestionaboutMaryrsquoseyesorthedogrsquosearsyouusedthedualApparentlythedistinctionbetweenldquoonetwomanyrdquoprovedtobeonetoomanyfortheGreeksandthedualwasquietlyputouttopastureandneverheardofagain
AdjectivesAdjectivesareeasyonceyoursquovegottenpastthenounsAdjectivesarewordsusedtomodifynounsorothersubstantives(ldquothegoodmanrdquoldquothelargecrowdrdquoldquothetallbuildingsrdquo)GreekadjectivesareverymuchlikeEnglishonesexceptthattheyoftenfollowthenountheymodifyForexampleldquoIamthegoodshepherdrdquo(John1011)isliterallyldquoIamtheshepherdthegoodonerdquoWhenadjectivesareusedinthiswaytheyareusuallyemphatic(asintheEnglishexpressionsldquolifeeverlastingrdquoandldquoGodAlmightyrdquo)Adjectivesagreewiththenounstheymodifyingender
numberandcaseThatismasculineadjectivesgowithmasculinenounspluralwithpluralsingularwithsingularnominativewithnominativeandsoonBecauseadjectivesuse
thesameendingsasnounsonceyouhavelearnedthenoundeclensionsyouarereadytorumbleatleastasfarasthenomenfamilyisconcerned
PronounsAsfortheotherpartsofspeechtheyarenrsquotnearlyasdifficultasthenomen(whichafteryougetusedtoitisnotthatdifficult)ThepronomenclasscontainswordsthatfillinfortheirnomencousinsForexampleinsteadofhavingtosayldquoSamknewinSamrsquosheartthatSamshouldhavesaidtoSamlsquoSamknowsSamshouldhaveworkedharderrsquordquoonecansayldquoSamknewinhisheartthatheshouldhavesaidtohimselflsquoYouknowyoushouldhaveworkedharderrsquordquoThemembersofthepronomenclass(otherwiseknownaspronouns)alsocomewiththestandardissueofcasesGreekcomeswithafullsetofpronounsincluding
thepersonalpronounhethepossessivepronounmythereflexivepronounmyselfthereciprocalpronounoneanothertherelativepronounwhotheinterrogativepronounwhotheindefinitepronounsomeonethedemonstrativepronounthisone
VerbsVerbumoriginallymeantldquowordrdquoasintheapostleJohnrsquosfamousdictumInprincipioeratverbumldquoInthebeginningwastheWordrdquoLateritcametomeanaparticularkindofwordthekindthattellsyouwhattheactionisaverbVerbsarewordsthatexpressactionbeingorstateofbeing(ldquoIrunrdquoldquoyouarerdquoldquoheisrejoicingrdquo)ForthemostpartverbsinGreekhavethesamefunctionsastheirEnglishcounterpartsAGreekverblikeaGreeknouncanbeviewedasa
combinationoftwobasicelementsAgainthestemcarriesthebasicmeaningofthewordandtheendingorsuffixhandles
thedetailsWiththeverbhoweveryoucanalsoaddsomethingtothefrontofthestem(aprefix)andsomethingwithinthestem(aninfix)ThismeansthatthesameGreekverbwilltakeonanawfullotofdifferentappearancesTheendingsoftheverbtellyouwhothesubjectisthatis
whoisdoingorreceivingtheactionexpressedbytheverbTherearesixpossibilitieseachwithadifferentpersonalending
firstpersonsingularIsecondpersonsingularyouthirdpersonsingularhesheitfirstpersonpluralwesecondpersonpluralyouthirdpersonpluralthey
OccasionallyEnglishshowstracesoftheoriginalIndo-EuropeansystemofstemsandendingsasinldquoIhearrdquoldquohehearsrdquotowhichmaybeaddedldquothouhearestrdquowhichofcoursenobodyactuallysaysanymoreTheendingsofaGreekverbalsotellyouwhentheactionishappeningthatiswhattensetheverbisinandthekindofactionitrepresents(alsoknownastheaspectoftheverb)SometimesGreekmanufacturesnounsoutofverbsbymakinginfinitivesldquoTohearyourvoiceagainisgreatrdquoInfinitivesarebydefinitionldquonon-finiterdquotheyareneverlimitedbypersonandnumberasarefiniteverbsasinldquoIhearyourvoicerdquoVerbendingscarrytwootherimportantpiecesof
informationThefirstoftheseiswhethertheverbisactiveorpassivethatiswhetherthesubjectoftheverbisdoingtheactionortheactionisbeingdonetoitGreekhasoneverbformforldquoIhearrdquo(ἀκούω)andanotherforldquoIambeingheardrdquo(ἀκούομαι)Whenweusethetermsactiveandpassivewearetalkingaboutwhatgrammarianscallvoice(Greekalsocontainsamiddlevoicewhichcallsattentiontothesubject)Thesecondpieceofinformationcarriedbytheverbendingiswhichmoodtheverbisinmdashindicativesubjunctiveoptative
orimperativeMoodtakesabitofexplainingbutyoucanforgetaboutitforthetimebeingWhatisimportanttoremembernowisthatverbendingshavealottotellyouandthewealthofthisinformationiswortheverybitofeffortyouhavetoexpendtoacquireit
AdverbsParticiplesPrepositionsConjunctionsInterjectionsTheadverbiumistheadverbthewordthattellsyouhowtheactionisperformedmdashquicklyslowlyimmediatelyandsoonNoproblemhereTheparticipiumorparticipleisacrossbetweenaverbum
andanomenithascaseendingslikeanounoradjectivebutithasadistinctlyverbalflavorCaseendingsasidetheGreekparticiplesarenotverydifferentfromtheirEnglishcounterpartsConsiderforexamplethesentenceldquoGoingtothebeachIgotlostrdquoGoingisaparticipleinbothEnglishandGreekTheparticipleisusedhowevermuchmorefrequentlyinGreekthaninEnglishThatleavesthepraepositioorprepositiontheconjunctioor
conjunctionandtheinterjectioorinterjectionPrepositionsaresmallsuffix-lesswordsthatcomerightbeforeanomen(orpronomen)andtellyouldquowhererdquoldquohowrdquoldquowhenrdquoandsometimesldquowhyrdquoasinldquounderwaterrdquoldquowithasmilerdquoldquobeforethealtarrdquoldquoformyretirementrdquoandsoonConjunctionsaresmallsuffix-lesswordsthatcomebetweentwo(ormore)ofthesamepartsofspeechandjointhemtogetherasinldquoPeterandPaulrdquoandldquotheylaughedbutIcriedrdquoInterjectionslikeouchheyandoopsarenoneoftheaboveInterjectionsareusuallycalledparticlesinmoderngrammarbooksldquoparticlesrdquobeingacatch-alltermforthelittlewordsthatwonrsquotsqueezeintoanyothermold
OrganizingtheGreekPartsofSpeech
Whengrammarianssetouttodepictlanguagestheirdescriptionsareoftenorganizedintermsoftheseeightpartsofspeechwhichaswehaveseenwereoriginallydevisedto
describeLatinHowevernotalllanguageslendthemselvestothistypeofanalysisForexampleoneanalysisofTamilalanguageofsouthIndialistsasmanyaselevenpartsofspeechwhileanotheranalysisofthesamelanguagehasonlytwoformalcategoriesnounandverbOfcoursesomeofthedifferencesbetweengrammarianscan
bereducedtoquestionsoflabelsWhatiscalledapartofspeechbyonegrammarianmaysimplybecalledasubcategorybyanotherbutbothwilldescribeitsfunctionmoreorlessequivalentlyAnanalysisoflanguagesrevealsthatverbsandnounsalwaysoccur(alllanguageshavethem)whereasadjectivesandprepositionsdonot(somelanguagesdonrsquothavethem)andsomelanguageshavetheirownidiosyncraticpartsofspeechNotevenallEuropeanlanguagesusetheidenticalparts-of-speechsystemAllthistosaythattherersquosnoreasontoslavishlyfollowthe
LatingrammarianswhenorganizingtheGreekpartsofspeechInfactIthinkitrsquoseasiesttodivideGreekgrammarintotwobasicsystemsanoun(nominal)systemandaverb(verbal)systemEachsystemhasitsownsubcategories
WhenthenounbearsaparticularrelationshiptotherestofthesentenceitisexpressedbycaseWhenyouwanttomaketherelationshipofthenountotherestofthesentencemorevividyouuseaprepositionIfyouwanttoqualifythenounbysomeattributeyouuseanadjectiveWhenyouwanttoavoidmonotonyandrepetitionyouuseapronounIfyoudesiretorepresentthethingdesignatedbythenounasparticularyouusethearticlethe[1]
HencethegrammarofthenounincludescasesprepositionsadjectivespronounsandthearticleTheverbisthepartofspeechthatmakesanassertion
WhenanassertionissubjoinedasanauxiliarytoanothertheinfinitiveorparticipleisusedIftheassertionistobevariedbycertainqualificationstheadverbisusedInjoiningoneassertiontoanotheraconjunctionmaybeusedFinallythespeakerrsquosattitudeintheassertionisfrequentlyexpressedbyaparticle
ThustheverbalsystemincludesfiniteverbsinfinitivesparticiplesadverbsconjunctionsandparticlesInbothofthesesystemsmorphologymdashthatpartofgrammar
dealingwiththeformsofwordstheirshapesandchangesmdashplaysanindispensableroleItisessentialthatyoumasterthesechangesbeforeyouattemptexegesisforwithoutsuchabackgroundexegesisisimpossibleThestudyisenrichedandactuallybecomesadelightwhenyoubearinmindthatyouaredealingnotmerelywithgrammarbutwiththewordsofdivinerevelationThusgrammarbecomesathrillingmeanstoadivineendWithreasonablestudyyoulearnthatGreekwordsareconstructedwitharchitecturalprecisionIfyourmemoryofwordformationneedstoberefreshedyouwillsaveyourselfmuchtroublebyreviewinganelementary-levelgrammarsuchasmyLearntoReadNewTestamentGreek[2]whereyouwillfindsufficientinformationonthesematters
AWordaboutWords
BecauseallofthepartsofspeecharewordsyouwillalsoneedtoacquireaworkingvocabularyofGreekifyouaregoingtobeabletoreadtheNewTestamentwithfacilityHowmuchvocabularydoyouneedObviouslythelargeryourvocabularythemorerapidlyandextensivelyyoucanreadMyownsuggestionisthatyoumasterabasicvocabularyofNewTestamentwordsIntheGreekNewTestamentthereareabout5500vocabularyitemsofwhich3600occurfourtimesorlessThismeansthatyouwillencountereachoftheselow-
frequencywordsonlyonceinabout160pagesoftheNewTestamentOntheotherhand1100wordsoccurtentimesormoreandthesearethewordsyoushouldattempttolearnbyheartAsfortheother4400wordsmyadviceiseitherguessat
theirmeaningfromthecontextconsultaninterlinearor(preferably)useagoodlexiconEssentialtoolsthatwillhelpyouacquireaworkingvocabularyofNewTestamentGreekarelistedinthepostscript
Conclusion
SothereyouhaveitmdashthepartsofspeechTheinabilitytorecognizethemisasmuchahandicapasnotknowingthevalueofnickelsdimesquartersanddollarsThishandicaprangesfromafineshadeofmisunderstandingtooutrightmisinterpretationitsdiagnosisandtreatmentformthestapleofthisbookOnceagainthinkofwordsasbricksgirdersandglassYou
putthemtogethertomakephrasesclausesandthensentencesHowtoconstructsuchedificesisthetopicofchapter2
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingsentences
1 οἱμαθηταὶἀκούουσιτοὺςλόγουςτῶνπροϕητῶν2 μένομενμετὰτῶνἀδελϕῶνἐντῇοἰκίᾳκατὰτὸννόμον3 λέγειςλόγουςκατὰτοῦνόμουτῶνμαθητῶνκαὶτῶνπροϕητῶν
4 ἐντῇἐκκλησίᾳμανθάνομεντὸνλόγοντοῦθεοῦ5 οἱνεανίαιτὰπαιδίαἐντῇἐρήμῳδιδάσκουσινκύριε6 ἔγραϕονοἱἀπόστολοιτὰςἐπιστολὰςἐντῷσαββάτῳ7 ἐδιδάσκομεντὸεὐαγγέλιοντοῖςτέκνοιςτῶνστρατιωτῶν
8 οἱδὲὄχλοιἤσθιοντοὺςἄρτουςἐντῇἐρήμῳκαὶἔπινοντὸνκαρπὸντῆςἀμπέλου
9 ἔσωζενὁἸησοῦςαὐτὸςτοὺςἁμαρτωλοὺςἐκτῆςἁμαρτίας10 ὁἀπόστολοςἔπεμψετὸνδοῦλονπρὸςτὴνοἰκίανσου11 οἱγὰρμαθηταὶἐνήστευοντεσσαράκονταἡμέρας12 οἱδοῦλοιαὐτοὶπέμψουσιταῦτατὰβιβλίαεἰςἐκεῖνοτὸ
ἱερόν13 ἔπεμψενὁθεὸςἀγγέλουςεἰςτὸκηρύσσειναὐτοὺςτοῖς
ὄχλοις14 μὴκωλύετετὰπαιδίαβαίνεινπρόςμε15 λέγειαὐτῇὁἸησοῦςἈληθέςἐστινὅτιοὐκἔχειςἄνδρα
πέντεγὰρἄνδραςἔσχεςκαὶνῦνὃνἔχειςοὔκἐστίνσουἀνήρλέγειαὐτῷἡγυνήκύριεθεωρῶὅτιπροϕήτηςεἶσύ
KeyTerms
accusativecaseactivevoiceadjectiveadverbagreementaspectcasecollectivenouncommongenderconjunctiondativecasedeclensiondemonstrativepronoundualendingfemininegenderfiniteverbfirstpersongendergenitivecaseimperativemood
indefinitepronounindicativemoodinfinitiveinfixinterjectioninterrogativepronounmasculinegendermiddlevoicemoodmorphologyneutergendernominativecasenounnumberoptativemoodparticipleparticlepassivevoicepersonpersonalpronounpluralpossessivepronounprefixprepositionpronounreciprocalpronounreflexivepronounrelativepronounsecondpersonsingularstemsubjunctivemoodsubstantivesuffixtensethirdpersonverbvocativecase
voice
N
2GroupTherapy
TheSentenceandItsPartsowthatyouknowthepartsofspeechletrsquostalkabouthowsentencesareputtogetherAsentenceisacombinationofwordsthatexpressacompletethoughtldquoLifeisshortrdquoldquoIslifeshortrdquoldquoHowshortlifeisrdquoHowwordsarejoinedtogethertoconveymeaningiscalledsyntaxTherecanbenosentencehowevershortwithoutsyntaxhoweverlittle
ItisbyexpressingacompletethoughtthatasentencediffersfromitssubordinatepartsthephraseandtheclauseThephrasemerelyindicatesathoughtthatitdoesnotexpresscompletelyldquoLifebeingshortrdquoTheclauseexpressesonlypartofathoughtldquoBecauselifeisshortrdquoSinceneitherthephrasenortheclauseiscompleteitleavesthemindinsuspensionWeaskldquoWellwhatthenrdquoandwaitforsomeconclusionButthesentenceldquoLifeisshortrdquoiscompleteAllissaidanddoneandthemindrestsInmanyrespectsthereforesyntaxisthemostimportantpartoflanguagestudyObviouslythenthebetterweunderstandhowsentencesworkthebetterourthinkingaboutlanguagebecomes
TheSentenceSubjectandPredicate
AllsentencesarecomposedoftwobasicpartsthesubjectandthepredicateThesubjectisthepartofthesentence
aboutwhichanassertionismadebytheuseofafiniteverbldquoFireburnsrdquoThepredicateisthepartofthesentencethatmakesanassertionaboutthesubjectbyusingafiniteverbldquoFireburnsrdquoThefiniteverbisessentialtothesentenceItisthefinite
verbthatcompletesthesentencebindingittogetherjustasthekeystonebindsthearchNeithertheparticiple(ldquoTheskybeingbluerdquo)northeinfinitive(ldquoTheskytobebluerdquo)cancompleteasentenceButldquoTheskyisbluerdquo(finiteverb)isasentenceTherecanbenocompleteassertionwithoutafiniteverbThesimplesubjectofasentenceisanounorpronoun
ldquoChristdiedrdquoldquoHediedrdquoThecompletesubjectiscomposedofthesimplesubjectandthewordsthatexplainorcompleteitsmeaningldquoChristJesusourLordandSaviordiedrdquoThesimplepredicateofasentenceisafiniteverborverb
phraseldquoChristdiedrdquoldquoChristhasrisenrdquoThecompletepredicateiscomposedofthesimplepredicateandthewordsthatexplainorcompletethemeaningldquoChristdiedforoursinsaccordingtotheScripturesrdquoTheomissionofawordthatwouldbenecessaryfor
grammaticalcompletioniscalledellipsisIfthereisnopossibilityofconfusionthesubjectmaybeomittedasinrepliestoquestionsldquoYesrdquoldquoMayberdquoIfthereisnoambiguityeventhepredicatemaybeomittedldquoBluerdquoThisperfectlycommunicatestheideainthereplytothequestionldquoWhatcoloristheskytodayrdquoForcompletepredicationafiniteverbmustbeusedina
simplesentenceorinanindependentclauseAdependentclausecontainsafiniteverbbutisnotcompleteldquoIftheskyisbluerdquoDespitethefiniteverbisthisstatementisincompletebecauseofthesubordinatingconjunctionifldquoIftheskyisbluerdquoweaskldquowhatthenrdquoForacompletethoughtwemusthaveasimplesentencewithafiniteverbldquoTheskyisbluerdquoOrthedependentclausewithafiniteverbmustberelatedtoanindependentclausethatcompletesthethoughtldquoIftheskyisblueitwillnotraintodayrdquo
TypesofVerbs
TherearethreetypesoffiniteverbsAtransitiveverbtransfersanactionfromthesubjectoftheverbtoanotherpersonplaceorthingldquoJanelikedfarmerJonesrdquoAnintransitiveverbexpressesanactionthatislimitedtothesubjectofthesentenceldquoJanesmiledrdquoAlinkingverballowswordsinthepredicatetodescribeorrenamethesubjectofthesentenceldquoJanewashappyrdquoThemostcommonlinkingverbsintheNewTestamentare
εἰμίγίνομαιandὑπάρχωBecauseoftheirpowertojoinnounstoothernounsoradjectivestheseverbsarecalledcopulativeverbs(fromtheLatinverbcopuloldquoIlinkrdquo)Theytakethesamecaseafterthemasbeforethem
ὁἀγρός[nominative]ἐστιν[linkingverb]ὁκόσμος[nominative]thefieldistheworld(Matt1338)
Theyarealsocalledverbsofincompletepredicationbecausetheydonotmakesensewhentheystandbythemselves(exceptwhenusedinthesenseofexist)Theymustbefollowedbyanounoranadjectivethatiscalledthecomplementbecauseitcompletesorldquofillsuprdquothesense(fromtheLatinverbcomplioldquoIfilluprdquo)ThisprincipleisofgreatimportanceinreadingGreek
Modifiers
OfcoursemoststatementsarenotassimpleasldquoThefieldistheworldrdquoThereforeotherelementsaregenerallypresentinthesentenceSomeelementsareusedtomodifythesubjectandtheseareknownasmodifiersOthersasmentionedareusedtocompletethepredicateandarecalledcomplementsThemodifierofthesubjectmaybeoneormoreofthe
following
thedefinitearticlethebook
apossessivepronounhisbookaninterrogativepronounwhichbookanindefinitepronounanybookademonstrativepronounthisbookanattributiveadjectivelargebookanadjectivalparticipleengagingbookanadjectivalinfinitivebooktobereadaprepositionalphrasebookontheshelfanadjectivalclausebookthatmakessensetome
Thecomplementoftheverbmaybeoneormoreofthefollowing
adirectobjectJohnhithimapredicatenominativeJohnishumanapredicateadjectiveJohnistallaninfinitiveJohnlikestosingacognateaccusativeJohnranaraceapredicateobjecttheynamedJohnchairmanapredicategenitivethebookwasJohnrsquosasupplementaryparticipleJohncamerunningadirectquotationJohnsaidldquoComerdquoanindirectquotationJohnsaidthatyoushouldcomeanindirectobjectJohngaveittohimanadverbJohnranquicklyaprepositionalphraseJohnranaroundthetrackanadverbialclauseJohntalkedwhilehewasworkingagenitiveabsolutethestormhavingstoppedJohnwentoutsideanadverbialaccusativeJohnwaitedhours
Clearlywordsinsentenceshaveratherwell-defineddutiesintheirexpressionofthought
ClassesofSentences
SentencesthemselvesmaybeclassifiedalongtwodifferentlinesaccordingtotheirmannerofexpressingthoughtandtheirstructureAstotheirmannerofexpressingthoughtsentencesmaybedividedintofourclasses
AdeclarativesentenceaffirmsthatsomethingisorisnotafactorapossibilityChristdiedforyouAninterrogativesentenceaskswhethersomethingisorisnotafactDoyoubelievethisAnimperativesentencecommandsorforbidssomethingRepentandbebaptizedAnexclamatorysentenceexpressesathoughtasanexclamationPraisetheLord
Accordingtostructuresentencesmaybedividedintofourclasses
AsimplesentencecontainsonlyonesubjectandonepredicateldquoManismortalrdquoldquoElsiesmiledtodayrdquoldquoJohnatetheappleaswellastheorangerdquoAsimplesentencemaybelongorshortAlongsentencemaybesimpleifitcontainsonlyonesubjectandonepredicateTwoormorenounsorpronounsmaybecombinedtoformonecompoundsubjectandtwoormoreverbsmaybejoinedtoformonecompoundpredicateButthesentencewillstillbesimpleifthereisonlyonecompoundsubjectandoronecompoundpredicateldquoBillandJohnstudiedtogetherrdquoorldquoBillandJohnstudiedandplayedandlaughedtogetherrdquoTwoormoresimplesentencesmaybecombinedtoformacompoundsentenceThedaysareshortandthenightsarelongOneormoredependentclausesmaybejoinedtoasimplesentencetoformacomplexsentenceWhenIarrivedyouweregone
Oneormoredependentclausesmaybecombinedwithtwoormoresimplesentencestoformacompound-complexsentenceThemanwhowantstobuythecarisherebutheistoolate
Phrases
ThemostimportantpartsofasentencearethephraseandtheclauseAphraseisagroupofwordsthatcannotstandaloneasasentencebecauseitlackseitherasubjectorapredicateorbothThewordsinaphraseworktogetherasapartofspeechForexampletheymayworktogethertonameapersonplacethingorideaInthiscasethegroupofwordswouldbecalledanounphraseThetwomostcommonphraseshoweveraretheprepositionalphraseandtheverbalphrase
PrepositionalPhrasesPrepositionsarethoselittlewordsthatlocateanounintimespaceordirectionPrepositionalphrasesalwaysbeginwithaprepositionandendwithanoun(oranothersubstantive)ldquoaroundthehouserdquoldquothroughthedoorrdquoldquobehindhimrdquoYouhavetodecidewhatpartofspeechthesephrasesarebylookingathowtheyworkinasentenceldquoThewholestaffwentonavacationrdquoWhatistheverbWentWhatwentThewholestaffWhatdoestheprepositionalphrasetellyouWherethestaffwentThusonavacationisaprepositionalphrasethatactsasanadverbinthissentencedescribingormodifyingtheverbwentPrepositionalphrasesusuallyactasadverbsoradjectivesWhenindoubtaskyourselfwhatthephraseistellingyouinthesentenceWhenyouarepickingapartasentenceinyourGreekNew
TestamentitisusuallyhelpfultoputparenthesesaroundprepositionalphrasesmdashsometimestheyaredistractingwhenyouaretryingtolocatesubjectandverbTakeforexampleMark19ΚαὶἐγένετοἐνἐκείναιςταῖςἡμέραιςἦλθενἸησοῦς
ἀπὸΝαζαρὲττῆςΓαλιλαίαςκαὶἐβαπτίσθηεἰςτὸνἸορδάνηνὑπὸἸωάννουNowthatrsquosalongandsomewhatcomplicatedsentenceSo
gathertogethertheprepositionalphraseslikethisΚαὶἐγένετο(ἐνἐκείναιςταῖςἡμέραις)ἦλθενἸησοῦς(ἀπὸΝαζαρὲττῆςΓαλιλαίας)καὶἐβαπτίσθη(εἰςτὸνἸορδάνην)(ὑπὸἸωάννου)
Nowyoucanclearlyidentifytheverbs(itwascamewasbaptized)andthesubject(Jesus)ThenyoucantranslatethebasicsentenceldquoSoitwasJesuscameandwasbaptizedrdquoThestructureofthesentenceisnowcrystalclearFinallymixintheldquoleftoversrdquoldquoSoitwasinthosedaysJesuscamefromNazarethofGalileeandwasbaptizedintheJordanbyJohnrdquo
VerbalPhrasesVerbalphraseshaveverbsinthembuttheyarenotverbsTheyactasnounsadjectivesoradverbsBothparticiplesandinfinitivescanformverbalphrasesAparticiplelookslikeaverbbutitisnrsquotYoucanthinkofaparticipleasaverbthatactslikeanadjectiveinasentenceLookatthedifference
IhadknownthatTomwouldbefamousonedayKnownforhisoutstandingtenorvoiceTomwasfamous
InthefirstsentencehadknownisthemainverbKnowninthesecondsentencedescribesTomitisadjectivalandhenceaparticipleIfparticiplesareverbals(non-finiteverbs)thatareusedas
adjectivesinfinitivesareverbalsthatareusedasnounsadjectivesoradverbsThus
Adoctorhopestohelphispatients[Heretohelpisanoun]Whichofthesebookswouldbetheonetohelpme[Heretohelpisanadjectivemodifyingthesubstantivetheone]Myteachertoldusjokestohelppassthetime[Heretohelpisanadverbthatmodifiestheverbtold]
Clauses
LetrsquosnowconsiderclausesAclauseisagroupofwordsthatformspartofasentenceandthatcontainsasubjectandapredicateTherearetwotypesofclausesindependentanddependentAnindependentclausealsocalledamainclausemakessensestandingaloneAdependentclausealsocalledasubordinateclauseisusedlikeanadjectiveadverbornounItcannotstandalonebecauseitldquodependsrdquoontheotherclauseinthesentencetomakesenseLookatthefollowingsentenceldquoJimtoldmethathewas
studyingGreekrdquoThissentenceismadeupoftwoseparateclausesJimtoldmeandthathewasstudyingGreekBothoftheseclauseshavesubjectsandverbsButthefirstclauseJimtoldmeistheindependentormainclauseinthesentencebecauseitcouldstandaloneThathewasstudyingGreekisthedependentorsubordinateclauseitwouldnrsquotmakesensebyitselfandthewordsworktogethertomodifytheverbtoldAsubordinateclauselikeaphraseisusedasapartof
speechIfitisusedasanounitisanounclauseorsubstantiveclauseIfitmodifiesasubstantiveitisanadjectivalclauseIfitservesasanadverbitisanadverbialclause
NounClausesAnounclauseisaclausethatstandsintherelationshipofanountotheprincipalclauseortosomeotherclauseinacomplexsentenceItmaybeasubjectldquoThatheiscomingiscertainrdquoItmaybeanobjectldquoHesaidthathewasalawyerrdquoItmaybeapredicatenounldquoMyhopeisthatyouwillcomerdquoTheinfinitiveisfrequentlyusedinnounclausesinGreekldquoToerrishumanrdquo(subject)ldquoWebelievehimtobeinnocentrdquo(object)ldquoMygoalistoexcelrdquo(complement)
AdjectivalClausesAdjectivalclausesareintroducedbytherelativepronounswhowhichthatandtheirequivalentswhenwheresuchasandsoonTheyarecalledadjectivalclausesbecausetheyqualifysomenouninanotherclause
justlikeanadjectiveAparticiplequalifyingthenounisalsoverycommon
ThisistheonewhosentmeThisisthepersonwhomIsawThisistheplacewhereIwasbornIwilldothiswhenwemeetIsawthemanfishingoffthepier
AdverbialClausesAdverbialclausesareclausesthatstandintherelationshipofanadverbtotheverbinanotherclauseAdverbialclausesmaybedividedintothefollowingclasses
finalclausesdenotepurposeHeranthathemightgethomesoonertemporalclausesdenotetimewhenHeranwhenhegotontheroadlocalclausesdenoteplacewhereHeranwheretheroadwasdownhillcausalclausesdenotecauseHeranbecausehewaslateresultclausesdenoteconsequenceHeransothathegothomeontimeconditionalclausesdenoteaconditionHeranifhewaslateconcessiveclausesdenotecontrastHeranalthoughhewastiredcomparativeclausesdenotecomparisonHeranashewasaccustomedtodo
ThenamesoftheseclausesaregivenbecausetheyareverycommoningrammarsandcommentariesnotbecausetheyhaveanymeritinandofthemselvesItispossibletobuildasentencewithanunlimitednumberof
dependentclausesOnlytheinabilityofthehearerorreadertocomprehendthemeaningofthesentencelimitsthecomplexitywithwhichapersonmayconstructasentenceForexample
Ephesians13ndash14isonesentenceinGreekThesentencestructuremakesperfectlygoodsensecomplexthoughitmaybeInEnglishtranslationshoweversentencesaregettingshorter(theNIVuseseightsentencestotranslateEph13ndash14)Thistendencytoshortensentencesraisesseveralimportant
grammaticalquestionssuchaswhetherclausesexistinahierarchicalrelationshipInEphesians518ndash21forinstancethereisabreakbetweenverse20andverse21inmostEnglishversionsandtheGreekparticipleinverse21(ldquosubmittingyourselvestooneanotherrdquo)istranslatedasanimperative(ldquoSubmityourselvestooneanotherrdquo)ThisseemstomissPaulrsquospointcompletelyIfhehadwantedtomakeabreakatverse21itwouldhavebeenthesimplestthingintheworldtowriteanimperativeInsteadhewritesadurativeparticiplethatisjustliketheparticiplesthatprecedeitsothatweshouldconnectthislastparticiplewiththeprecedingcontextMutualsubmission(v21)issimplytheresultofbeingfilledwiththeHolySpirit(v18)
HowtoAnalyzeaSentence
Onceyouunderstandhowsentencesworksentenceanalysisbecomesfairlystraightforward
1 TobeginwithascertainwhetherthesentenceisasimplesentencewithonlyoneessentialsubjectsimpleorcompoundandoneessentialpredicatesimpleorcompoundIfsotreattheelementsofthatsimplesentenceseparatelyIfparticipialprepositionalorotherphrasesareincludedinthesimplesentencefirsttreateachphraseasanelementofthesimplesentenceshowingitsgrammaticalrelationasaphraseThentakethewordsofthatphraseseparatelyandshowtheirrelationtooneanotherassinglewords
2 Ifthesentenceisfoundtohavemorethanoneessentialsubjectandmorethanoneessentialpredicateseparatethe
clausesanddecidewhethertheyconstituteacomplexcompoundorcompound-complexsentence
3 Showtherelationoftheclausestoeachotherascoordinateandindependentincompoundandcompound-complexsentencesorasindependentanddependentincomplexsentences
4 Analyzeeachclauseofthecompoundcomplexandcompound-complexsentencesaccordingtotherulesandprinciplesestablishedforsimplesentences
LetrsquosreturnforamomenttoEphesians518ndash21TheGreekmaybeanalyzedasfollows
καὶμὴμεθύσκεσθεοἴνῳἐνᾧἐστινἀσωτίαἀλλὰπληροῦσθεἐνπνεύματιλαλοῦντεςἑαυτοῖς[ἐν]ψαλμοῖςκαὶὕμνοιςκαὶᾠδαῖςπνευματικαῖςᾄδοντεςκαὶψάλλοντεςτῇκαρδίᾳὑμῶντῷκυρίῳεὐχαριστοῦντεςπάντοτεὑπὲρπάντωνἐνὀνόματιτοῦκυρίουἡμῶνἸησοῦΧριστοῦτῷθεῷκαὶπατρίὑποτασσόμενοιἀλλήλοιςἐνϕόβῳΧριστοῦ
Themainverbsinverse18areintheimperativemoodldquostopgettingdrunkrdquoandldquokeepgettingfilledrdquoSyntacticallytheseverbsaremarkedasbeingthemainideasTheparticiplesthatmodifythecommandtobefilledare(1)ldquospeakingrdquo(2)ldquosingingandmakingmelodyrdquo(3)ldquogivingthanksrdquoand(4)ldquosubmittingyourselvesrdquoTheseparticiplesdefinewhatPaulmeantbybeingfilledwiththeHolySpiritAtthispointamoredetailedexegesisofclausesandwordstakesover
Conclusion
Letrsquosreviewwhatwersquovecoveredinthischapter
TherearetwomainpartsofasentencethesubjectandthepredicateThesubjectiswhatthesentenceisaboutThepredicateiseverythingthatisnotthesubjectItmaybea
simpleverboritmaybetheverbandalltheextrathingsthataretalkingaboutthesubjectAphraseisagroupofwordsthatdoesnothaveasubjectandaverbThewordsinaphrasetogetherfunctionasapartofspeechAclauseisagroupofwordsthatincludesasubjectandaverbAdependentclausecannotstandaloneasasentenceAnindependentclausemakessensebyitselfAsimplesentencehasoneindependentclausemdashsubjectandpredicateAcompoundsentencehastwoormoreindependentclauses(orsimplesentences)joinedtogetherwithaconjunctionAcomplexsentencehasatleastoneindependentclauseandatleastonedependentclauseAcompound-complexsentencehasoneormoredependentclausescombinedwithtwoormoresimplesentences
WhenyouusethelabelsnounverbandconjunctionyouaredescribingorclassifyingindividualwordsButwhenyouuseafunctionalvocabularymdashsubjectpredicateandclauseforinstancemdashyouaredescribingthewordsofasentenceinrelationtooneanotherKnowingbothvocabularieswillhelpyouimproveyourabilitytoreadtheGreekNewTestamentYouwillfindthemexplainedsimplifiedandperhapsrenderedquiteinterestingintheensuingpages
ForPractice
Translatethefollowingpassagepayingspecialattentiontoitsclausestructure
ΚαὶτοῦτοπροσεύχομαιἵναἡἀγάπηὑμῶνἔτιμᾶλλονκαὶμᾶλλονπερισσεύῃἐνἐπιγνώσεικαὶπάσῃαἰσθήσειεἰςτὸδοκιμάζεινὑμᾶςτὰδιαϕέρονταἵναἦτεεἰλικρινεῖςκαὶἀπρόσκοποιεἰςἡμέρανΧριστοῦπεπληρωμένοικαρπὸν
δικαιοσύνηςτὸνδιὰἸησοῦΧριστοῦεἰςδόξανκαὶἔπαινονθεοῦ
KeyTerms
adjectivalclauseadverbialclausecausalclauseclausecomparativeclausecomplementcompletepredicatecompletesubjectcomplexsentencecompoundpredicatecompoundsentencecompoundsubjectcompound-complexsentenceconcessiveclauseconditionalclausecopulativeverbdeclarativesentencedependentclauseellipsisexclamatorysentencefinalclauseimperativesentenceindependentclauseinterrogativesentenceintransitiveverblinkingverblocalclausemainclausemodifiernounclausenounphrasephrasepredicate
prepositionalphraseresultclausesentencesimplepredicatesimplesentencesimplesubjectsubjectsubordinateclausesubstantiveclausesyntaxtemporalclausetransitiveverbverbalphraseverbalsverbsofincompletepredication
S
3JustinCase
OvercomingDeclensionApprehensionoonerorlatergenerallysoonerthestudentofGreekdiscoversthatlearningalanguageinvolvesagreatdealofmemorizationCaseendingsinnounsarewellacaseinpointldquoHeywhyshouldIhavetolearnsomanysuffixesrdquo
TraditionalresponsestothislamenthavetendedtobeintheldquoifyoucanrsquotstandtheheatstayoutofthekitchenrdquocategoryMyownadviceischeerupTheGreekyouarestudyinghasactuallydoneawaywithanumberofhorrorsthatyouwouldhavehadtolearnifyouwerestudyingProto-Indo-EuropeanthelanguagefromwhichGreekdescendedTheGreeksmadesignificantcutsinboththenumberofcasesandthenumberofdeclensionsthatisthesetsofcaseendingsBesidesthenominativevocativegenitivedativeandaccusativecasesProto-Indo-EuropeanseemstohavehadablativelocativeandinstrumentalcasesaswellTheablativetoldyouwheresomethingwasfromThelocativetoldyouwheresomethingwasTheinstrumentalcasewasusedtosaybymeansofTheothercaseseventuallytookovertheseburdensMoreoverwhenyouconsiderthatthevocativeisidenticaltothenominativeinthepluralofallnounsthenyoureallyonlyhavefourcasestolearn(aswithmodernGerman)IfyoutakethetroubletolearntheseformsthoroughlyyouarehomefreewhichismorethanGreekslaveswomenandchildrenwere
SpeakingofGreekculturetheancientHellenesthoughtitusefultotalkaboutcasesingeometricaltermsThenominativecasewasconsideredtobetheverticalradiusTheotherswereconsideredobliqueradiithatisatanangleThenominativewasthereforeknownastheldquouprightrdquocaseandtheothersasldquoobliquerdquocasesThetermcaseitselfcomesfromtheLatinverbcadoldquoIfallrdquo
bywayofthenouncasusldquoafallingrdquoTheideawasthatwhenyouranthroughacompletesetofcaseformsofanounyoustartedfromstraightupanddowninthenominativethenyoufellprecipitouslythroughthevocativegenitiveanddativecomingtoacrashinghaltattheaccusativeandnotamomenttoosoonThisprocessofrunningmdashorfallingmdashthroughthecompletesetofcaseformsforanounwascalleddeclining(hencethetermdeclension)TodeclineistoturnawayfromthenominativeandmakeanarcalongthepathofthegenitivedativeandaccusativeGreekhasthreedeclensionswhichisanotherwayofsaying
thattherearethreepossibletracksfromnominativetoaccusativeThefirstdeclensiononewouldthinkwouldbetheeasiestofallActuallytheseconddeclensionisthemoststraightforwardandthereforetheoneyougettohearaboutfirstinmostgrammarbooksItisageneralfeatureofsecond-declensionneuternounsthattheyhavethesameendingforthenominativevocativeandaccusativemakinglessworkforthestudentofGreekwhichisalltothegoodWiththemasculinenounsthenominativeandvocativepluralsareallthesameSoforallpracticalpurposestheonlytimeyouhavetogotothetroubleoflearningavocativeendingisformasculinesingularnounsTheso-calledfirstdeclension(whichishardlyeverstudied
first)isalittlemorecomplicatedthanthesecondbutnotmuchMostofthenounsinthefirstdeclensionhappentobefeminineingenderthetinynumberofexceptions(suchasdiscipleandsoldier)arewordsthatdesignatemalepeopleAllpluralsinthefirstdeclensionregardlessofgenderaredeclinedidentically
ThethirddeclensionissortofaldquoleftoversrdquocategoryMostbooksmakeabigdealoutofthisdeclensionwiththeresultthatmanystudentsareterrifiedofthird-declensionnounsThefactisifyoudonrsquotmindhavingtolearntwostemspernounthethirddeclensionisstraightforwardenoughIfyoursuffixesareabitrustysamplenounsofallthree
declensionsaregiveninyourbeginninggrammarHereitisonlynecessarytonotethefollowingfeaturesofthedeclensions
TheGreekarticleisdeclinedaftertheanalogyofthefirstandseconddeclensionsAdjectivesfollowtheanalogyofnounsWhenthemasculineandthefemininediffertheyareusuallydeclinedinthefirstandseconddeclensionsWhenthemasculineandthefemininearethesametheyaredeclinedinthesecondandthirddeclensionsThegreatmajorityofGreekpronounsarefoundinthefirstandthirddeclensionsTheinterrogativeindefiniteandindefiniterelativepronounsaredeclinedinthethirddeclensionMostparticiplesarefoundinthefirstandthirddeclensionsAllthemiddleparticiplesaredeclinedinthefirstandseconddeclensions
TheUsesoftheGreekCases
YouwonrsquotgetveryfarinreadingtheGreekNewTestamentwithoutagoodunderstandingofhowcasesworkInfactabout60percentofallwordsintheNewTestamentusecaseendingsMoreoversomecaseusesarenotoriouslydifficulttopindownThisisespeciallytrueofthegenitiveandtoacertaindegreeofthedativeThegoodnewsisthattheothercasesarerelativelyeasytoclassifyThesignificanceofthecasesofsubstantiveswillbetreated
hereundernounsalthoughadjectivesarticlespronounsinfinitivesandparticiplesalsofunctionassubstantivesWith
eachofthecasesallyouneedtoknowarethemajorcategories[1]Foreachcategoryofcasesgivenbelowyouwillfindtwo
clearexamplesRememberthattheparticularshadeofacasersquosusagedependsonitsrelationshiptotheotherwordsinthesentenceSoalwayslookfortheclassificationthatseemstofittheauthorrsquosintentionthatistheonethatyieldsthemostnaturalreadingoftheverseincontextYoumustalsoguardagainstthedangerofoveremphasizingsubtlepointsofcaseGreekgrammarisatbestsecondarytothecontextbothliteraryandhistoricalintheinterpretationofanypassageofScriptureIfaproposedmeaningcannotbeestablishedapartfromanappealtoasubtletyoftheGreekcasesystemchancesaregoodthattheargumentisworthless
NominativeCase
1SubjectNominativeThenominativeismainlyusedtonamethesubjectofthesentenceTheGreeksinfactcalleditἡὀνομαστικὴπτῶσιςldquothenamingcaserdquoOfcoursethesubjectofthesentencewasoriginallyexpressedbytheverbendingasinλέγ-ειButsincethemeaningofthisendingwasindefinite(hesheorit)itwasoftenfeltnecessarytoldquonamerdquothesubjectmoredefinitelysoanounwasusedThisnounwassimplyafurtherdescriptionofthesubjectthatwasexpressedbythepersonalendingoftheverb
ἄλλοςἄγγελοςἦλθενκαὶἐστάθηanotherangelcameandstood(Rev83)τὸϕῶςἐντῇσκοτίᾳϕαίνειthelightshinesinthedarkness(John15)
2PredicateNominativeLinkingverbssuchasεἰμίγίνομαιandὑπάρχωnevertakeadirectobjecttheyrequirethenominativecaseafterthemThisiscalledthepredicatenominative
ὁλόγοςσὰρξἐγένετοtheWordbecameflesh(John114)ὁθεὸςἀγάπηἐστίνGodislove(1John48)
NoteThepredicatenominativeissometimesreplacedbyεἰςplustheaccusativeintheNewTestamentThisidiomisfrequentintheGreekOldTestamentandisprobablyduetoSemiticinfluenceAnexampleisMark108ἔσονταιοἱδύοεἰςσάρκαμίανldquothetwoshallbecomeonefleshrdquo(literallyldquointoonefleshrdquo)Howcanyoutellwhetherthenominativeisthesubjectorthe
predicate
1 Ifonlyoneisapersonaldemonstrativeorrelativepronounitisthesubject
οὗτοςἄρχωντῆςσυναγωγῆςὑπῆρχενthismanwasarulerofthesynagogue(Luke841)
2 Ifonlyonehasadefinitearticlethatnounisthesubject
θεὸςἦνὁλόγοςtheWordwasGod[hereθεόςisthepredicatebutisfrontedforemphasisldquoitwasGodthattheWordwasrdquo](John11)
3 Ifbothhavethearticletranslatewhichevernouncomesfirstasthesubject
ἡἁμαρτίαἐστὶνἡἀνομίαsinislawlessness(1John34)
3NominativeofAddressWhetherornotanounhasaseparatevocativeformthenominativemaybeusedindirectaddressgenerallywiththearticle
ἀπεκρίθηΘωμᾶςκαὶεἶπεναὐτῷὉκύριόςμουκαὶὁθεόςμουThomasansweredandsaidtohimldquoMyLordandmyGodrdquo(John2028)
τὰτέκναὑπακούετετοῖςγονεῦσινὑμῶνchildrenobeyyourparents(Eph61)
4NominativeAbsoluteIntitlesofbooksepistolarygreetingsdoxologiesshortexclamationsandproverbialexpressionsanominativemayseemasifithasnogrammaticalconnectiontotherestofthesentenceThisuseisalsocalledthehangingnominative
ΠαῦλοςκλητὸςἀπόστολοςΧριστοῦἸησοῦPaulcalledanapostleofChristJesus(1Cor11)ὁνικῶνποιήσωαὐτὸνστῦλονtheonewhoovercomesmdashIwillmakehimapillar(Rev312)
5NominativeofAppellationThenominativemayindicateapropernameininstanceswhereanothercaseseemscalledforInasmuchasthenounisthenamingcasethisuseisquitelogical
ἐντῇἙλληνικῇὄνομαἔχειἈπολλύωνinGreekhehasthenameApollyon[hereἈπολλύωνisnominativeeventhoughitisinappositiontotheaccusativedirectobjectὄνομα(Rev911)ϕωνεῖτέμεὁδιδάσκαλοςκαὶὁκύριοςyoucallmeTeacherandLord[hereδιδάσκαλοςandκύριοςarenominativeeventhoughtheyareinappositiontotheaccusativedirectobjectμε](John1313)
VocativeCase
TheHolyRomanEmpiretheysaywasneitherholynorRomannoranempireLikewisethevocativeisnotatruecaseatallnorisitsmainfunctiontocallsomeone(theLatinverbvocomeansldquoIcallrdquo)ThevocativeissimplyusedfordirectaddressMostvocativesarenounsbutsomeadjectiveshavevocative
forms(egπατὴρδίκαιεldquoHolyFatherrdquo[John1725])Inthe
NewTestamentthereisonlyoneinstanceofavocativeparticiple(τοῖχεκεκονιαμένεldquoyouwhitewashedwallrdquo[Acts233])Thevocativemaybeusedwiththeemphaticparticleὦ(asinὦἄνθρωπεldquoOmanrdquo[Rom21])orwithoutὦ(asinπάτερldquoFatherrdquo[John171])InmostprintedGreekNewTestamentsthevocativeissetoffbycommas
τὸλοιπόνἀδελϕοίμουχαίρετεἐνκυρίῳfurthermoremybrothersrejoiceintheLord(Phil31)ὦγύναιμεγάλησουἡπίστιςOwomangreat[is]yourfaith(Matt1528)
GenitiveCase
ThegenitivecaseisprimarilythedescribingcaseItisolderthantheadjectiveandinfactisbasicallyadjectivalinfunctionButthegenitiveismoreemphaticthantheadjectiveldquobodyofsinrdquo(Rom66)carriesmoresemanticweightthanldquosinfulbodyrdquoThegenitiveisusuallyrelatedtoanothersubstantivebutthatrelationshipisoftenambiguousldquoTherevelationofJesusChristrdquo(Rev11)maymeanldquotherevelationaboutJesusChristrdquoorldquotherevelationfromJesusChristrdquoOnlythecontextcantellThegenitiveisaheavy-dutycaseItgenerallyhasmore
exegeticalsignificancethantheothercasesandissubjecttoawidervarietyofinterpretationsTheresultIregrettosayisoftenacharleyhorsebetweentheearsThemorefrequentusesofthegenitivearelistedbelow
1GenitiveofPossessionThegenitivefrequentlydescribesanounfromtheviewpointofownershiporpossessionAtestforthegenitiveofpossessioniswhethertheprepositionofcanbereplacedbybelongingtoAswithpossessivesgenerallythetermgenitiveofpossessionshouldnotbeidentifiedtoocloselywithideasofactualownershiporpossession
ΠαῦλοςἀπόστολοςΧριστοῦἸησοῦPaulanapostleofChristJesus(2Cor11)ἴδεὁἀμνὸςτοῦθεοῦὁαἴρωντὴνἁμαρτίαντοῦκόσμουLookThelambofGodwhotakesawaythesinoftheworld(John129)
2GenitiveofRelationshipThisisaspecialcategoryofthepossessivegenitivethatindicatesafamilysocialorspiritualrelationshipTheworddefiningtherelationshipisomittedexceptforitsarticleandmustbeinferredfromthecontext(amasculinearticletypicallystandsforsonof)
εὗρονΔαυὶδτὸντοῦἸεσσαίIfoundDavidthe[son]ofJesse(Acts1322)ΜαρίαἡἸακώβουMarythe[mother]ofJames(Luke2410)
3PartitiveGenitiveAgenitivesubstantive(aloneorwithἀπόorἐκandalwaysprecededbythedefinitearticle)canindicatethewholeofwhichsomethingisapart
οἱλοιποὶτῶνἀνθρώπωνtherestofthemen(Luke1811)τοὺςπτωχοὺςτῶνἁγίωνthepooramongthesaints(Rom1526)
4SubjectiveGenitiveLinkedwithanldquoactionnounrdquothegenitiveindicatesthesubjectorproducerofthatactionTheactionnouniswhatdistinguishesthisgenitivefromthepossessivegenitive
τίςἡμᾶςχωρίσειἀπὸτῆςἀγάπηςτοῦχριστοῦWhoshallseparateusfromtheloveofChrist[ldquoloveofChristrdquoimpliesldquoChristlovesusrdquo](Rom835)ἡἐπιθυίατῆςσαρκόςthelustoftheflesh[iethefleshlustsaftersomething](1John216)
5ObjectiveGenitiveConnectedwithanldquoactionnounrdquothegenitiveindicatestheobjectorrecipientofthataction
ζῆλονθεοῦἔχουσινtheyhavethezealofGod[ieldquozealforGodrdquo](Rom102)ἡδὲτοῦπνεύματοςβλασϕημίαοὐκἀϕεθήσεταιbuttheblasphemyoftheSpiritwillnotbeforgiven[ieldquosomeoneblasphemestheSpiritrdquo](Matt1231)
NoteOnlythecontext(therersquosthatwordagain)cantellyouwhetheragenitivethatmodifiesanactionnounissubjectiveorobjectiveForexampledoesτὸκήρυγμαἸησοῦΧριστοῦ(Rom1625)meanldquothepreachingthatJesusChristdidrdquoorldquothepreachingaboutJesusChristrdquoOrdoesδιὰπίστεωςἸησοῦΧριστοῦ(Rom322)meanldquothroughfaithinJesusChristrdquoorldquothroughthefaithfaithfulnessofJesusChristrdquo(cfRom326Gal21620)Suchpassagescontinuetobefuddlescholars(aswellasuslessermortals)
6GenitiveAbsoluteAgenitiveabsoluteconsistsofaclausecontainingagenitiveparticiplewithasubstantivethatagreeswiththeparticipleHoweverthegenitiveabsoluteclausehasonlyaloosesyntacticalconnectionwiththerestofthesentenceInEnglishwehaveasimilarconstructioncalledthenominativeabsoluteldquoIbeingawaymyassistantdidtheworkrdquoHereIandbeingarerespectivelypronounandparticipleinappositionwitheachotherbuttheyaregrammaticallyindependentofthemainclauseInLatintheanalogousconstructionistheablativeabsoluteofwhichDeovolente(ldquoGodwillingrdquo)isanexampleInGreekthegenitiveabsoluteconstructionisusedtoindicatesomeaccessoryideaThegenitivesubstantiveshouldbetranslatedasthesubjectofadependentclauseandtheparticipleasitsverb
γενομένηςὥραςἕκτηςσκότοςἐγένετοἐϕ᾽ὅληντὴνγῆνwhenitwasthesixthhourdarknesscameuponthewholeland(Mark1533)καταszligαινόντωναὐτῶνἐκτοῦὄρουςἐνετείλατοαὐτοῖςὁἸησοῦςwhiletheywerecomingdownfromthemountainJesuscommandedthem(Matt179)
7GenitiveofDirectObjectCertainverbstakeadirectobjectinthegenitiveincludingverbsofsensation(heartouchtastesmell)emotionrulingandaccusing
οἱνεκροὶἀκούσουσιντῆςϕωνῆςτοῦυἱοῦτοῦθεοῦthedeadwillhearthevoiceoftheSonofGod(John525)τότεἥψατοτῶνὀϕθαλμῶναὐτῶνthenhetouchedtheireyes(Matt929)
8GenitiveofMaterialorContentsThegenitivecanspecifythematerialoutofwhichsomethingismadeoritscontents
ἐπίβλημαῥάκουςapatchofcloth(Mark221)ποτήριονὕδατοςacupofwater(Mark941)
9DescriptiveGenitiveAqualitythatcouldhavebeendescribedbyanadjectivemightbeputinthegenitiveThisuseofthegenitiveisnearesttothebasicmeaningofthecase
καρδίαπονηρὰἀπιστίαςanevilheartofunbelief[ieldquoanevilunbelievingheartrdquo](Heb312)λόγοιςτῆςχάριτοςwithwordsofgrace[ieldquowithgracefulwordsrdquo](Luke422)
10GenitiveofAppositionAgenitivemayfollowasubstantiveofanycaseandfurtheridentifythatsubstantiveThisuseisalsocalledtheepexegeticalgenitiveTotellwhetherthegenitiveinquestionisagenitiveofappositionseeifyoucanreplaceofwithwhichisthatisornamely
ὁδοὺςἡμῖντὸνἀρραβῶνατοῦπνεύματοςtheonewhogaveusthedownpaymentoftheSpirit[=whichistheSpirit](2Cor55)ἔλεγενπερὶτοῦναοῦσώματοςαὐτοῦhewasspeakingaboutthetempleofhisbody[=whichishisbody](John221)
NoteAmuchdebatedtextisEphesians49καὶκατέβηεἰςτὰκατώτεραμέρητῆςγῆςDoesthismeanldquohe[Christ]alsodescendedintothelowerpartsoftheearth[thatistotheunderworld]rdquoorldquohealsodescendedintothelowerpartsthatistheearthrdquoThelattertranslationwouldbeareferenceeithertoChristrsquosincarnationor(moreprobably)tothedescentoftheHolySpiritatPentecostOthersignificantpassagespossiblyinvolvingagenitiveofappositionincludeMatthew1239(ldquothesignofJonahrdquo)Acts238(ldquothegiftoftheHolySpiritrdquo)2Corinthians122(ldquothepledgeoftheSpiritrdquo)Revelation210(ldquothecrownofliferdquo)andEphesians215(ldquothelawofthecommandmentsrdquo)
11GenitiveofComparisonThesubstantivewithwhichacomparisonismadeisofteninthegenitive(comparisonisalsomadewithἤ)
ἰσχυρότερόςμούἐστινheisstrongerthanI(Matt311)πολλῶνστρουθίωνδιαϕέρετεyouaremorevaluablethanmanysparrows(Luke127)
12GenitiveofTimeAgenitivemayindicatethetimewithinwhichaneventoccursTimeinGreekmayalsobeexpressedbythedative(pointoftime)andtheaccusative(extentordurationoftime)
οὗτοςἦλθενπρὸςαὐτὸννυκτὸςhecametohimduringthenight(John32)νηστεύωδὶςτοῦσαββάτουIfasttwiceduringtheweek(Luke1812)
13GenitiveofMeasureThisuseofthegenitiveindicateshowmuchorhowfar
ἠγοράσθητεγὰρτιμῆςforyouwereboughtforaprice(1Cor620)οὐχὶδηναρίουσυνεϕώνησάςμοιdidnrsquotyouagreewithmeforadenarius(Matt2013)
14GenitiveofSourceSourcemaybeindicatedbythegenitivealoneorwithἀπόorἐκ
διὰτῆςπαρακλήσεωςτῶνγραϕῶνthroughthecomfortfromtheScriptures(Rom154)ἵναἡὑπερβολὴτῆςδυνάμεωςᾖτοῦθεοῦκαὶμὴἐξἡμῶνinorderthatthesurpassingpowermightbefromGodandnotfromus(2Cor47)
DativeCase
TherootideaofthedativecaseisthatofpersonalinterestpointingoutthepersontoorforwhomsomethingisdoneThedativehasseveralimportantuses
1DativeofIndirectObjectThisisthemostcommonuseofthedativeItnamesthepersonorthingtowhichsomethingisdoneorgiven
πάνταἀποδώσωσοιIwillrepayyouallthings(Matt1826)προσέϕεροναὐτῷπαιδίαtheywerebringingchildrentohim(Mark1013)
2InstrumentalDativeThedative(withorwithoutἐν)canshowtheinstrumentormeansbywhichsomethingisaccomplishedTheEnglishprepositionswithbyorbymeansofmaybeusedtotranslatethisuseofthedative
κατακόπτωνἑαυτὸνλίθοιςslashinghimselfwithstones(Mark55)τῇγὰρχάριτίἐστεσεσῳσμένοιforby[that]graceyouaresaved(Eph28)
3LocativeDativeThelocativedative(withorwithoutἐν)indicatestheplaceorsphereinwhichsomethinghappensPrepositionssuchasinonatuponandbesideareoftenusedtotranslatethelocativedativeintoEnglish
εἴασενπάντατὰἔθνηπορεύεσθαιταῖςὁδοῖςαὐτῶνhepermittedallthenationstowalkintheirways(Acts1416)ἐπέθηκαναὐτοῦτῇκεϕαλῇtheyputitonhishead(John192)
4DativeofTimeThisisaspecialuseofthelocativedativeThewordinthedativeindicatesaparticularpointoftimewithinasuccessionofevents
τῇτρίτῃἡμέρᾳἐγερθήσεταιonthethirddayhewillberaised(Matt2019)τῇμίᾳτῶνσαββάτωνonthefirst[day]oftheweek(Luke241)
5DativeofPossessionPossessionisoccasionallyshownbythedativealongwiththelinkingverbsεἰμίγίνομαιorὑπάρχω
καὶοὐκἦναὐτοῖςτέκνονandtheyhadnochild[literallyldquotherewasnotachildtothemrdquo](Luke17)μονογενήςμοίἐστινheismyonlyson[literallyldquoheisanonlysontomerdquo](Luke938)
6DativeofDirectObjectSomeverbsthatemphasizeaclosepersonalrelationshiptakeadirectobjectinthedativecase
ὑπακούουσιναὐτῷtheyobeyhim(Mark127)δουλεύωνόμῳθεοῦIserveGodrsquoslaw(Rom725)
7DativeofReferenceThisuseofthedativeshowsaninterestthatismoreremotethantheindirectobject
τῇἁμαρτίᾳἀπέθανενHediedtosin(Rom610)ἵνατῷσταυρῷτοῦΧριστοῦμὴδιώκωνταιsothattheymightnotbepersecutedforthecrossofChrist(Gal612)
8DativeofAdvantageorDisadvantageIntheseusesofthedativetheideaofpersonalinterestisemphasizedTheEnglishprepositionforisordinarilyusedintranslatingthedativeofadvantagewhiletheprepositionagainstisusedforthedativeofdisadvantage
ἡτοιμασμένηνὡςνύμϕηνκεκοσμημένηντῷἀνδρὶαὐτῆςpreparedasabrideadornedforherhusband(Rev212)ἡἩρῳδιὰςἐνεῖχεναὐτῷHerodiashadagrudgeagainsthim(Mark619)
9DativeofMannerThedativecasemayshowthemannerinwhichtheactionoftheverbiscarriedout
πᾶσαδὲγυνὴπροσευχομένηἀκατακαλύπτῳτῇκεϕαλῇbuteverywomanprayingwithanuncoveredhead(1Cor115)εἰἐγὼχάριτιμετέχωifIpartakewithgratitude(1Cor1030)
10DativeofAssociationManytimesthedativewillappearaloneinaconstructionthatcouldhavesuvnplusthedative
εἰςἀπάντησινἡμῖνuntoameetingwithus(Acts2815)ὡμιλεῖαὐτῷhespokewithhim(Acts2426)
11DativeofAgencyAsthepersonalagentofapassiveverbthedativeofagencyissimilartoὑπόplusthegenitive
οὐδὲνἄξιονθανάτουἐστὶνπεπραγμένοναὐτῷnothingworthyofdeathhasbeendonebyhim(Luke2315)ὤϕθηἀγγέλοιςhewasseenbyangels(1Tim316)
AccusativeCase
OftheobliquecasestheaccusativeisbyfartheonemostfrequentlyusedintheNewTestamentThebasicideaoftheaccusativeisthatofextensionorlimitationItdescribesthe
extentorlimitationtowhichaqualityoranactormovementisconceivedasapplying
1AccusativeofDirectObjectInitsmostcommonusagetheaccusativereceivestheactionofatransitiveverbThereisgenerallyadistinctreasonforusingsomeothercaseinstead(seethegenitiveofdirectobjectandthedativeofdirectobject)GreekusageisverymuchlikeEnglishasregardsthedirectobjectofatransitiveverbalthoughmanyverbsthataretreatedastransitiveinEnglishareintransitiveinGreekandviceversaForthesepointsthelexiconmustbeconsulted
ἐδίδασκεντοὺςὄχλουςhewasteachingthecrowds(Luke53)καὶἐϕοβήθησανϕόβονμέγανandtheyfearedagreatfear[orldquofearedexceedinglyrdquoherethedirectobjectisacognateoftheverbandisoftencalledacognateaccusative](Mark441)
2DoubleAccusativeCertainverbs(egmaketeachremindconsiderreceiveaskreckonprovecallnameappoint)taketwoaccusatives
ἤρξατοδιδάσκειναὐτοὺςπολλάhebegantoteachthemmanythings(Mark634)εἶχονἸωάννηνὑπερέτηνtheyhadJohn[as]anassistant(Acts135)
3AccusativeofTimeExtentoftimeisindicatedbytheaccusative
εἶδοντὰἔργαμουτεσσεράκoνταἔτηtheysawmyworksforfortyyears(Heb39ndash10)τίὧδεἑστήκατεὅληντὴνἡμέρανἀργοὶwhyareyoustandinghereidleallday(Matt206)
NoteAldquotimerdquonoun(hourdayyear)mayindicatesomethingdistinctiveaboutthetimeofanactiondependingonitscase
Genitive kindoftime (hetaughtbyday)Dative pointoftime (hetaughtonthethird
day)Accusative extentoftime (hetaughtfortwelvedays)
Thesecategoriesarenotairtightboththenominative(Luke928)andthedative(Luke175)candenoteextentoftime
4AdverbialAccusativeThewordintheaccusativeanswersthequestionldquoTowhatdoestheverbrelaterdquoAspecialuseoftheadverbialaccusativeistoexpressthesubjectofaninfinitive
πᾶςὁἀγωνιζόμενοςπάνταἐγκρατεύεταιeveryonewhostrugglesexercisesself-controlinallthings(1Cor925)μετὰτὸπαθεῖναὐτὸνafterhesuffered(Acts13)
Conclusion
My(modest)objectiveinthischapterhasbeentointroduceyoutothemostimportantGreekcaseideasDonrsquotletthembewilderyouTheyaredearfriendsandcloserelativesofourownfamiliarEnglishLikethepotsandpansinafriendrsquoskitchenthewaytheyarearrangedtheirsizesandtheirusesmaydifferfromyourownbuttheyarestilltoolsyoucanlearntouseWhicheverone(orones)youstartwithlookitsquarelyintheeyeseizeitfirmlybythehandandstartusingitatonceinreadingyourGreekNewTestamentSoonyoursquollfindthatthecasesinGreekarelikenewfriendswhotakeyouintotheirhomesshowyouaroundandtreatyouasthoughyouwereoneofthefamily
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingpassage
ΠαῦλοςκαὶΣιλουανὸςκαὶΤιμόθεοςτῇἐκκλησίᾳΘεσσαλονικέωνἐνθεῷπατρὶκαὶκυρίῳἸησοῦΧριστῷχάριςὑμῖνκαὶεἰρήνηΕὐχαριστοῦμεντῷθεῷπάντοτεπερὶπάντωνὑμῶνμνεὶανποιούμενοιἐπὶτῶνπροσευχῶνἡμῶνἀδιαλείπτωςμνημονεύοντεςὑμῶντοῦἔργουτῆςπίστεωςκαὶτοῦκόπουτῆςἀγάπηςκαὶτῆςὑπομονῆςτῆςἐλπίδοςτοῦκυρίουἡμῶνἸησοῦΧριστοῦἔμπροσθεντοῦθεοῦκαὶπατρὸςἡμῶνεἰδότεςἀδελϕοὶἠγαπημένοιὑπὸτοῦθεοῦτὴνἐκλογὴνὑμῶνὅτιτὸεὐαγγέλιονἡμῶνοὐκἐγενήθηεἰςὑμᾶςἐνλόγῳμόνονἀλλὰκαὶἐνδυνάμεικαὶἐνπνεύματιἁγίῳκαὶἐνπληροϕορίᾳπολλῇκαθὼςοἴδατεοἷοιἐγενήθημενἐνὑμῖνδι᾽ὑμᾶς
KeyTerms
accusativeaccusativeofdirectobjectaccusativeoftimeadverbialaccusativedativedativeofadvantageordisadvantagedativeofagencydativeofassociationdativeofdirectobjectdativeofindirectobjectdativeofmannerdativeofpossessiondativeofreferencedativeoftimedeclensiondescriptivegenitivedoubleaccusativeepexegeticalgenitivefirstdeclensiongenitivegenitiveabsolutegenitiveofappositiongenitiveofcomparisongenitiveofdirectobject
genitiveofmaterialorcontentsgenitiveofmeasuregenitiveofpossessiongenitiveofrelationshipgenitiveofsourcegenitiveoftimehangingnominativeinstrumentaldativelocativedativenominativenominativeabsolutenominativeofaddressnominativeofappellationobjectivegenitivepartitivegenitivepredicatenominativeseconddeclensionsubjectnominativesubjectivegenitivethirddeclension
ForFurtherReading
Robertson446ndash543DanaandMantey65ndash95BDF79ndash109Zerwick9ndash26Wallace31ndash205
I
4
TheGoodtheBadandtheUgly
AdjectivesLargeandSmalltwouldbeamightydrearyworldwithoutadjectivesInfactitwouldbejustaworldbecausetherersquodbenowordslikedrearyYoumayhavethoughtthatnounswerefascinatingbutadjectivesmdashwellthatrsquosanotherstoryIngrammarandwritingthefunreallystartswhenyougettodescribethingsandthatrsquoswhereadjectivescomeinTheNewTestamentwritersknewthiswell
δεῖοὖντὸνἐπίσκοπονἀνεπίλημπτονεἶναιμιᾶςγυναικὸςἄνδρανηϕάλιονσώϕρονακόσμιονϕιλόξενονδιδακτικόνμὴπάροινονμὴπλήκτμνἀλλὰἐπιεικῆἄμαχονἀϕιλάργυρον
Nowanoverseermustbeabovereproachthehusbandofonewifesobersensiblerespectablehospitableabletoteachnotgiventodrinkoraviolentpersonbutgentlenotquarrelsomeandnotaloverofmoney(1Tim32ndash3)HerePauluseselevenadjectivesinjusttwoshortverses
PerhapstoavoidstackingupadjectivesinthiswaymostmoderneditorsandlanguageinstructorsadvisetheuseofasfewadjectivesaspossibleAccordingtoonemanualofinstructionldquotheworkofskilledwritersshowsthatverbsandnounscontributemorethanadjectivesingivingareadera
vividandrealimpressionrdquoYetinthisverystatementthekeywordsareskilledvividandrealmdashalladjectivesTakealmostanyliterarypassagebeitintheNewTestamentoramodernworkandrewriteitomittingthemodifiersandseewhatyouhaveleftTryforinstancetakingtheadjectivesoutofthisstanzafromColeridgersquosfamousldquoRimeoftheAncientMarinerrdquo
ThefairbreezeblewthewhitefoamflewThefurrowfollowedfreeWewerethefirstthateverburstIntothatsilentsea
IfthiswerereducedtoldquoThebreezeblewthefoamflewthefurrowfollowedwewerethefirstthateverburstintotheseardquothespellisgoneItrsquostruemdashtheadjectiveisasimportantapartofspeechasitsgoverningnounitdefinesorgivessharpnesstowhatwouldotherwisebeageneralvagueterm
TheFunctionofAdjectives
Howthendoadjectiveswork
MostEnglishadjectivescangobeforenounsandmodifythemldquobighousesrdquoldquoafastcarrdquoldquoanoriginalideardquoAdjectivesthatcangointhispositionarecalledattributiveadjectivesSometimesadjectivesfollowlinkingverbsofwhichthemainexampleistheverbbeAdjectivesthatcangointhispositionarecalledpredicateadjectivesldquoThehouseswerebigrdquoldquoJimrsquoscarwasfastrdquoldquoThatideaisoriginalrdquoThentherearesubstantivaladjectivesmdashadjectivesthatfunctionlikenounsasinthetitletothischapter(takenfromtheClintEastwoodmovie)ldquoTheGoodtheBadandtheUglyrdquo
SomeEnglishadjectivessuchasmereandlattercanonlybeattributiveldquothelatterexamplerdquoisacceptablebutldquotheexamplewaslatterrdquoisnotOtherEnglishadjectivesareusedmainlyinthepredicatepositionTheseincludeasleepawake
aliveandafloatThusldquothebabyrsquosasleeprdquoisgrammaticalbutldquoanasleepbabyrdquoisnot(insteadwesayldquoasleepingbabyrdquo)MostEnglishadjectiveshoweverarebothattributiveandpredicatethatistheycangoineitheroneofthetypicaladjectivalpositionsInolderEnglishitwascommontoputattributiveadjectives
afternounsespeciallyinpoetryldquoHearrivedatthepalacegrandrdquoInmodernEnglishthisispossibleonlyinafewfixedphrasesldquosecretarygeneralrdquoldquopoetlaureaterdquoldquopresidentelectrdquoldquojoyunspeakablerdquoldquocourtmartialrdquo(ieamilitarycourt)ldquonotarypublicrdquo(ieapublicnotary)Greekadjectivesenjoythesameflexibilityofbeingpre-orpostpositionedMostlanguageshaveadjectivesthoughsomehaveveryfew
AfewlanguageshavenoadjectivesatallsuchasAcehnesealanguagespokeninnorthernSumatraGreekisanadjective-lovinglanguagethoughtheadjectiveisnottheonlydeviceinGreekwhosepurposeistodescribeAswesawinchapter3thesameforcebelongstothegenitiveespeciallythegenitiveofdescriptionandthegenitiveofappositionTheGreekadjectivebeganitscareerasanounThisusage
survivesinEnglishldquothisisanapplerdquo(noun)butldquothisisanapplecartrdquo(adjective)GraduallyadistinctclassofwordsbecameldquoadjectivesrdquoTheirGreeknameὀνόματαἐπίθεταaptlycallsattentiontotheirfunctionasdescriptivewordsorldquoepithetsrdquothatareaddedtonounsmuchasalabelisaddedtoabottletodescribeitscontentsUnliketheadmirablesimplicityoftheuninflectedEnglish
adjectiveGreekadjectivesaredeclinedontheanalogyofthenounandarerequiredtoagreewiththeirnounsingendernumberandcase
ThemajorityofGreekadjectiveshavethreeendingsthatisoneforeachgenderἀγαθόςἀγαθήἀγαθόνNotethatthemasculineandneuterbelongtotheseconddeclensionwhilethefemininemdashthemiddleformmdashbelongstothefirstAnotherclassofadjectivesofthreeendingsbelongstothefirstandthirddeclensionsπᾶςπᾶσαπᾶν
AgroupofadjectivesbelongingtotheseconddeclensionhasonlytwoendingsἄπιστοςἄπιστονYetanothergroupbelongingtothethirddeclensionhastwoendingsἀληθήςἀληθές
Youcanupdateyourdatabankofadjectivedeclensionsbyconsultingyourfirst-yeargrammar
UsesoftheGreekAdjective
TheGreekadjectiveisverymuchlikeitsEnglishcousinIthasfourdistinctusesattributivepredicatesubstantivalandadverbial
1TheattributiveadjectivemodifiesasubstantivebyldquoattributingrdquoaqualitytoitTheattributiveadjectivecanusuallyberecognizedbythearticlethatprecedesitτὸζῶνὕδωρldquothelivingwaterrdquoFrequentlytheadjectivefollowsthenounτὸὕδωρτὸζῶνldquothelivingwaterrdquo[literallyldquothewaterthelivingrdquo](John411)ThemeaningisthesamebutthelatterpositionisemphaticOccasionallytheattributiveadjectiveisusedwithoutanarticleasinὕδωρζῶνldquolivingwaterrdquo(John410)InsuchconstructionsthenounalsodoesnothavethearticleFurtherexamplesoftheattributiveadjectiveinclude
ἀπὸτῆςπρώτηςἡμέραςἄχριτοῦνῦνfromthefirstdayuntilnow(Phil15)ἐγώεἰμιὁποιμὴνὁκαλόςIamthegoodshepherd(John1011)οὗτόςἐστινὁἀληθινὸςθεόςthisisthetrueGod(1John520)ὡςἔχρισεναὐτὸνὁθεὸςπνεύματιἁγίῳhowGodanointedhimwiththeHolySpirit(Acts1038)μόνῳσοϕῷθεῷtotheonlywiseGod(Rom1627)δώσουσινσημεῖαμεγάλακαὶτέραταtheywillprovidegreatsignsandwonders(Matt2424)
2Thepredicateadjectivemakesastatement(orldquopredicatesrdquosomething)aboutthesubjectτὸϕρέαρἐστὶνβαθύldquothewellisdeeprdquo(John411)AlinkingverbmayormaynotaccompanytheadjectiveμακάριοιοἱπτωχoὶτῷπνεύματιldquoBlessed[are]thepoorinspiritrdquo(Matt53)ThepredicateadjectiveoccurswithalltensesandmoodsaswellaswiththeinfinitiveandparticipleNotethatthepredicateadjectiveisneverimmediatelyprecededbyanarticle
οὐκεἰμὶἱκανὸςκαλεῖσθαιἀπόστολοςIamnotworthytobecalledanapostle(1Cor159)ἔσταιπάντωνἔσχατοςhewillbelastofall(Mark935)ἄξιοςὁἐργάτηςτοῦμισθοῦαὐτοῦaworker[is]worthyofhiswages(1Tim518)ἵναἦτετέλειοικαὶὁλόκληροιinorderthatyoumaybeperfectandcomplete(James14)δι᾽ἧςἐμαρτυρήθηεἶναιδίκαιοςbywhichitwastestifiedthathewasrighteous(Heb114)δι᾽ὑμᾶςἐπτώχευσενπλούσιοςὤνhebecamepoorforuseventhoughhewasrich(2Cor89)καὶεὐχάριστοιγίνεσθεandbegrateful(Col315)τίμέλέγειςἀγαθόνwhydoyoucallmegood(Luke1819)
3TheadjectivemayrecoveritsoriginalsubstantivalcharacterandperformthefunctionofanounThisiscalledthesubstantivaladjectiveTheadjectiveisimmediatelyprecededbythearticleifoneispresent
ῥύσαιἡμᾶςἀπὸτοῦπονηροῦdeliverusfromtheevilone(Matt613)ὁδίκαιοςἐκπίστεωςζήσεταιthejustwilllivebyfaith(Gal311)ὑμεῖςχρῖσμαἔχειεἀπὸτοῦἁγίουyouhaveananointingfromtheHolyOne(1John220)
ἀγαπητέμὴμιμοῦτὸκακὸνἀλλὰτὸἀγαθόνbeloveddonotimitateevilbutgood(3John11)ἀπὸμικροῦἕωςμεγάλουαὐτῶνfromtheleasttothegreatestofthem(Heb811)
4SometimestheadjectivemodifiesaverbalidearatherthanasubstantiveandthereforefunctionslikeanadverbThisisknownastheadverbialadjectiveTheadjectivewillusuallybeintheaccusativecasethoughthenominativegenitiveanddativecasesarealsofound
εὑρέθηἸησοῦςμόνοςJesuswasfoundalone(Luke936)τοῦλοιποῦκόπουςμοιμηδεὶςπαρεχέτωfromnowonletnoonecausemetrouble(Gal617)καθὼςπροέγραψαἐνὀλίγῳjustasIwrotebeforebriefly(Eph33)ἔτιμικρὸνμεθ᾽ὑμῶνεἰμιyetalittlewhileIamwithyou(John1333)
TheComparisonofAdjectives
ComparisonisthemethodbywhichanadjectiveexpressesagreaterorlesserdegreeofthesamequalityMostadjectivesarecapableofexpressingthreedegreesofthequalityindicatedknownaspositivedegree(ldquolargerdquo)comparativedegree(ldquolargerrdquo)andsuperlativedegree(ldquolargestrdquo)ThepositivedegreeexpressessimplythequalityofanobjectwithoutreferencetoanotherobjectldquoyourhorseislargerdquoThecomparativedegreeshowsthatanobjecthasmoreorlessofaqualitythansomeotherobjectorobjectswithwhichitiscomparedldquoyourhorseislargerthanminerdquoThesuperlativedegreeexpressesthegreatestorleastamountorintensityofaqualitythatisfoundamongalltheobjectscomparedldquoyourhorseisthelargestinthestablerdquoThecomparativeandsuperlativedegreesareexpressedin
Greekbyadding-τεροςand-τατοςtothestemofadjectivesoftheseconddeclensionandtothestemofthoseadjectives
endinginηςinthethirddeclensionSometimesthefinaloofthestemislengthenedtoωForexample
Positive Comparative Superlativerighteous δίκαιος δικαιότερος δικαιότατοςstrong ἰσχυρός ἰσχυρότερος ἰσχυρότατοςwise σοϕός σοϕώτερος σοϕώτατος
Someadjectivesformtheirdegreesofcomparisonirregularly
Positive Comparative Superlativegood ἀγαθός κρείσσων κράτιστοςgreat μέγας μείζων μέγιστος
Anadjectiveinthecomparativedegreeisfollowedeitherbyanounorpronouninthegenitivecaseorbyἤ(ldquothanrdquo)followedbyanounorpronouninthesamecaseasthenounorpronounwithwhichtheadjectiveagreesσoϕώτερόςἐστιντοῦυἱοῦorσοϕώτερόςἐστινἢὁυἱόςldquoheiswiserthanhissonrdquoStrictlyspeakingthecomparativedegreeindicatesa
contrastbetweentwoelementswhilethesuperlativedegreeindicatesacontrastamongthreeormoreelementsldquoWhowasstrongerKingKongorGodzillardquoldquoWhoisthestupidestoftheThreeStoogesrdquoIntheGreekoftheNewTestamenthoweverthereisatendencytoldquopushthedegreesdownrdquoThepositiveadjectivetendstobeusedforthecomparativeandthecomparativeforthesuperlativeThussuperlativeadjectivesrarelyhavethetruesuperlativeideaInsteadtheideaisusuallyelativewiththemeaningveryὄχλοςπλεῖστος(Mark41)meansldquoaverylargecrowdrdquonotldquothelargestcrowdrdquoAnexceptiontothisruleisὕψιστοςldquohighestrdquoTheelativesensewouldbeldquoveryhighrdquobutGodisalwaysregardedasldquotheHighestrdquo(seeMatt219Mark57)Thetendencytousethecomparativeforthesuperlativeisseenin1Corinthians1313Herethecomparativeformisusedwiththreeobjectsldquonow
abidefaithhopelovebutthegreateroftheseisloverdquoThemeaninghoweverisclearldquothegreatestoftheseisloverdquoKnowinghowcomparisonworkswithGreekadjectivescanbe
veryusefulintranslationandinterpretationLookforthefollowingusesPositiveAdjectives
ἀπoστυγoῦντεςτὸπονηρόνκολλώμενοιτῷἀγαθῷhatingtheevilclingingtothegood(Rom129)ὁνόμοςπνευματικόςἐστινtheLawisspiritual(Rom714)ἡἐντολὴἁγίακαὶδικαίακαὶἀγαθήthecommandment[is]holyandrighteousandgood(Rom712)καλόνσοίἐστινμονόϕθαλμονεἰςτὴνζωὴνεἰσελθεῖνitisbetterforyoutoenterlifewithoneeye[herethepositiveadjectiveκαλόνisusedasacomparative](Matt189)αὕτηἐστὶνἡμεγάληκαὶπρώτηἐντολήthisisthegreatestandmostimportantcommandment[herethepositiveadjectivesμεγάληandπρώτηareusedassuperlatives](Matt2238)
ComparativeAdjectives
τὸμωρὸντοῦθεοῦσοϕώτεροντῶνἀνθρώπωνἐστινthefoolishnessofGodiswiserthanpeople(1Cor125)μείζωνὁπροϕητεύωνἢὁλαλῶνγλώσσαιςgreateristheonewhoprophesiesthantheonewhospeaksintongues(1Cor145)μείζοναταύτηςἀγάπηνοὐδεὶςἔχειnoonehasgreaterlovethanthis(John1513)ἸησοῦςπλείοναςμαθητὰςποιεῖκαὶβαπτίζειἢἸωάννηςJesusismakingandbaptizingmoredisciplesthanJohn(John41)ζηλοῦτεδὲτὰχαρίσματατὰμείζοναbutyouareseekingthemostspectaculargifts[herethecomparativeadjectiveμείζοναisusedasasuperlative](1Cor1231)
SuperlativeAdjectives
ἸησοῦυἱὲτοῦθεοῦτοῦὑψίστουJesusSonoftheHighestGod(Luke828)ἐγὼγάρεἰμιὁἐλάχιστοςτῶνἀποστόλωνforIamtheleastoftheapostles(1Cor159)μετάγεταιὑπὸἐλαχίστουπηδαλίου[ships]areturnedbyaverysmallrudder[herethesuperlativeadjectiveἐλαχίστουisusedinanelativesense](James34)
NumeralsasAdjectives
NumeralsareaspecialclassofadjectivesTheymaybedividedintotwomainclassescardinalsandordinalsAcardinalisanynumberusedincounting(onetwothreeetc)Anordinalindicatesorderorsuccession(firstsecondthirdetc)Numeralsdonotpermitcomparison
οἱγὰρπάντεςἐκτοῦἑνὸςἄρτουμετέχομενforweallpartakeoftheoneloaf(1Cor1017)ἐποίησενδώδεκαheappointedtwelve(Mark314)ἀναιρεῖτὸπρῶτονἵνατὸδεύτερονστήσῃhetakesawaythefirstinorderthathemayestablishthesecond(Heb109)οὗτοςὁθάνατοςὁδεύτερόςἐστινthisistheseconddeath(Rev2014)
AdjectivesatPlay
GreekadjectiveslikeEnglishonesareaplaygroundofexcitementSteprightthroughthegateandwatchsomeofthestrangestwordsastheyclamberoverthejunglegymsandcareendowntheslidingboardsaqueousabstemiousadventitiousdetartratedpareciousquadriliteralIfyoursquoresittingtherescratchingyourheadimaginewhatthe
EphesiansmusthavethoughtwhentheyencounteredPaulrsquosἐλαχιστότερος(Eph38)TheyknewthatἐλάχιστοςmeantldquoleastrdquobutPaulwantingtoexpresshissenseofpersonal
unworthinessaddedacomparativeendingtothissuperlativestemAsἐλάχιστοςisalreadyasuperlativePaulrsquoswordcanonlymeanldquoleasterrdquoOrtakeJohnrsquosdoublecomparativeμειζοτέρανldquomoregreaterrdquo(3John4)PerhapsthisisbestrenderedasinPidginEnglishldquomorsquobettardquoOrhowaboutthatstrangeandwonderfulexpressionἅγιαἁγίωνldquoHolyofHoliesrdquo(Heb93)HerethepositiveadjectiveismostlikelybeingusedforthesuperlativeldquoHoliestPlacerdquoIfthatrsquosthecaseshouldnrsquotwetranslateβασιλεὺςβασιλέωνandκύριοςκυρίωνldquoKingliestKingrdquoandldquoLordliestLordrdquoWatchoutforthosemerry-go-roundsandseesaws
Conclusion
Ifyouhavereadthisbriefchaptercarefullyyouareadiligentandresponsiblestudent(andpossiblytalldarkandhandsometoboot)Atleastyouareabletounderstandhowthosefascinatingwordscalledadjectivesworkmdashandplay
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingsentences
1 οὐκἔστινδοῦλοςμείζωντοῦκυρίουαὐτοῦ2 αὕτηνεωτέραἐστινἢαὐτῆςἡἀδελϕή3 τὸἀσθενὲςτοῦθεοῦἰσχυρότεροντῶνἀνθρώπων4 οἱυἱοὶτοῦαἰῶνοςτούτουϕρονιμώτεροιτῶνυἱῶντοῦϕωτός
5 ὁπατήρμουπάντωνμεῖζόνἐστιν6 δώδεκαμήνεςἐνἔτειεἰσιν7 ἐγώεἰμιἡἄμπελοςἡἀληθινήκαὶὁπατήρμουὁγεωργόςἐστιν
8 οὗτοιοἱλόγοιπιστοὶκαὶἀληθινοί9 μεγάλησουἡπίστις10 οίδώδεκασὺνἸησοῦἦσανἐνπόλειτινί11 δύουἱοὶἀνθρώπῳτινιἦσαν
12 τὸσῶμαχωρὶςπνεύματοςνεκρόνἐστιν13 μεγάληἡἀγάπητοῦθεοῦ14 πιστὸςὁλόγος15 οὗτοςμέγαςκληθήσεταιἐντῇβασιλείᾳτῶνοὐρανῶν16 πολλὰτὰσκεύητοῦίεροῦ17 ἡπίστιςχωρὶςἔργωννεκράἐστιν18 πολλοὶτυϕλοὶἐντῇὁδῷεἰσιν19 διὰτοῦτοοἱυἱοὶτοῦΘεοῦμακαριώτεροι
KeyTerms
adjectivesadverbialadjectiveattributiveadjectivecardinalcomparativedegreecomparisonofadjectiveselativenumeralsordinalpositivedegreepredicateadjectivesubstantivaladjectivesuperlativedegree
ForFurtherReading
Robertson650ndash75DanaandMantey115ndash22BDF125ndash29Zerwick47ndash51Wallace291ndash314
P
5WoeIsI
OvercomingPronounParanoiaronounsarethoseremarkablyhandylittlewords(Iyousheitthemetc)thatspareusthetroubleofhavingtorepeattheactualnameofapersonplaceorthingeachtimewerefertoapersonplaceorthingHandyastheyarehoweverpronounsarecommonstumblingblocksinGreekmdashevenforthegrammaticallysureoffootAndgiventhenatureofpronounsitrsquosnowonder
Themainproblemwithpronounsisthattheyareinflectedthatistheirformschangefromonesituationtothenextἐγώμουandμεallrefertothesamepersonbutyoucanrsquotusethesewordsinterchangeablyasiftheyweremix-and-matchdinnerplatesEachformhasitsproperplaceAndtoputtheproperformofthepronouninitsproperplaceyouneedtoknowsomethingaboutthedifferentrolesthatpronounscanplayinasentenceTheseroleswillbethefocusofthischapterFirstthoughabriefintroductiontopronounusageingeneral
TheBasicsofPronounUsage
UnderstandingpronounusagepresupposesyourabilitytohandlethreebasictaskseitherconsciouslyorautomaticallyYoumustbeabletoidentifythepronounrsquosantecedentyou
mustbeabletorecognizewhatcasethepronounisinandyoumustknowitspersongenderandnumberIfallthisisfamiliartoyouyoucangodirectlytoourdiscussionofpersonalpronounsbelowOtherwiseitwouldbeagoodideatospendamomentlookingovertheexplanationsthatfollowTheantecedentofapronoun(sometimesreferredtoasthe
referent)isthewordorwordsforwhichthepronounsubstitutesInthesentenceldquoEachmanhashisrewardrdquotheantecedentofthepronounhisismanInthesentenceldquoJohnandIhavecompletedourtravelplansrdquothepronounisourandtheantecedentsareJohnandICasereferstowhatfunctionthepronounisperforminginthe
sentenceThecategoriesarenominative(subject)genitive(possessor)dative(indirectobject)andaccusative(directobject)ItmustbestressedthatthecaseofapronounisindependentofitsantecedentThusfourpronounsinthesamesentencecansharethesameantecedentbutstillplaydifferentrolesinthesentenceasinldquoSamwantstomakesurethatwhenhe[subject]arrivesnextweeksomeonewillbeattheairporttomeethim[directobject]tohelpcarryhis[possessor]suitcasesandtohandoverthenewofficekeystohim[indirectobject]rdquoHereallfourpronounshavethesameantecedentmdashSammdashbuteachplaysadifferentroleinthesentencePersonisthetermusedtodistinguishthepersonactually
doingthespeaking(firstperson)fromthepersonbeingspokento(secondperson)andfromtheperson(orthing)beingspokenabout(thirdperson)ThesecategoriesandtheircorrespondingpronounformsinEnglishareasfollows
FirstpersonImemymineweusouroursSecondpersonyouyouryoursThirdpersonhehimhissheherhersititstheythemtheirtheirs
GenderofcourseindicateswhethertheantecedentismasculinefeminineorneuterNumberreferstowhetherthe
antecedentrepresentsonepersonplaceorthing(singular)ormorethanone(plural)
PersonalPronouns
TheGreekpersonalpronouns(whichoddlyenoughincludepronounsappliedtothings)are
FirstPersonSingular Plural
N ἐγώ ἡμεῖςG ἐμοῦorμου ἡμῶνD ἐμοίorμοι ἡμῖνA ἐμέorμε ἡμᾶς
SecondPersonSingular Plural
N σύ ὑμεῖςG σοῦorσον ὑμῶνD σοίorσοι ὑμῖνA σέorσε ὑμᾶς
ThirdPersonSingular PluralM F N M F N
N αὐτός αὐτή αὐτό αὐτοί αὐταί αὐτάG αὐτοῦ αὐτῆς αὐτοῦ αὐτῶν αὐτῶν αὐτῶνD αὐτῷ αὐτῇ αὐτῷ αὐτοῖς αὐταῖς αὐτοῖςA αὐτόν αὐτήν αὐτό αὐτούς αὐτάς αὐτά
ThesepronounsarequitecommonintheNewTestament(some10779occurrences)andforgoodreasonTheyhavethreemainfunctions
FirsttheyrelieveboredomldquoIseethemanandteachthemanrdquoismuchbetterexpressedasldquoIseethemanandteachhimrdquoComparethesamesentencesinGreek
βλέπωτὸνἄνθρωπονκαὶδιδάσκωτὸνἄνθρωπονβλέπωτὸνἄνθρωπονκαὶδιδάσκωαὐτόν
ThesecondsentenceispreferableasitislessredundantSecondpersonalpronounsgivespecialemphasisObserve
thefollowingsentences
διδὰσκωκαὶμανθάνειςIteachandyoulearnἐγὼδιδάσκωἀλλὰσὺμανθάνειςIteachbutyoulearn
TheseparateGreekpronounsἐγώandσύclearlyemphasizethesubjectsoftheirrespectiveverbsThirdthegenitiveofthepersonalpronounisthemost
commonmeansofshowingpossession
ὁλόγοςμου=thewordofme=mywordτὸτέκνοναὐτῆς=thechildofher=herchildαἱἁμαρτίαιαὐτῶν=thesinsofthem=theirsins
NowoneofthemosthallowedprinciplesofgrammaristhatpronounsagreewiththeirantecedentsingenderandnumberbutaswesawnotnecessarilyincaseTakeforexamplethesentenceἡγυνὴἔρχεταικαὶβλέπωαὐτήνldquoThewomaniscomingandIseeherrdquoHerethepronounαὐτήνisfeminineandsingularasisitsantecedentγυνήHoweverαὐτήνisaccusative(astheobjectofβλέπω)whileγυνήisnominative(asthesubjectofἔρχεται)Itshouldbeobviousthatapersonalpronounmatchesgender
withitsantecedentinitsownlanguageβλέπωτὸνοἶκονκαὶἔρχομαιεἰςαὐτόνldquoIseethehouseandgointoitrdquoInGreekοἶκον(house)theantecedentofthepersonalpronounisamasculinenounandsoamasculinepronoun(αὐτόν)mustbeusedInEnglishhoweverhouseisneuterandsoweusethe
pronounitnothimLikewiseγινώσκωτήνἀλὴθειανκαὶπιστεύωαὐτήνldquoIknowthetruthandbelieveit[nother]rdquoΑὐτόςisusedidiomaticallyintwootherwayswhichmustbe
carefullydistinguished(1)Whenitisintheattributiveposition(ieplacedbetweenthearticleanditsnoun)itisanadjectivemeaningldquosamerdquoὁαὐτὸςἄνθρωποςldquoThesamemanrdquo(2)WhenitisusedinagreementwithanothersubstantiveitisanintensivepronounmeaninghimselfherselfetcαὐτὸςδιδάσκειτὸνὄχλονldquoHehimselfteachesthecrowdrdquo
PossessivePronouns
Thepossessivepronounsofthefirstandsecondpersonsareasfollows(thereisnothird-personpossessivepronoun)
ἐμός mymineσός youryoursἡμέτερος ouroursὑμέτερος youryours
Possessivepronounsarereallyadjectivesofthesecondandfirstdeclensionsandinthemannerofallself-respectingGreekadjectivesalwaysagreewiththeirnouningendernumberandcasePossessivepronounsaregenerallyequivalenttothepossessivegenitiveofthepersonalpronoun
ὁἐμὸςκύριοςmyLord=ὁκύριόςμουὁἡμέτεροςκύριοςourLord=ὁκύριοςἡμῶν
NotethatwhenanounisqualifiedbyapossessivepronounitgenerallyhasanarticleinfrontofitPossessivepronounsareusedinfrequentlyintheNew
Testamentpossiblywithabitmoreemphasisthanthecustomarygenitiveformofthepersonalpronoun(InolderEnglishminehadthesamefunctionasinldquoMineeyeshaveseenthegloryrdquo)ReflexivePronouns
ReflexivepronounsareusedwhenthesubjectrsquosactionldquoreflectsrdquobackuponhimselforherselfTheyareformedbycombiningthepersonalpronounswiththeobliquecasesofαὐτός(Therearenoreflexivepronounsinthenominative)Thefollowingexamplesarealloftheaccusativecase
ἐμαυτόν myselfσεαυτόν yourselfἑαυτόν himselfἑαυτήν herselfἑαυτό itselfἑαυτούς ourselvesyourselves
themselves
IntheNewTestamentthegenitiveformἑαυτοῦissometimesshortenedtoαὑτοῦ(notetheroughbreathing)Littlemoreneedbesaidaboutthereflexivepronounsafteralltheyspeakforthemselves
ReciprocalPronouns
Thereciprocalpronounἀλλήλων(oneanother)isareduplicationofἄλλος(another)andoccursonlyintheobliquecasesἀγαπῶμενἀλλήλους(1John47)ldquoletusloveoneanotherrdquoΕἷςτὸνἕναcanexpressthesamesenseδιὸπαρακαλεῖτεἀλλήλουςκαὶοἰκοδομεῖτεεἷςτὸνἕναldquothereforeencourageoneanotherandbuildoneanotheruprdquo(1Thess511)Sometimesthereflexivepronounisusedasareciprocalλαλοῦντεςἑαυτοῖςldquospeakingtooneanotherrdquonotldquospeakingtoyourselvesrdquo(Eph519)
RelativePronouns
TheGreekrelativepronounὅςἥὅmdashsocalledbecauseitldquorelatesrdquotosomeoneorsomethingpreviouslymentionedmdashfollowsthedeclensionofthedefinitearticleItmustagreewith
itsantecedentingenderandnumberbutitscaseisdeterminedbyitsfunctioninitsownsentenceAclearunderstandingofthesyntaxoftherelativeisessentialInthesentenceldquothevoicethatIheardwasloudrdquothereare
twodistinctclausesaprincipalclause(ldquothevoicewasloudrdquo)andasubordinate(orrelative)clause(ldquothatIheardrdquo)ThatisarelativepronounanditsantecedentisvoiceSuchasentencethatanswersthequestionldquowhatrdquoisadjectivalinforceandisthereforecalledanldquoadjectivalclauserdquo(seechapter2)InthecomplexsentenceldquothevoicethatIheardwasloudrdquo
therelativepronounthatmustbefemininesingularinGreekbecausevoiceisfemininesingularButwhereasvoiceisthesubjectoftheverbwasandthereforenominativethatistheobjectoftheverbheardandthereforeaccusativeHencetheGreeksentencewouldreadἡϕωνὴἣνἤκουσαμεγάληἦνOccasionallytherelativeagreesnotwiththegrammatical
genderofitsantecedentbutwithitsnaturalgenderπαιδάριον[neuter]ὃς[masculine]ἔχειldquoasmallboywhohasrdquo(John69)In1Corinthians1510εἰμὶὃεἰμίldquoIamwhatIamrdquoisnotagrammaticalblooperByreferringtohimselfwiththeneuterpronounPaulwantstobringoutaqualitativeforceΕἰμὶὃςεἰμίldquoIamwhoIamrdquowouldhavegivenquiteadifferenttwisttoPaulrsquosthoughtIncertainconstructionsthecaseoftherelativepronounis
saidtobeldquoattractedrdquotothecaseoftheantecedentκαὶτῆςδιαθήκηςἧςδιέθετοὁθεὸςldquoandofthecovenantthatGodappointedrdquo(Acts325)Thepronounἧςhasbeenattractedtothecaseofδιαθήκηςeventhoughitistheobjectoftheverbδιέθετo(thepronounwouldnormallyhavebeenintheaccusative)FrequentlyGreeklikeEnglishomitstheantecedentaltogetherwherenoambiguityexistsὃςβλέπειμεσωθήσεταιldquo[he]whoseesmewillbesavedrdquoTherelativepronounisinvolvedinafewidiomsἀϕ᾽οὗ
meanssinceὃςἄνmeanswhoeverandὃἐστινcanintroduceaninterpretationthatisOccasionallyasuperfluouspersonalpronounmeetsusinsomerelativesentencesγυνήἧς
τὸθυγάτριοναὐτῆςldquoawomanwhoselittledaughterrdquo(Mark725)mdashliterallyldquoawomanwhoseherlittledaughterrdquoὍστιςiscommonlycalledtheindefiniterelativepronoun
Itsometimesmeanswhoeverandispracticallyconfinedtothenominativeὅστιςἥτιςὅτι(singular)οἵτινεςαἵτινεςἅτινα(plural)HoweverthereisusuallynorealdifferencebetweentherelativepronounὅςandtheindefiniterelativepronounὅστιςrsquoΑβραὰμὅστιςἀπέθανενldquoAbrahamwhodiedrdquo(John853)
InterrogativePronouns
TheusualinterrogativeintheNewTestament(occurringsome500times)isτίς(masculineandfeminine)andτί(neuter)Ποῖος(usedonly33times)normallyasksaqualitativequestion(ldquoWhatsortrdquo)whileπόσος(27times)asksaquantitativequestion(ldquoHowmuchrdquo)TίςandτίaredeclinedaccordingtothepatternofthethirddeclensionTheinterrogativemaybeusedasanadjectiveτίναμισθὸν
ἔχετεldquowhatrewarddoyouhaverdquo(Matt546)oritmaybeusedasasubstantiveτίςὑπέδειξενὑμῖνldquowhowarnedyourdquo(Matt37)Attimestheneuterinterrogativeformτίasksldquowhyrdquoτί
ἐποίησαςτοῦτοldquowhydidyoudothisrdquo
IndefinitePronouns
TheindefinitepronounτιςisgenerallytranslatedsomeoneanyoneoracertainoneItisdistinguishedfromitsclosecousintheinterrogativepronounτίςbygenerallyhavingnoaccent(thoughitmaybeaccentedinsomepositions)andbythefactthatitcannotstandasthefirstwordinasentenceOtherwisetheseldquocousinsrdquoaresoclosesoastorequireaDNAtesttodistinguishonefromtheother(theyaredeclinedidentically)Thepositionofτιςwhenmodifyinganounisgenerallyafter
thenounἄνθρωπόςτις[noteaccentuation]ldquoacertainmanrdquo
InsomeinstancesthisapproachestheEnglishindefinitearticleandmaybetranslatedaoranκαίτιςἀνήρldquoandamanrdquo(Acts32)Incertainpassagestheadjectiveπᾶς(eachevery)seemsto
beusedasavirtualequivalentofτις(seeMatt522πᾶςὁὀργιζόμενοςldquoanyonewhoisangryrdquo)
DemonstrativePronouns
ThisandthatwiththeirpluralstheseandthosearecalleddemonstrativepronounsTheGreekdemonstrativesοὗτος(this)andἐκεῖνος(that)agreewiththenounstheymodifyingendernumberandcasejustlikeadjectivesWhentheyqualifyanounthenounalwayshasthearticleοὗτοςὁἄνθρωποςorὁἄνθρωποςοὗτοςldquothismanrdquoἐκείνηἡἐντολήorἡἐντολὴἐκείνηldquothatcommandmentrdquoWhenοfοὗτοςstandsbyitselfwithoutanywordexpressed
forittoagreewithitmeansthismanLikewiseαὕτηmeansthiswomanτοῦτοmeansthisthingταῦταmeansthesethingsandsoonTheformsofἐκεῖνοςcanbeusedthesameway(ἐκεῖνοςthatmanἐκείνηthatwomanἐκεῖνοthatthingἐκεῖναthosethingsetc)SometimesthedemonstrativeforceofοὗτοςandἐκεῖνοςisdiminishedintheNewTestamentespeciallyintheGospelofJohnτοῦτονἰδὼνὁἸησοῦςldquowhenJesussawhimrdquo(John56)
Conclusion
WhenKingCanuteorderedtheseatostoprisingitroseanywayTheseaofpronounsisasinexorableTheNewTestamentcontainsover16500pronounsTheyshowupinfour-fifthsofitsversesIfafterreadingthischapteryoudonothaveabetterhandleontheseubiquitouswordssendmeanindignantletterandIwillprintagrovelingapologyinthenexteditionofthisbook(assumingofcoursethattherewillbeanextedition)Meanwhiletheexercisesbelowwilldepictthespiritofthepronouninitsvariousmanifestations
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingsentences
1 οὗτοιοἱἄνθρωποιἀπέθνῃσκονἐντῇἐρήμῷ2 οὗτοςοὖνἦνμαθητὴςἸωάννου3 αὗταιἐντῷπλοίῳἔμενον4 αὕτηγὰρἦνἡἐντολὴαὐτοῦ5 ἐνἐκείνῃτῇἡμέρᾳἐδόξαζονοἱἀπόστολοιτὴνσοϕίαντοῦκυρίου
6 αὐτὸςγὰρσώσειτὸνλαόν7 ἔπεμπεναὐτὴνἀπὸτοῦἱεροῦ8 οὗτοίεἰσινοἱοἶκοιαὐτῆς9 ἄνθρωπόςτιςτοῦτολέγει10 ὁμὴὢνμετ᾽ἐμοῦκατ᾽ἐμοῦἐστιν11 τίςἐκτῶνδύοἐποίησεντὸθέληματοῦπατρός12 τότεπροσῆλθεναὐτῷγυνήτις13 κύριεεἰσὺθέλειςκέλευσόνμεἐλθεῖνπρόςσε14 σὺμὲνεἶδοῦλοςἐγὼδὲἐλεύθερος15 ἐβούλοντοἀκούειντοὺςλόγουςοὓςἐλάλειὁἸησοῦς16 ἐγώσεκελεύωἐξέρχεσθαιἐκτῦςοἰκίας17 οἱαὐτοὶἄγγελοιἑτοιμάσουσινἑαυτοὺςπορεύεσθαι18 ἕξετεζωὴνἐνἑαυτοῖς19 πορεύσομαιπρὸςτὴναὐτὴνοἰκίαν20 τίβαπτίζειςεἰσὺοὐκεἶὁΧριστός21 εἶπεναὐτῇὁἸησοῦςἘγώεἰμιἡἀνάστασιςκαὶἡζωή22 αὕτηἦνπλήρηςἔργωνἀγαθῶν23 τοῦτοτὸποτήριονἡκαινήδιαθήκηἐστιν24 πῶςδύναταίτιςεἰσελθεῖν25 τίνιὁμοιώσωτὴνγενεὰνταύτην26 οὗτόςἐστινὁυἱόςμουὁἀγαπητόςἐνᾧεὐδόκησα27 κοινωνίανἔχομενμετ᾽ἀλλήλων
28 καὶἡκοινωνίαδὲἡἡμετέραμετάτοῦπατρὸςκαὶμετάτοῦυἱοῦἸησοῦΧριστοῦ
29 πᾶσαιαἱγυναῖκεςἔδωκαντῷπατρὶαὐτῶντὸαὐτὸδῶρον30 αὐτὸτὸπνεῦμασυνμαρτυρεῖτῷπνεύματιἡμῶν31 ὁἄνθρωποςᾧἔπεμψαδῶραἔρχεται32 οὐχὑμεῖςμεἐξελέξασθεἀλλ᾽ἐγὼἐξελεξάμηνὑμᾶς33 ἐγὼἠγάπησάσε34 τίςἥμαρτενοὗτοςἢοἱγονεῖςαὐτοῦ35 μὲσοςὑμῶνἕστηκενὃνὑμεῖςοὐκοἴδατε36 παρακαλῶσεπερὶτοῦἐμοῦτέκνουὃνἐγέννησαἐντοῖς
δεσμοῖς37 κατηργήθητεἀπὸΧριστοῦοἵτινεςἐννόμῳδικαιοῦσθε38 ἐνποίᾳἐξoυσίᾳταῦταποιεῖς39 πόσουςἄρτουςἔχετε40 εἰυἱὸςεἶτοῦθεοῦβάλεσεαυτὸνκάτω41 εὔχεσθεὑπὲρἀλλήλων42 ἡκρίσιςἡἐμὴδικαίαἐστίνὃτιοὐζητῶτὸθέληματὸἐμόν
KeyTerms
antecedent
demonstrativepronoun
indefinitepronoun
indefiniterelativepronouninterrogativepronoun
personalpronoun
possessivepronoun
pronoun
reciprocalpronoun
referent
reflexivepronoun
relativepronoun
ForFurtherReading
Robertson676ndash753DanaandMantey122ndash35BDF145ndash61Zerwick63ndash71Wallace315ndash54
G
6
HaveMercyonMetheSinner
ThoseArticulateArticles
reekasyouknowhasadefinitearticlemdashtheItlackshoweveranindefinitearticlewhichforsomereasonwas
neverdevelopedinthehistoryofthelanguageIndefinitenessmaybeshownbytheabsenceofthearticleorbytheindefinitepronounτιςorbythenumeralεἷςwithpracticallythesameforceastheEnglishaoranνομικόςτιςldquoalawyerrdquo(Luke1025)εἷςγραμματεύςldquoascriberdquo(Matt819)WhenthearticleisusedinGreekthenounissaidtobearticularorarthrous(theGreekwordἄρθρονmeansldquoarticlerdquo)whenitisnotusedthenounisanarthrousTheGreekarticlesystemisnotunlikeitsEnglish
counterpartArticlesareusedtoshowwhetherwearereferringtothingsthatareknowntothespeakerandthelistenerThinkofitasthe=weknowwhichoneInotherwordsweusethebeforeanounwhenouraudienceknows(orcanfigureout)whichparticularpersonorthingwearetalkingaboutCompare
Didyoulockthecar[Thelistenerknowsverywellwhichcarismeant]Werentedacarwhenwetraveledlastsummer[Thelistenerdoesnotknowwhichone]
Thelistenermayknowwhichonewemeanbecause
1 Wementioneditbefore
ShehastwochildrenaboyandagirlTheboyrsquosfourteenandthegirlrsquoseight
AtthatpointIgavethemoneybacktothepoliceofficer[Thespeakerusesthebecausethelistenerhasalreadyheardaboutthemoneyandthepoliceofficer]
2 Wesaywhichonewemean
WhorsquosthegirlovertherewithJohnTellPatthestoryaboutJohnandMaryWhatdidyoudowiththebookIlentyou
3 Itisclearfromthesituationwhichonewemean
CouldyouclosethedoorMaryrsquosinthekitchenWhatrsquosthetime
4 Wearetalkingaboutsomethingunique
IhavenrsquotseenthesunfordaysTheJapaneseareinthenewsthesedays
5 Wearedescribingacommonfeatureoflife
MywifelikesthebeachbutIpreferthemountainsIlovelisteningtothewind
6 Wearegeneralizingaboutthemembersofagroup
ThetigerisindangerofbecomingextinctLifewouldbequieterwithoutthetelephone
InmanyoftheseexamplesthebehavesverymuchlikethedemonstrativepronounthisThisisnotacoincidenceTheGreekdefinitearticlewasbornademonstrativepronounandithasalwaysretaineditsdemonstrativeforceInthewritingsofHomer(ca800BC)forexampleὁἡτόarethecommonestofthedemonstrativepronounstheyldquodemonstraterdquoorpointoutindividualidentity
ItisessentialtorememberthatinGreekasinLatin(whichhasnoarticle)anounmaybedefinitewithoutthearticleThusinMatthew23wehaveὁβασιλεὺςἩρῷδηςbecausetheemphasisisonthefactofHerodrsquosbeingking(ldquoHerodthekingrdquo)whileinLuke15wehaveἐνταῖςἡμέραιςἩρῷδουβασιλέωςldquointhedaysofKingHerodrdquoemphasizingacertainperiodoftime(theldquoKingHeroddaysrdquo)Whenadefinitenounlacksthearticlestressisbeingplaced
onthequalitativeaspectofthenounratherthanonitsidentityorparticularityInJohn427forexamplethedisciplesweresurprisedthattheirMasterwouldtalkμετὰγυναικόςldquowithawomanrdquoLikewiseaqualitativeforceisseeninthefactthatGodhasspokenἐνυἱῷldquoin[onewhosestatusis]Sonrdquoincontrasttohispreviousspeakingἐντοῖςπροϕήταιςldquointheprophetsrdquo(Heb11ndash2)Prepositionalphrasesusuallyimplysomeideaofqualityandtheanarthrousnouniscommoninsuchphrasesἐνἀρχῇldquoin[the]beginningrdquo(John11)
GeneralUsesoftheArticle
WhenyouareengagedinexegesisyoucannotaffordtoneglectthearticleItisthemostfrequentwordintheNewTestamentoccurringabouttwentythousandtimesoronceineverysevenwordsThefollowingareitsmostimportantuses
1 ThearticlecanservetomakeasubstantiveparticularὁθεόςἱλάσθητίμοιτῷἁμαρτωλῷldquoGodhavemercyonmethesinner[thatIam]rdquo(Luke1813)Thepointofthepenitentrsquosprayerislargelymissedunlesswenotethearticle
2 Theso-calledanaphoricuseofthearticlehasanevenmoreparticularizingfunctionAnaphora(theGreekshadawordforeverything)isthereferencebacktowhatisknownorassumedtobeknownldquoHesawtwoboatsGettingintooneoftheboatsrdquo(Luke52ndash3)AnynounonceithasbeenusedcanbesodefinedAdditionalexamplesinclude
πόθενοὖνἔχειςτὸὕδωρτὸζῶνwherecanyougetthelivingwater[towhichyoujustreferred](John411)WemayalsorenderthisldquoWherecanyougetthislivingwaterrdquoτῇγὰρχάριτίἐστεσεσῳσμένοιforbythegrace[justspokenof]youaresaved(Eph28)Herethearticlepointsbacktoverse7ldquohis[Godrsquos]gracerdquoThismayalsoberenderedldquoForbysuchgraceyouaresavedrdquoμήδύναταιἡπίστιςσῶσαιαὐτόνcanthe[aforementioned]faithsavehim(James214)TherenderingldquoCanfaithsavehimrdquo(KJVandothers)impliesthatapersonisnotsavedbyfaithButinthefirstpartoftheverseJamesinquiresldquoWhatisthebenefitmybrothersifsomeonesayshehasfaith[πίστινanarthrous]butdoesnothaveworksrdquoThenheasksldquoSuchfaith[ἡπίστιςarthrous]isnotabletosavehimisitrdquoThearticlewiththeseconduseofπίστιςdesignatestheparticularkindoffaithJameshasinmindmdashnon-works-producingfaithJamesrsquospointisthatgenuinefaithmustexpressitselfinworks
3 ThearticlemaybeusedwithpropernamessuchasJesusPaulJohnetcThusἸωάννηςmaydenoteanynumberofindividualsbutὁἸωάννηςisaparticularindividualbearingthisnameIngeneralthearticleisusedwithpropernamesonlyanaphorically(toindicatethatitisthepersonmentionedpreviously)orwithcertainwell-knownpersonsNoteΣαῦλοςinActs81butὁΣαῦλοςin91Κορνήλιοςin101butὑπὸτοῦΚορνηλίουin1017Otherwisethearticleisgenerallyomittedbeforepropernames
4 AbstractnounsinGreekareoftenaccompaniedbythearticlewhentheintentistogivethemaparticularapplicationasin1Corinthians1114ἡϕύσιςαὐτὴδιδάσκειldquo[the]natureitselfteachesrdquoSimilarlyνόμοςπνεῦμαθάνατοςνεκροίandἔθνηregularlytakethearticleintheNewTestamentthoughEnglishrarelytranslatesthearticleinsuchinstancesThearticlersquos
appearancewithabstractnounsisnotauniversalrulehoweverχάρινἀντὶχάριτοςldquograceinplaceofgracerdquo(John116)
5 Thearticlemaymakeasubstantiverepresentativeofacategoryofitemsὁποιμὴνὁκαλὸςτὴνψυχὴναὐτοῦτίθησινὑπὲρτῶνπροβάτωνldquothegoodshepherdgiveshislifeforthesheeprdquo(John1011)ThisiscalledthegenericuseofthearticleNotealsoldquotheoverseermustbeblamelessrdquo(1Tim32)ldquothefoxeshavelairsandthebirdsofheavennestsrdquo(Matt820Luke958)ldquotherockrdquoandldquothesandrdquo(Matt724ndash26)SometimesEnglishidiompreferstheindefinitearticlewhereGreekhasthedefinitearticleἄξιοςγὰρὁἐργάτηςτοῦμισθοῦαὐτοῦldquoforaworker[is]worthyofhiswagerdquo(Luke107)
6 TheGreekarticleisoftenusedwherewewouldusethepossessivepronouninEnglishΠαῦλοςἐκτείναςτὴνχεῖραldquoPaulreachingouthishandrdquo(Acts261)ἀπενίψατοτὰςχεῖραςldquohewashedhishandsrdquo(Matt2724)
7 ThearticlemaybeusedtoidentifythecaseofanindeclinablewordortomakeasubstantiveoutofanotherpartofspeechortorelateaphraseorclausetosomeotherpartofasentenceThusἐκτούτωντῶνδύοldquoofthese[the]twordquo(Acts124)ἀπὸτοῦνῦνldquofrom[the]nowrdquo(Luke510)καὶοὐχεὕρισκοντὸτίποιήσωσινldquoandtheycouldnotfind[the]whattheymightdordquo(Luke1948)Thisprinciplemayapplytoadjectivesadverbsparticiplesinfinitivesprepositionalphrasesclausesandevenentiresentencesτὸεἰδύνῃπάνταδυνατὰτῷπιστεύοντιldquo[Asfor]the[remark]lsquoIfyoucanrsquomdashallthingsarepossibletotheonewhobelievesrdquo(Mark923)
8 Theoriginalnatureofthearticleasapronouncanstillbeseenintheuseofthearticleasapersonalpronounὁδὲἐπεῖχεναὐτοῖςldquoandhe[orthatone]wasobservingthemrdquo(Acts35)Thisconstructionfrequentlyinvolvesaparticipleοἱμὲνοὖνδιασπαρέντεςδιῆλθονεὐαγγελιζόμενοιτὸνλόγονldquothenthosewhohadbeen
scatteredwenteverywherepreachingthewordrdquo(Acts84)Theparticlesμὲνδέmaybecoordinatedwiththearticletofunctionlikeapronounοἱμὲνἦσανοἱδέldquosomewerebutothersrdquo(Acts144)AproblematicinstanceisMatthew2817οἱδὲἐδίστασανDoesthismeanldquothey[thatisallofthedisciples]doubtedrdquoldquosome[ofthedisciplesbutnotall]doubtedrdquoorldquoothersdoubtedrdquoThegrammarpermitsallthreeinterpretations
9 TherepetitionofthearticlewithsomewordorphrasethatmodifiesthenounisemployedforemphasisHerethearticlefunctionsasamildrelativepronounὁλόγοςὁτοῦσταυροῦldquothewordthat[is]ofthecrossrdquo(1Cor118)
SpecialRulesfortheArticle
TwospecialrulesareColwellrsquosRuleandtheGranvilleSharpRuleECColwellrsquosRulestatesthatadefinitepredicatenominativeifitprecedesthelinkingverboccurswithoutthearticleapproximately87percentofthetime[1]καὶθεὸςἦνὁλόγοςldquoandtheWord[subjectnominativewiththearticle]wasGod[predicatenominativewithoutthearticle]rdquo(John11)IfthearticlewerealsousedwithθεόςthestatementwouldmeanthatallofGodwasexpressedintheWordAsitistheWordisneitherldquoaGodrdquonorequalwiththesumtotalofGodTheotherpersonsoftheTrinityareimpliedinθεόςWemightparaphrasetheentiretyofJohn11asfollowsldquoInthebeginningtheWordexistedandtheWordwaswiththeDeity[τὸνθεόν]andtheWordwasDeity[θεός]rdquoComparealso
σὺεἶὁυἱὸςτοῦθεοῦyouaretheSonofGod(John149)σὺβασιλεὺςεἶτοῦἸσραήλyouaretheKing[notaKing]ofIsrael(John149)ἐγώεἰμιτὸϕῶςτοῦκόσμουIamthelightoftheworld(John812)ὅτανἐντῷκόσμῳὦϕῶςεἰμιτοῦκόσμουaslongasIamintheworldIamthelight[notalight]oftheworld(John95)
TheGranvilleSharpRulestatesthatifasinglearticlelinkstwoormoresingularsubstantivesthesecondandsubsequentsubstantivesfurtherdescribethefirst[2]CompareforexampleπροσδεχόμενοιτὴνμακαρίανἐλπίδακαὶἐπιϕάνειαντῆςδόξηςτοῦμεγάλουθεοῦκαὶσωτῆροςἡμῶνἸησοῦΧριστοῦldquolookingfortheblessedhopeandtheappearanceingloryofourgreatGodandSaviorJesusChristrdquo(Titus213)ThusldquotheblessedhoperdquoisldquotheappearanceingloryrdquoandldquoourgreatGodandSaviorrdquoisldquoJesusChristrdquoNotethatSharprsquosruledoesnotapplytopersonalnamesτὸνΠέτρονκαὶἸάκωβονκαὶἸωάννηντὸνἀδελϕὸναὐτοῦldquoPeterandJamesandJohnhisbrotherrdquo(Matt171)NordoesitapplytopluralsτινεςτῶνγραμματέωvκαὶΦαρισαίωνldquosomeofthescribesandPhariseesrdquo(Matt1238)
Conclusion
EverycategoryofNewTestamentlanguageaboundsindepthsoftruththatcaptivatetheheartInthischapterwenoticedtruthrevealedevenintheGreekarticlesItisvitaltobearinmindthatwecannotdeterminethe
EnglishtranslationbythepresenceorabsenceofthearticleinGreekSometimeswewillusethearticleinEnglishwhenitisnotusedinGreekandsometimestheforceoftheGreekarticlemaybestberenderedbyananarthrousEnglishnounThebestruleinthismatteronceagainiscommonsense
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingsentences
1 ἀλλ᾽εἰσὶνἐξὑμῶνοἳοὐπιστεύουσιν2 ἡδὲΜάρθαπεριεσπᾶτοπερὶπολλὴνδιακονίαν3 ἀλλ᾽ἡτελείαἀγάπηἔξωβάλλειτὸνϕόβον4 πᾶςὁπιστεύωνἐπ᾽αὐτῷοὐκαταισχυνθήσεται5 μακάριοιοἱἐλεήμονεςὅτιαὐτοὶἐλεηθήσονται
6 ἡγὰραὔριονμεριμνήσειἑαυτῆς7 ὁλόγοςγὰρὁτοῦσταυροῦτοῖςμὲνἀπολλυμένοιςμωρίαἐστίν
8 κατανοήσατετὸνἀπόστολονκαὶἀρχιερέατῆςὁμολογίαςἡμῶν
9 ὑμεῖςδὲτὸνἅγιονκαὶδίκαιονἠρνήσασθε10 μακάριοςὁγρηγορῶνκαὶτηρῶντὰἱμάτιααὐτοῦ11 μακάριοιοἱπεινῶντεςκαὶδιψῶντεςτὴνδικαιοσύνην12 καὶαὕτηἐστινἡμαρτυρίατοῦἸωάννου13 καὶἐπλήσθηπνεύματοςἁγίουἡἘλισάβετ14 ἈβραὰμἐγέννησεντὸνἸσαάκἸσαὰκδὲἐγέννησεντὸν
Ἰακώβ15 χάριτιδὲθεοῦεἰμιὅεἰμι16 κύριοντὸνθεόνσουπροσκυνήσεις17 οὕτωςλαμψάτωτὸϕῶςὑμῶνἔμπροσθεντῶνἀνθρώπων18 ὁκλέπτηςοὐκἔρχεταιεἰμὴἵνακλέψῃκαὶθύσῃκαὶ
ἀπολέσῃ19 βασιλεύςεἰμιτῶνἸουδαίων20 σὺοὖνεἶὁυἱὸςτοῦθεοῦ21 ἐγὼΠαῦλοςἔγραψατῇἐμῇχειρί22 μὰρτυςγάρμούἐστινὁθεός23 πρὸτοῦδὲἐλθεῖντήνπίστινὑπὸνόμονἐϕρουρούμεθα24 καὶἐθαύμαζονἐντῷχρονίζεινἐντῷναῷαὐτόν25 καὶπροσελθὼνεἷςγραμματεὺςεἶπεναὐτῷΔιδάσκαλε
ἀκολουθήσωσοι
KeyTerms
anaphoricuseofthearticleanarthrousarthrousarticlearticularColwellrsquosRule
genericuseofthearticleGranvilleSharpRule
ForFurtherReading
Robertson754ndash96DanaandMantey135ndash53BDF131ndash45Zerwick53ndash62Wallace206ndash90
P
7
UpUpandAway
ThosePreposterousPrepositionsrepositionsoftenraiseeyebrowsYearsagoaprepositionthatendedasentencewaspunishablebythestudentrsquosequivalentofthedeathpenaltymdashrewritingacompositionWinstonChurchillIamtoldoncehadaspeechcriticizedbecausehebrokethisruleldquoThisisthesortofEnglishupwithwhichIwillnotputrdquowashisclassicrejoinderHisstatementofcourseisclearlymoreawkwardthanitsalternativewhichendswithapreposition(twoinfact)ldquoThisisthesortofEnglishwhichIwillnotputupwithrdquoLetrsquosfaceititrsquossometimeshardtoavoidusingaprepositiontoendasentencewith
TheGeneralUseofPrepositions
BydefinitionaprepositionisasmallwordthatoccursbeforeanounphraseandcombineswithittomakeaprepositionalphraseThetermprepositionitselfreflectsthisldquoprepositionrdquoorldquopositionbeforerdquonounphrasesApostpositionisjustlikeaprepositionexceptthatitfollowsitsnounphraseGenerallyagivenlanguagehaseitherprepositionsorpostpositionsHerearesomeexamplesfromapostpositionallanguagePanjabi
spokenbyabout20millionpeopleinnorthwestIndiaandPakistan(PanjabiisanIndo-EuropeanlanguageandthereforeadistantrelativeofbothEnglishandGreek)
janvarinu=Januaryin=inJanuarygharto=housefrom=fromthehousemanjeute=bedon=onthebed
BothprepositionsandpostpositionstypicallyexpressrelationshipsintimeorspaceorbetweenthingsandeventsExamplesofEnglishprepositionsaretoinatbyforwithunderoverbelowafterandsinceInEnglishtherearesometwo-word(andeventhree-word)sequencesthatactjustlikesingle-wordprepositions(eginsteadofnexttoinfrontof)FromthepointofviewofgrammarthesesequencesbehavelikesinglewordsandarebestregardedasbeingprepositionsInanylanguagetherearerelativelyfewprepositionscomparedtosomeoftheotherpartsofspeechsuchasnounsandverbsAprepositioncanformaprepositionalphrasewitha
followingnounphraseThefollowingareallprepositionalphrasesformeunderthecouchsincetheJanuarystormbeforetheSecondWorldWarandwithhisfatherWhenaprepositionalphraseisusedtomodifyanounitformsanewlargernounphrasewiththenoun
theonlyoneformethebookunderthecouchtheperiodsincetheJanuarystormaconferencebeforetheSecondWorldWartheboywithhisfather
Prepositionalphrasesthatmodifynounsareoftenequivalenttolongerrelativeclauseswiththeverbbeasin
thebookthatwasunderthecouchtheboywhowaswithhisfather
Whenprepositionalphrasesmodifyverbsorwholeclausestheyareofteninterchangeablewithadverbsasintheseexamples
itcrawledunderthecouch=itcrawledthereshewasbornbeforetheSecondWorldWar=shewasbornthen
Aprepositionalphrasecanalsobeusedasapredicatethatiswiththeverbbeoranotherlinkingverbsuchasremainorbecome
yourbookisunderthecouchPaulremainedwithhisfather
InGreekprepositionstendtocausetroublebecausesomeofthemgovernasmanyasthreecasesInEnglishhoweverallprepositionstaketheobjective(accusative)case
ProperPrepositions
TheGreekprepositionswereoriginallyadverbs(andarestillsousedwhencompoundedwithverbs)Greekhaseighteenso-calledproperprepositionsmdashldquoproperrdquointhattheymaybeusedbothindependentlyandincompositionwithverbs
properprepositionsusedwithonecaseonly(1)genitiveἀντίἀπόἐκπρό(2)dativeἐνσύν(3)accusativeἀνάεἰςproperprepositionsusedwithtwocases(genitiveandaccusative)διάκατάμετάπερίὑπέρὑπόproperprepositionsusedwiththreecases(genitivedativeaccusative)ἐπίπαράπρός
TheremainingproperprepositionἀμϕίthoughusedindependentlyinClassicalGreekoccursintheNewTestamentonlyincompositionwithverbs
TheseeighteenprepositionsareconstantlybeingprefixedtoverbsasinἐκβάλλωldquoIthrowoutrdquofromβάλλωldquoIthrowrdquoThefollowingaretheprincipalmeaningsoftheproperprepositionswhencompoundedwithverbs
ἀμϕί=around(ἀμϕιβάλλω)ἀνά=up(ἀναβαίνω)upagainback(ἀναζάω)ἀντί=against(ἀντιλέγω)instead(cfthenounἀντίλυτρον)ἀπό=awayoff(ἀπολύω)oftenintensive(ἀποκτείνω=ldquoIkilloffrdquo)διά=through(διαβαίνω)oftenintensive(διαμαρτύρομαι=ldquoIsolemnlydeclarerdquo)εἰς=into(εἰσάγω)ἐκ=out(ἐκβάλλω)ἐν=in(ἐγκρύπτω)into(ἐμβαίνω)ἐπί=upon(ἐπιβαίνω)κατά=against(κατακρίνω)down(καταϕέρω)oftenintensive(καταδιώκω=ldquoIhuntdownrdquo)μετά=with(μετέχω)oftendenoteschange(μετανοέω)παρά=beside(παραλαμβάνω)at(πάρειμι)περί=around(περιβάλλω)toexcess(περιεργάζομαι)πρό=before(προγινώσκω)forth(προβάλλω)πρός=towards(προσέρχομαι)to(προσάγω)σύν=with(συγχαίρω)ὑπέρ=over(ὑπεραίρομαι)beyond(ὑπερszligάλλω)ὑπό=under(ὑποδέω)denotessubmission(ὑποτάσσω)
Notethatphonologicalchangesmustbeallowedforincompoundverbsἐκbecomesἐξbeforeavowel(egἐκ+ἄγω=ἐξάγω)ἐνandσύνbecomeἐγandσυγbeforegutturals(egἐν+κρύπτω=ἐγκρύπτω)andσύνbecomesσυλbeforeλandσυμbeforealabialorμ(egσυν+μαρτύρομαι=συμμαρτύρομαι)
ImproperPrepositions
Unliketheabovetheso-calledimproperprepositionscannotbecompoundedwithverbsTheyarereallyadverbsandnearlyallgovernthegenitivecaseBelowisalistofthemostcommonimproperprepositions
ἅμαtogetherwithἄνευwithoutἄχρι(ς)untilἐγγύςnearἔμπροσθενbefore
ἐναντίονinfrontofagainstoppositeἕνεκαorἕνεκενforthesakeofἐνώπιονbeforeinthepresenceofἔξωoutsideἐπάνωaboveἔσωwithinἕωςasfarasμέσονinthemidstofμεταξύbetweenμέχρι(ς)untilὀπίσωὄπισθενbehindafterὀψέattheendofπλήνexceptπλησίονnearπαραπλήσιονverynearὑπερέκειναbeyondχάρινforthesakeofχωρίςapartfrom
TheCharacterofPrepositions
TheGreekprepositionshavereallyverylittletosayforthemselvesthathasnrsquotalreadybeensaidasplainlyasthelexiconsandreferencegrammarscouldpossiblyhavesaidit(seethepostscript)HereIshouldsimplyliketosayafewwordsaboutthecharacterofNewTestamentprepositionsbeforeyoubegintointerpretthemDuetoSemiticinfluencetheNewTestamentuseof
prepositionshasseveraldistinctivecharacteristicsincluding
anincreaseinthefrequencyofprepositionalphrasesthefrequencyofaprepositionalphrasewithεἰςafterlinkingverbstheuseofἐνtoexpressinstrumentalityaccompanimentandcausalitythefrequentuseofἔμπροσθενreflectingtheHebrewliphnecirc
therepetitionofaprepositionwitheachnounconnectedbyκαίtohighlightthedistinctionbetweenthem
AsaresultofthesedistinctivesyoushouldbeawareofseveralpitfallsinexaminingprepositionalusageintheNewTestament
BecarefulnottoinsistonClassicalGreekdistinctionsForexampleinKoineGreekbothεἰςandἐνcanexpresstheideaoflocationhencethereisnoneedtoinsistondirectionormovementforεἰςinJohn118(ldquointothebosomoftheFatherrdquo)Otherexamplesofinterchangeincludeὑπέρandπερί(egπερὶπολλῶνinMatt2628isὑπὲρπολλῶνinMark1424)ἀπόandἐκ(cfMatt716withLuke644)ἀπόandπαρά(cfJohn133withJohn162728)andπρόςandεἰς(cfMark538fwithMark111)AlwaysmakeallowanceforawriterrsquosstyleTheNewTestamentwritersoftenuseddifferentprepositionsinsuccessivephrasessimplytoavoidrepetitionortovarytheirstyle(noteforexamplethatbothἀπόandἐκareusedwithτοῦοὐρανοῦinJohn63842)OntheotherhandonemustassumethattheNewTestamentwriterschosetheirprepositionswithcareForexampleinthelastclauseoftheLordrsquosPrayer(Matt613b)itisrelevanttoobservethatἀπόnotἐκfollowsῥῦσαιIntheNewTestamentἀπόisusedwithpersonswhileἐκdenotesdeliverancefromnon-personalenemiesHenceitisprobablethatτοῦπονηροῦmeansldquotheevilonerdquoratherthanldquoevilrdquoBecauseaprepositiontendstoberepeatedbeforeeachnouninaseriesofnounsjoinedbyκαίsometimesthenon-useofasecondorthirdprepositioninNewTestamentGreekmaybesignificantindicatingthatthewriterregardedthetermsinonelistasbelongingtogetherinconceptorrealityThephraseἐξὕδατοςκαὶπνεύματοςinJohn35isapossibleexampleldquowaterandSpiritrdquotogetherformasinglemeansofregenerationSimilarlythefactthatldquoGodourFatherrdquoandldquotheLordJesusChristrdquoarejoinedby
asinglepreposition(ἀπό)inthePaulinesalutationssuggeststhattheapostleviewedtheFatherandtheSonasajointsourceofldquograceandpeacerdquo(cf1Cor13)
Conclusion
TosumupinanydiscussionoftheNewTestamentprepositionstwooppositedangersaretobeavoidedtotreatthemassynonymouseverywheretheyappearandtoinsistontoorigidadistinctionbetweenthemAswithsomanyotherthingsinlifeithelpstobea(passionate)moderate
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingsentences
1 περιπατῶνδὲπαρὰτὴνθάλασσανεἶδενδύοἀδελϕούς2 εἰσέλθετεδιὰτῆςστενῆςπύλης3 ἐπειδὴγὰρδιrsquoἀνθρώπουὁθάνατοςκαὶδιrsquoἀνθρώπουἀνάστασιςνεκρῶν
4 καὶχρηματισθέντεςκατrsquoὄναρμὴἀνακάμψαιπρὸςἩρώδηνδιrsquoἄλληςὁδοῦἀνεχώρησανεἰςτὴνχώραναὐτῶν
5 οὐπερὶτούτωνδὲἐρωτῶμόνον6 ἔπειταμετὰἔτητρίαἀνῆλθονεἰςἹεροσόλυμα7 καθrsquoἡμέρανπρὸςὑμᾶςἐκαθεζόμηνδιδάσκωνἐντῷἱερῷ8 εἰὁθεὸςὑπὲρἡμῶντίςκαθrsquoἡμῶν9 μὴκρίνετεκατrsquoὄψινἀλλὰτὴνδικαίανκρίσινκρίνετε10 καὶἀπολαβόμενοςαὐτὸνἀπὸτοῦὄχλουκατrsquoἰδίανἔβαλε
τοὺςδακτύλουςαὐτοῦεἰςτὰὦτααὐτοῦ11 καὶὁπεσὼνἐπὶτὸνλίθοντοῦτονσυνθλασθήσεται12 ἐξεπλήσσοντοοἱὄχλοιἐπὶτῇδιδαχῇαὐτοῦ13 εἴτιςὑμᾶςεὐαγγελίζεταιπαρrsquoὃπαρελάβετεἀνάθεμα
ἔστω14 καὶγὰρἐγὼἄνθρωπόςεἰμιὑπὸἐξουσίανἔχωνὑπrsquo
ἐμαυτὸνστρατιώτας
15 δικαιωθέντεςοὖνἐκπίστεωςεἰρήνηνἔχομενπρὸςτὸνθεὸνδιὰτοῦκυρίουἸησοῦΧριστοῦ
KeyTerms
improperprepositionspostpositionprepositionprepositionalphraseproperprepositions
ForFurtherReading
Robertson553ndash649DanaandMantey96ndash115BDF110ndash25Zerwick27ndash135Wallace355ndash89
8
TenseTimeswithVerbs(1)
AnOverviewofGreekInflectionsTommyIainrsquotgoing
TeacherDonrsquotsayldquoainrsquotrdquoSayldquoIamnotgoingyouarenotgoingheisnotgoingrdquo
TommyAinrsquotnobodygoing
OrmaybeyouheardtheoneaboutthemanwhowentontrialforhavingpulledawomandownthestreetbyherhairWhenthejudgeaskedthearrestingofficerldquoWasshedruggedrdquothepolicemanrepliedldquoYessirawholeblockrdquoBothjokesrelyonthefactthatverbsinEnglisharecrazy
fraughtwithpuzzlingunpredictabilitySomeverbsformtheirpasttensebyadding-d-edor-tasinwalkwalkedbendbentOthersgobackintimethroughaninternalvowelchangemdashbeginbegansingsangAnotherclusteradds-dor-tandundergoesaninternalvowelchangemdashloselostbringbroughtAndstillothersdonrsquotchangeatallmdashsetsetputputGreekverbsarenolessconfusingthantheirEnglishcousins
Ifyoudonrsquotagreetryformingthepasttenseofeat(ἐσθίω)orofbring(ϕέρω)withoutyourbreathquickeningoryoureyesglazingTheslopesofthismountainouslinguisticterrainarefilledwiththedeadanddyingmdashpeoplewhowereconjugatedparsedandinflectedintooblivionYetyoucanrsquotgetawayfromverbsWithoutaverbyou
cannothaveacompletesentenceSoyoumightsaythatverbsarethemostimportantpartofasentence
HowtheGreekVerbWorks
WersquovealreadyseenthataGreeknouncanbedividedintotwoelementsthestemandtheendingItrsquosthesamewiththeverbexceptthatyoucanalsoaddsomethingtothefrontofthestemaswellaschangetheappearanceofthestemitselfAllofthesechangesarecalledinflectionsSoyoubeginwiththestemandseparateitfromitsinflectionsThenyouexaminetheinflectionstofindalltheinformationtheycontainBecauseinflectionscontainsomuchvitalinformationthey
arethekeytounderstandingGreekverbsInflectionsaskandanswerthefollowingfivequestions
1 Whoisdoingtheaction2 Howmanyaredoingtheaction3 Isthesubjectdoingtheactionorisitbeingdonetothesubject
4 Howdoesthespeakerviewthekindofaction5 Howdoesthespeakerviewtherelationoftheactiontoreality
SometimesinflectionsaskasixthquestionWhendoestheactionhappenGrammarianscallthesesixareas(1)person(2)number(3)voice(4)aspect(5)moodand(6)time(ortense)ThuseverytimeyouencounteraGreekverbyoumustseektoanswerfiveandsometimessixquestionsLetrsquostakeacloserlookatthesesixquestions
Person
Personindicatestherelationofthesubjecttotheaction
IfthesubjectisrepresentedasspeakingtheverbisinthefirstpersonἀκούωIhear(ἀκού=hear-ω=I)Ifthesubjectisbeingspokentotheverbisinthesecondpersonἀκούειςyouhear(ἀκού=hear-εις=you)Ifthesubjectisbeingspokenabouttheverbisinthethirdpersonἀκούειhehears(ἀκού=hear-ει=he)
NoticewherethesubjectisintheendingGreekdoesnotaddanindependentpronountoindicatethesubjectWhenanindependentpronounisuseditemphasizesthesubjectἐγὼἀκούωldquoIhearrdquoInshorttothefirstquestionldquoWhatisitspersonrdquothereare
threepossibleanswersfirstpersonsecondpersonorthirdperson
Number
Iftheassertionmadebytheverbconcernsmorethanonepersontheverbisinthepluralἀκούομενldquowehearrdquoἀκούετεldquoyou[all]hearrdquoἀκούουσιldquotheyhearrdquoNoticethatmodernEnglishmakesnodistinctionofnumber
inthesecondpersonsothatyouhearcanbeeithersingularorpluralSomedialectsofEnglishgetaroundthisbyhavingaspecialsecond-personpluralformsuchasyouseinpartsofScotlandyrsquoallinthesoutheasternUnitedStatesandyouguysoryoupeopleinmuchofNorthAmericaIftheseformsareusedregularlythenpresumablyyoubecomesbydefaultthesecondpersonsingularGreekhoweverdistinguishesbetweensecondperson
singularandsecondpersonpluralForexampleinJohn420theSamaritanwomansaystoJesusldquoOurancestorsworshipedonthismountainbutyousaytheplacewherepeopleshouldworshipisinJerusalemrdquoHereyoucannotrefertoJesusalonebecauseitispluralintheGreekTheGreekmeanssomethinglikeldquoYouJewssayrdquoAnotherexampleisJesusrsquostatementtoNicodemusinJohn37ldquoDonrsquotbeastonishedthatIsaidtoyou[singular]lsquoYou[plural]mustbebornagainrsquordquoObviouslyNicodemuswasnrsquottheonlypersonwhoneededanewbirthSoalwaysobservethenumberinreadingGreekConcordinnumberreferstothenormalpatternofsingular
subjectwithsingularverbandpluralsubjectwithpluralverbTheonlypointonwhichGreekdiffersfromEnglishisinitsrulethatanominativepluralsubjectifitisneutermaybefollowedbyasingularverbτὰὀνόματάἐστινταῦταldquothenamesare
[literallyis]theserdquo(Matt102)Butwhenemphasisislaidontheindividualityofthepersonsorthingsdescribedbytheneuterpluraltheruledoesnotapplyἐπαναστήσονταιτέκναldquochildrenwillriseuprdquo(Matt1021)Ontheotherhandcollectivenouns(inthesingular)sometimestakeapluralverbἤρξαντοἅπαντὸπλῆθοςαἰνεῖντὸνθεόνldquoallthecrowd[singular]began[plural]topraiseGodrdquo(Luke1937)AnexceptiontotheruleofconcordisknownasaconstructioadsensummdashaldquoconstructionaccordingtosenserdquoratherthanaccordingtostrictgrammaticalconcordHencetothesecondquestionldquoWhatisitsnumberrdquothere
areonlytwopossibleanswerssingularorplural
Voice
InflectionsalsoindicatewhetheryouaredoingtheactionorifitisbeingdonetoyouWhenthesubjectisrepresentedasproducingtheactionoftheverbtheverbisintheactivevoiceWhenthesubjectisrepresentedasreceivingtheactionoftheverbitissaidtobeinthepassivevoiceThusἀκούωmeansldquoIhearrdquoandἀκούομαιmeansldquoIambeingheardrdquoHoweverGreekhasathirdwayofindicatingtherelationofthesubjecttotheverbThisiscalledthemiddlevoicesincetraditionallyithasbeenputldquointhemiddlerdquo
ActiveVoice MiddleVoice PassiveVoiceIhear Ihearmyself Iambeingheard
IhavetranslatedthemiddlevoiceasifithadareflexivemeaningButthereflexivesenseofthemiddlevoicewasonlythewayitgotstartedBythetimetheNewTestamentappearedonthescenethisreflexivemeaninghadalmostcompletelydisappearedThesenseofthemiddlevoiceisreallylikeunderliningthesubjectorputtingitinitalicsIhearInsummarythentheactivevoicestressesthesubjectas
producingtheactionItrepresentsthesimplestuseoftheverbandmaybeeitherasimpleactive(ldquobutGodknowsyour
heartsrdquoLuke1615)oracausativeactive(ldquohecauseshissuntoshinerdquoMatt545)Thepassivevoicedenotesthesubjectasreceivingtheaction
andmaybeeitherasimplepassive(ldquoyouwillbebaptizedwiththeHolySpiritrdquoActs15)orapermissivepassive(ldquowhynotallowyourselvestobedefraudedrdquo1Cor67)WhenthepassivevoiceisusedtheagentorproduceroftheactionmaybeexpressedPrimaryagency(orpersonalagency)isexpressedbyὑπόplusthegenitivecasewhilesecondaryagency(orintermediateagency)usesδιάplusthegenitiveἵναπληρωθῇτὸῥηθὲνὑπὸκυρίουδιὰτοῦπροϕήτουldquoinorderthatthethingsspokenbytheLordthroughtheprophetmightbefulfilledrdquo(Matt122)HeretheprimaryagentistheLordwhilethesecondaryorintermediateagentistheprophetInstrumentalagency(orimpersonalagency)isexpressedbythedativecasewithorwithoutἐνἐναἵματιπάντακαθαρίζεταιldquoallthingsarecleansedbybloodrdquo(Heb922)Frequentlyhoweveragencyisnotexpressedπεπλήρωταιὁκαιρόςldquothetimeisfulfilledrdquo(Mark115)WhentheunspecifiedagentoftheactionisGodtheconstructionissometimescalledtheldquodivinepassiverdquoπαρακληθήσονταιldquotheywillbecomforted[byGod]rdquo(Matt54)InotherinstancestheimplicitagentismoregenericοὐδύναταιλυθῆναιἡγραϕήldquotheScripturecannotbebroken[byanyone]rdquo(John1035)Themiddlevoicestressestheagentoftheactionthatisthe
grammaticalsubjectJusthowtheagentisbeingemphasizedisnotindicatedbythemiddlevoicebutmustbededucedfromthecontextWhenthisisdonethefollowingusesofthemiddlevoiceinGreekcanbedistinguished
Thedirectmiddlehasareflexiveforceἀπελθὼνἀπήγξατοldquohavinggoneouthehangedhimselfrdquo(Matt275)ThissenseofthemiddleaswehaveseenisrareintheNewTestamentItisalmostalwaystakenoverbytheactivevoiceintheverbplusareflexivepronoun(himselfherselfetc)SeealsoMark1454(ἦνθερμαινόμενοςldquo[Peter]waswarminghimselfrdquo)Acts1221(ἐνδυσάμενος
ldquo[Herod]clothedhimselfrdquo)andRevelation318(περιβάλῃldquo[that]youmightclotheyourselfrdquo)Theintensivemiddleemphasizestheparttakenbythesubjectintheactionoftheverbαἰωνίανλύτρωσινεὑράμενοςldquohehimselfsecuredeternalredemptionrdquo(Heb912)HerethesubjectactsforhimselforherselforinhisorherowninterestApartfromthedeponentmiddle(seebelow)thisisthemostcommonuseofthemiddlevoiceintheNewTestamentSeealsoLuke1042(ἐξελέξατοldquo[Mary]haschosenforherselfrdquo)Acts52(ἐνοσϕίσατοldquohekeptbackforhimself[someoftheprice]rdquo)andJames121(δέξασθεldquoreceiveforyourselves[theimplantedword]rdquo)Thereciprocalmiddlerepresentsaninterchangeofactionbetweenoramongthemembersofapluralsubjectσυνεβουλεύσαντοldquotheyconferredwithoneanotherrdquo(Matt264)SeealsoJohn922(συνετέθειντοldquo[theJews]hadagreedwithoneanotherrdquo)IntheNewTestamentthisidiomhaslargelybeenreplacedbyanactiveverbwiththereciprocalpronounἀλλήλων
ManyverbsinGreekalasdonothaveanyactivevoiceendingsThemeaningisactivetobesurebuttheendingiseitherinthemiddleorthepassivevoiceThesearecalleddeponentverbssincetheyarethoughttohavedepositedtheiractiveformsinmothballsthusldquoputtingthemasiderdquo(fromtheLatinverbdeponoIputaside)Comparethefollowing
πιστεύω(Ibelieve)isaregularverbwithanactivesuffix(-ω)ἔρχομαι(Icome)isadeponentverbwithamiddlepassivesuffix(-μαι)
ThemostcommondeponentverbsintheNewTestamentareἀποκρίνομαι(Ianswer)ἄρχομαι(Ibegin)βούλομαι(Iwish)γίνομαι(Ibecome)δέομαι(Ipray)δέχομαι(Ireceive)δύναμαι(Ican)ἐργάζομαι(Iwork)ἔρχομαι(Icome)εὐαγγελίζομαι(Ipreachthegospel)πορεύομαι(Igo)
προσεύχομαι(Ipray)andχαρίζομαι(Iforgive)OfcoursetheonlywayyoucantellwhetherornotaverbisdeponentisfromtheGreeklexiconDeponentverbswillendin-μαιThustothethirdquestionldquoWhatisitsvoicerdquothereare
threepossibleanswersactivemiddleorpassiveIntheNewTestamenttheactivevoiceisfarandawaythemostcommonwith20697occurrencesThepassivehasonly3933occurrencesandthemiddlehasevenfewermdashamere3500
Aspect
GreekspeakerscouldregardactioninthreefundamentallydifferentwaysThisiscalledaspectMostoftenanactionwasregardedassimpleorundefinedThecommontermforthiskindofactionisaoristicaspect(fromtheGreekadjectiveἀόριστοςldquoundefinedrdquo)AoristicaspectwasusedwhentheGreekwriterdidnrsquotwantyoutopayanyattentiontothedurationorcompletionoftheactionThinkofitasasnapshotldquoJesusweptrdquoldquoChristdiedforoursinsrdquoldquoGodsolovedtheworldrdquoandsoonTheactionitselfcouldhavetakenyearsbutthatrsquosnotthepointWhatthewriterissayingisldquoThedurationorcompletionoftheactionisnotimportantsojustignoreitWhatisimportantisthatithappenedrdquoThusἐβασίλευσεν(Rom514)coverstheperiodfromAdamtoMosesinwhichdeathldquoreignedrdquoἐκρύβη(Heb1123)coversaperiodofthreemonthsinwhichMosesldquowashiddenrdquoοἰκοδομήθη(John220)coversaperiodofforty-sixyearsduringwhichthetempleldquowasbuiltrdquoandμαθητεύσατε(Matt2819)coverstheentirechurchageinwhichChristiansaretoldquomakedisciplesrdquoSoneverjumptotheconclusionthataoristicaspectisinstantaneousTheactionmaybeinstantaneousbutonlythecontextorthemeaningoftheverbcantellyouthatTheGreekscouldalsoregardanactionasaprocessoras
habitualThecommontermforthissortofactionisimperfectiveaspect(fromtheLatinadjectiveimperfectivumldquonotcompletedrdquo)Ifyouthinkofaoristicaspectasasnapshotimperfectiveaspectwouldbeamotionpicture
FinallytheGreekscouldregardanactionasacompletedeventwithensuingresultsinwhichcasetheaspectissaidtobeperfective(fromtheLatinadjectiveperfectivumldquocompletedrdquo)YoucandescribeanactioninanyofthesethreewaysFor
exampleyoumighttalkaboutstudyingGreekasfollows
AoristicAspectIstudiedGreek[inseminary]ImperfectiveAspectIwasstudyingGreek[whenthephonerang]PerfectiveAspectIhavestudiedGreek[andstillrememberit]
NoticethataoristicaspectistheleastdistinctiveintermsofkindofactionNeverthelessmanypreachersandcommentatorsviewitasspecialinsomequasi-esotericwayandthereforegreatlyexaggerateitssignificanceDoubtlessyouhaveheardatonetimeoranothersomeonewaxeloquentaboutthevirtuesoftheaoristtenseldquoPaulrsquosuseoftheaoristinRomans121meansthatwearetopresentourbodiesonceandforalltoGodasalivingsacrificerdquoActuallyaoristicaspectisaboutasmundaneacategoryasyoucanfindAnditnevermeansldquoonceandforallrdquonomatterwhotellsyouthatitdoesAssomeonehasputitldquoItsspecialmeaningisthatitdoesnothaveaspecialmeaningrdquoPeriodSotothefourthquestionldquoWhatisitsaspectrdquothereare
threepossibilitiesaoristicimperfectiveorperfective
Mood
IfaspectindicatesthespeakerrsquosattitudetowardthekindofactionmoodindicatesthespeakerrsquosattitudetowardthekindofrealitybehindhisorherstatementMaybetheactionreallydidhappenormaybeitcouldhavehappenedormaybesomeonewishedthatitwouldhappenormaybesomeonecommandedittohappenGreekusesfourmoodstoexpresstheseattitudes
Indicative(used15618times)IshutthedoorSubjunctive(used1858times)IaskedthatheshutthedoorOptative(used68times)IwishhewouldshutthedoorImperative(used1631times)Shutthedoor
Actuallythesefourcategoriescanbeboileddowntotwoessentialviewpointswithregardtomoodthatwhichisactual(theindicative)andthatwhichispotential(thesubjunctiveoptativeandimperative)ThusmoodisthefeatureofaverbthataspeakerusestoportraywhetherheorshehasanactualityorapotentialityinmindOnlytheindicativemoodhastemporalrelationsTheelementoftimeisentirelyabsentfromtheothermoodsThusverbalaspecttendstobemoresignificantinthepotentialmoodsthanintheindicativemoodInstudyingtheGreekmoodsrememberthatmoodhastodo
onlywiththemannerinwhichastatementismadenotnecessarilywiththetruthofthestatementMostliesexaggerationsandfictionalaccountsaretoldintheindicativemood(ldquoTomCruiseisthegreatestathletealivetodayrdquoisintheindicativemoodbutthestatementhasnoobjectivecorrespondencetoreality)IndicativeMoodTheindicativemoodisthesimplestandmostcommonmoodintheNewTestamentItistheunmarkedorldquodefaultrdquomoodformusedwhenthereisnospecialreasonforemployinganothermoodYouuseitformakingstatementsandaskingquestionsldquoYouarelisteningtomerdquoandldquoAreyoulisteningtomerdquoBecausetheindicativemakesanaffirmationitisoftencalledthemoodofrealityTherearethreemainusesoftheindicative
Thedeclarativeindicativestatesasimplestatementoffactinpastpresentorfutureδιὰτοῦτοπαρεκλήθημενforthisreasonwewerecalled(1Thess37)Theimperativalindicativeexpressesacommandἀγαπήσειςτὸνπλησίονσουyoushallloveyourneighbor
(James28)ThesamecommandcanbegiveninEnglishasldquoLoveyourneighborrdquoTheinterrogativeindicativeisusedinasimplequestionthatexpectsananswerπιστεύειςτοῦτοdoyoubelievethis(John1126)
NotethatGreekcanindicatewhethertheanticipatedanswertoaquestionisyesornoWithoὐanaffirmativeanswerisexpectedοὐπιστεύειςὅτιἐγὼἐντῷπατρὶκαὶὁπατὴρἐνἐμοίἐστινldquoYoubelievedonrsquotyouthatIamintheFatherandtheFatherisinmerdquo(John1410)TheanticipatedanswerisldquoOfcourserdquoWithμήanegativeanswerisexpectedμὴκατὰἄνθρωπονταῦταλαλῶldquoIdonrsquotspeakthesethingsaccordingtomandoIrdquo(1Cor98)HeretheanticipatedanswerisldquoOfcoursenotrdquoManyquerieshoweverareopenquestionsgivingnogrammaticalindicationwhetherapositiveornegativeanswerisexpectedἐξἔργωννόμουτὸπνεῦμαἐλάβετεἢἐξἀκοῆςπίστεωςldquoDidyoureceivetheSpiritbytheworksoftheLaworbythehearingoffaithrdquo(Gal32)Sometimesaquestiondoesnotaskforinformationbutisusedsimplytodrawattentiontosomethinginwhichcaseitiscalledarhetoricalquestion(ldquoDoyouknowwhattimeitisrdquo=ldquoYoursquorelaterdquo)
SubjunctiveMoodOfthemoodsofpotentialitythesubjunctivemoodisthemostfrequentandyoucanhardlyreadahalf-dozenversesintheNewTestamentbeforeencounteringitThesubjunctiveiscustomarilyusedtoexpressahopeordesireldquoIrsquomcallingsothatyoumightknowwhathappenedrdquoGrammarianscallitthemoodofprobabilitybecauseitrepresentstheactionasuncertainbutprobableAssuchitiscloselyrelatedtothefutureindicativeThefuturehoweverindicateswhatwilltakeplacewhereasthesubjunctiveindicateswhatmaytakeplaceThedifferenttensesinthesubjunctivehavenotime
referencetheydifferonlyaccordingtokindofactionmdashthe
aoristreferstoundefinedactionthepresenttocontinuousrepeatedorhabitualactionTheprincipalusesofthesubjunctiveareasfollows(Notethatwhilesubjunctivesmaybeusedasthemainverbinasentencetheymorefrequentlyfunctionasadependentverbinaclausedescribingsomerelationshiptothemainverb)
Thehortatorysubjunctiveusesthefirstpersonpluraltourgeotherstojoinwiththespeakerinacourseofactionandrequiresthewordsletusintranslationἀγαπῶμενἀλλήλουςletusloveoneanother(1John47)ϕάγωμενκαὶπίωμεναὔρίονγὰρἀποθνῄσκομενletuseatanddrinkfortomorrowwedie(1Cor1532)ThesecouldalsoberenderedldquoWeshouldloverdquoandldquoWeshouldeatanddrinkrdquoThesubjunctiveofprohibitioninvolvesμήplustheaoristsubjunctiveandisusedtoforbidanactionasawholeorinsomeinstancestoforbidtheinitiationofanactionμὴνομίσητεὅτιἦλθονκαταλῦσαιτὸννόμονdonrsquotthinkthatIcametodestroytheLaw[orpossibly]donrsquotbegintothinkthatIcametodestroytheLaw(Matt517)μὴμοιχεύσῃςμὴϕονεύσῃςdonrsquotevercommitadulterydonrsquotevermurder(Luke1820)(Whentheprohibitionisagainstdoingsomethingalreadybeguntheconstructionisμήwiththepresentimperativeseebelow)ThedeliberativesubjunctiveisusedinquestionsthatcallforadecisionaboutthepropercourseofactionτὸνβασιλέαὑμῶνσταυρώσωshouldIcrucifyyourking(John1915)Thesubjunctiveofemphaticnegationinvolvestheaoristsubjunctivewiththedoublenegativeοὐμήandisusedtostronglydenythatsomethingwillhappenοὐμὴἀπόλωνταιεἰςτὸναἰῶναtheyshallcertainlynotperishatanytime(John1028)ThefinalsubjunctiveisusedwithἵναorὅπωςtoindicatethepurposeofanactionπάνταὑπομένωδιὰτοὺςἐκλεκτοὺςἵνακαὶαὐτοὶσωτηρίαςτύχωσινIendureall
thingsforthesakeoftheelectinorderthattheytoomightobtainsalvation(2Tim210)ThecontentsubjunctiveintroducesthecontentofwhatisdesiredorthoughtoritmayexpressindirectlythewordsofaspeakerπληρώσατέμουτὴνχαρὰνἵνατὸαὐτὸϕρονῆτεFulfillmyjoybythinkingthesamething(Phil22)οὐκἐρωτῶἵναἄρῃςαὐτοὺςἐκτοῦκόσμουIdonotaskthatyoutakethemoutoftheworld(John1715)
OptativeMoodTheoptativemoodwhichwasalreadyinitsdeaththroeswhentheapostlePaulwaslearningGreekisevenmoreremovedfromrealitythanthesubjunctiveIfthesubjunctiveisthemoodofprobabilitytheoptativeisthemoodofpossibilityemployedwhenthespeakerwantstoportrayanactionaspossibleItsuseisconfinedtothepresentandaoristtensesTherearetwobasicfunctionsoftheoptative
ThemostcommonistoexpressawishoraprayerasinPaulrsquosfamousdeclarationμὴγένοιτοmayitneverbe(Rom34)ThisiscalledthevoluntativeoptativeThepotentialoptativeisusedtoexpresswhatwouldormightbepossibleπῶςγὰρἂνδυναίμηνἐὰνμήτιςὁδηγήσειμεhowcouldIunlesssomeoneguidesme(Acts831)
ImperativeMoodTheimperativemoodisthemoodofvolitionorintentionItisusedforgivingcommandsldquoListentomerdquoThedistinctionbetweenaoristandpresentisthesameasinthesubjunctivetheaoristexpressesundefinedactionthepresentexpresseslinearorhabitualactionTherearefourmainusesoftheimperativemood
Theimperativeofcommandmakesadirectdemanduponthewillofanotherπάντοτεχαίρετεalwaysrejoice(1
Thess516)ϕεύγετετὴνπορνείανfleeimmorality(1Cor618)Theimperativeofprohibitionisusedwiththenegativeadverbμήandthepresentimperativetoforbidhabitualactionorinsomeinstancestostopanactionalreadyinprogressμὴπλανᾶσθεdonrsquotbedeceived[orpossibly]stopbeingdeceived(1Cor69)μὴγογγύζετεdonrsquotgrumble[orpossibly]stopgrumbling(John643)Notethatonlythecontextcantellwhethertheactionisalreadyunderway(Whentheprohibitionisagainstdoingsomethingnotalreadybeguntheconstructionisμήwiththeaoristsubjunctiveseeabove)Theimperativeofentreatyexpressesarequestmadebyapersonofsubordinatestatustoapersonofsuperiorstatusandisoftenbestexpressedbyusingthewordpleaseintranslationβοήθησονἡμῖνpleasehelpus(Mark922)Theimperativeofpermissionisusedtogiveconsenttothedesireofanotherὑπάγετεyoumaygo(Matt832)
OccasionallyacommandinGreekusesthethirdpersonimperativeὁκαυχώμενοςἐνκυρίῳκαυχάσθωlettheonewhoboastsboastintheLord(1Cor131)AlthoughyoumustuseletintranslatingthirdpersonimperativestheforceoftheimperativeisnotanoptionTheGreekistellingyouldquoTheonewhoboastsmustboastintheLordrdquoIntheimperativemoodthereisoftenacontrastbetween
aoristicandimperfectiveaspectAgoodexampleofthisisseeninthetwoversionsoftheLordrsquosPrayer
δὸςἡμῖνσήμερονldquogiveustodayrdquo(Matt611)usestheaoristimperativeδόςInkeepingwithitsaspectualforcetheaoristexpressesasummarycommandinwhichtheactionisviewedasawholewithoutanyregardtoitscontinuanceorfrequencyδίδουἡμῖντὸκαθrsquoἡμέρανldquokeepongivingusdayafterdayrdquo(Luke113)usesthepresentimperativeδίδουHerethepresenttenseportraysanongoingprocess
ThereisonemorethingyouneedtoknowaboutaspectintheimperativemoodandthatisthedistinctionbetweenimperativesinvolvinggeneralpreceptsandthoseinvolvingspecificcommandsGeneralpreceptsarebroadmoralregulationsandnormallyinvolvethepresenttenseτίματὸνπατέρακαὶτὴνμητέραldquohonoryourfatherandyourmotherrdquo(Matt154)SpecificcommandsareordersorrequestsforactiontobedoneinaparticularinstanceandtendtousetheaoristtenseἀπαγγείλατεἸωάννῃἃεἴδετεκαὶἠκούσατεldquoreporttoJohnwhatyouhaveseenandheardrdquo(Luke722)SometimesbothconceptsareinvolvedinthesamepassageἄρατεταῦταἐντεῦθενμὴποιεῖτετὸνοἶκοντοῦπατρόςμουοἶκονἐμπορίουldquoTakethesethingsaway[aoristimperativesuggestinganurgentspecificcommand]donotcontinuetomakemyFatherrsquoshouseahouseofmerchandise[presentimperativesuggestingacontinuousorhabitualaction]rdquo(John216)ThustothefifthquestionldquoWhatisitsmoodrdquotherearefour
possibleanswersindicativesubjunctiveoptativeorimperativeOnlyifthemoodisindicativedoyouaskthesixthandfinalquestionldquoWhatisitstimerdquoAlwaysstopwithquestionfiveunlessyouranswertothatquestionistheindicativemoodThisisbecausetimeinGreekisdecidedlysecondarytothekindofactionbeingdescribed
Time(Tense)
WhentheindicativemoodisusedeitherpastpresentorfuturemustbeexpressedAnyoneofthethreeaspectsdiscussedabovemaybeplacedinanyoneofthesethreetimeframesLetrsquoscombinethemhere
Past Present FutureAoristic Aoristtense Presenttense Futuretense
Iheard Ihear Iwillhear
Imperfective Imperfecttense
Presenttense Futuretense
Iwashearing Iamhearing Iwillbehearing
Perfective Pluperfecttense
Perfecttense Futureperfecttense
Ihadheard Ihaveheard Iwillhaveheard
Inpasttimethethreeaspectsareexpressedbywhatgrammarianscalltheaoristtense(Iheard)imperfecttense(Iwashearing)andpluperfecttense(Ihadheard)Inpresenttimethepresenttensemustmakedoforbothaoristicaspect(Ihear)andimperfectiveaspect(Iamhearing)perfectiveaspectisexpressedbytheperfecttense(Ihaveheard)Finallyinfuturetimethefuturetensehandlesbothaoristic(Iwillhear)andimperfective(Iwillbehearing)aspectswhilethefutureperfecttense(Iwillhaveheard)handlesperfectiveaspect
Conclusion
TosummarizewhatwehavesaidtothispointyoushouldaskeveryGreekverbfiveandsometimessixquestions
1 WhatisitspersonYouroptionsarefirstpersonsecondpersonorthirdperson
2 WhatisitsnumberYouroptionsaresingularorplural3 WhatisitsvoiceYouroptionsareactivemiddleorpassive
4 WhatisitsaspectYouroptionsareaoristicimperfectiveorperfective
5 WhatisitsmoodYouroptionsareindicativesubjunctiveoptativeorimperativeOnlyifyouranswertothisquestionisldquoindicativerdquoshouldyouaskthenextquestion
6 Whatisitstime(tense)Youroptionsarepastpresentorfuture
KeyTerms
activevoiceagentaoristtenseaoristicaspectaspectcausativeactiveconcordconstructioadsensumcontentsubjunctivedeclarativeindicativedeliberativesubjunctivedeponentverbdirectmiddlefinalsubjunctivefirstpersonfutureperfecttensefuturetensehortatorysubjunctiveimperativalindicativeimperativemoodimperativeofcommandimperativeofentreatyimperativeofpermissionimperativeofprohibitionimperfecttenseimperfectiveaspectimpersonalagencyindicativemoodinflectioninstrumentalagencyintensivemiddleintermediateagencyinterrogativeindicativemiddlevoicemoodmoodofintention
moodofpossibilitymoodofprobabilitymoodofrealitymoodofvolitionnumberoptativemoodpassivevoiceperfecttenseperfectiveaspectpermissivepassivepersonpersonalagencypluperfecttensepotentialoptativepresenttenseprimaryagencyreciprocalmiddlesecondpersonsecondaryagencysimpleactivesimplepassivesubjunctivemoodsubjunctiveofemphaticnegationsubjunctiveofprohibitiontensethirdpersontimevoicevoluntativeoptative
ForFurtherReading
Robertson797ndash950DanaandMantey155ndash208BDF161ndash96Zerwick72ndash124Wallace390ndash586
T
9
TenseTimeswithVerbs(2)
InterpretingtheGreekTenses
heinterpretationoftheGreektensescallsforacloserlookattheindicativemoodsincetimeofactionisnotinvolvedinthe
othermoods
ActioninPastTime
AoristTenseThewordaoristaswehaveseenmeansldquounlimitedrdquoor
ldquoundefinedrdquoItwasgiventothistensebygrammarianstodenotethattheactionspokenofistoberegardedsimplyasaneventwithoutanyregardtothetimeinwhichitoccursorthelengthoftimeduringwhichithasbeengoingonHoweverthisstatementmustbequalifiedwithrespecttotheindicativemoodHeretheaoristhasanaugmentandisgenerallyusedofeventsthatarespokenofasoccurringinpasttimeItisthereforethemostsuitableGreektensetotranslatetheEnglishsimplepasttense(ldquoIheardrdquoldquoIbelievedrdquoldquoIwassavedrdquo)Thustheaoristindicativeisapast-tenseformbutitistheaugmentthesignofpasttimethatmakesitsonotthetermaoristAgivenaorist-tenseformmayhaveanyoneofthreepointsof
emphasisitmayaccentthebeginningoftheactionitmayaccenttheconclusionoftheactionoritmaylookatthewholeactionwithoutanyemphasisonitsbeginningorconclusion
IfitstressesthebeginningoftheactionitisaningressiveaoristὁλόγοςσὰρξἐγένετοtheWordbecameflesh(John
114)ἐπτώχευσεν[Christ]becamepoor(2Cor89)ἐδάκρυσενὁἸησοῦςJesusburstintotears(John1135)IftheemphasisisontheendoftheactionratherthanitsbeginningitisaneffectiveaoristἐγὼγὰρἔμαθονἐνοἷςεἰμιαὐτάρκηςεἶναιforIhavelearnedtobecontentinwhatevercircumstancesIam(Phil411)IftheactioninvolvedisviewedasawholeaconstativeaoristisusedἐπέμειναπρὸςαὐτὸνἡμέραςδεκαπέντεIremainedwithhimforfifteendays(Gal118)
TheseemphasesitmustbenotedareconcessionstotheEnglishpointofviewTheaoristitselfsimplyregardstheactionasaneventTheaoristalsohasseveralldquospecialrdquouses
Thegnomicaoristisusedtoexpressauniversalortimelesstruthἐδικαιώθηἡσοϕίαἀπὸπάντωντῶντέκνωναὐτῆςwisdomisvindicatedbyallherchildren(Luke735)TheepistolaryaoristisusedbywriterswhentheyputthemselvesinthepositionoftheirreadersandlookbackonthetimeofwritingasapasteventἐγὼΠαῦλοςἔγραψατῇἐμῇχειρίIPaulwrite[this]withmyownhand(Philem19)ThedramaticaoristdescribessomethingthathasjusthappenedtheeffectofwhichisfeltinthepresentοὗτόςἐστινὁυἱόςμουὁἀγαπητόςἐνὧεὐδόκησαyouaremybelovedSoninwhomIamwellpleased(Matt317)
ItshouldbeobviousthatallthesedistinctionsaredeterminedbycontextaloneThereisabsolutelynoformaldifferencebetweenaconstativeaoristandadramaticaoristandmanytimeseventhecontextisnotfullyconclusiveasthedisagreementsamongcommentatorsprove
ImperfectTenseStrictlyspeakingtheimperfecttenseviewstheactionasin
progressItisrepresentedbytheEnglishpastcontinuousforms(ldquoIwasteachingrdquoldquoIusedtogordquo)Butasimplepast
tense(ldquoItaughtrdquoldquoIwentrdquo)maysometimesbeasufficienttranslationforaGreekimperfecttenseIftheaoristtellsthestorytheimperfecthelpsyoutoseethe
flowoftheactionThereisavarietyofwaysinwhichitmaydothis
Theprogressiveimperfectemphasizesthedurationoftheactionτίὅτιἐζητεῖτέμεwhywereyoulookingforme(Luke249)TheiterativeimperfectemphasizestherepetitionoftheactionἤρχοντοπρὸςαὐτὸνκαὶἔλεγονΧαῖρεὁβασιλεὺςτῶνἸουδαίων[people]keptcomingtohimandkeptsayingldquoHailkingoftheJewsrdquo(John193)ThetendentialimperfectpresentstheactionashavingbeenattemptedbutnotaccomplishedὁἸωάννηςδιεκώλυεναὐτόνJohnwastryingtopreventhim(Matt314)Theinceptiveimperfectemphasizesthebeginningoftheactionεἰσελθὼνεἰςτὴνσυναγωγὴνἐδίδασκενwhenheenteredthesynagoguehebegantoteach(Mark121)ThisusageisveryfrequentintheNewTestament
ItisimportanttodistinguishbetweenimperfectandaoristandtonotethatGreekpreferstousetheaoristinnarrativeunlessthereisaneedtoemphasizethatanactionisinprogressSoforexampleinLuke1727fourimperfectsdescribethelifeofNoahrsquosdaytheywereeating(ἤσθιον)theyweredrinking(ἔπινον)theyweremarrying(ἐγάμουν)andtheyweregivinginmarriage(ἐγαμίζοντο)TheotherverbsintheverseareallaoristsldquoenteredrdquoldquocamerdquoldquodestroyedrdquoAnotherinterestingexampleisfoundinMatthew124ndash25ldquo[Joseph]didastheangeloftheLordhadtoldhimandhetook[Mary]ashiswifeyethewasnotknowingheruntilshebroughtforthherfirstbornsonrdquoTheimperfectοὐκἐγινώσκεναὐτήνldquowasnotknowingherrdquoshowsthatJosephlivedincontinencewiththevirginuntilafterthebirthoftheSavior
PluperfectTenseThepluperfecttenseindicatesapaststateresultingfrom
anactionpriortoitThestatecontinueduptosomepointinthepastatwhichtimeitpresumablyceased(otherwisetheperfecttensewouldhavebeenused)ThepluperfectwasneverwidelyusedeveninClassicalGreekbutitdoesoccurafewtimesintheNewTestamentTheusesofthepluperfectareidenticaltothoseoftheperfecttense(seebelow)
ActioninPresentTime
PresentTenseThepresenttensenormallyexpressesactionasbeingin
processinpresenttimethatisatthetimeofspeakingthoughitmayalsobeusedofthepastandofthefutureInasmuchastheindicativemoodhasnodistincttenseforaoristicaspectinpresenttimethepresenttenseisusedtoperformthatfunctionHowevertheGreekpresenttensegenerallycorrespondsmoreclearlytotheEnglishcontinuouspresent(ldquoIamteachingrdquo)thantothesimplepresent(ldquoIteachrdquo)Thepresenttensehasseveralprominentuses
ThedescriptivepresentdescribestheactionascurrentlytakingplaceκύριεσῶσονἀπολλύμεθαLordsave[us]Wearedrowning(Matt825)TheprogressivepresentdescribesanactionbeguninthepastascontinuingintothepresentτοσαῦταἔτηδουλεύωσοιalltheseyearsIhavebeenservingyou(Luke1529)TheiterativepresentdepictsanactionthatisrepeatedatcertainintervalsὑπωπιάζωμουτὸσῶμακαὶδουλαγωγῶIrepeatedlybeatmybodyandsubdue[it](1Cor927)ThetendentialpresentindicatesanactionbeingattemptedorproposedbutthathasnotactuallytakenplaceκύριεσύμουνίπτειςτοὺςπόδαςLordareyougoingtowashmyfeet(John136)
Thehistoricalpresentdescribesapasteventasthoughitwereactuallytakingplaceλέγουσιναὐτῷπερὶαὐτῆςtheyspoketohimabouther(Mark130)HerethepresentisapictorialtensedisplayingtheactionvividlybeforeoureyesInEnglishweoftenusethehistoricalpresentwhenrecountingpersonalexperiences(ldquothenhesaystomerdquo)ThefuturisticpresentdescribeswhatisgoingtotakeplaceinthefutureasthoughitwerealreadyoccurringὑπάγωκαὶἔρχομαιπρὸςὑμᾶςIwillgoawayandwillcometoyou(John1428)EnglishhasasimilaridiomldquoheiscomingtomorrowrdquoTheaoristicpresentexpressestheactionasasimpleeventwithoutanyreferencetoitsprogressτέκνονἀϕίενταίσουαἱἁμαρτίαιchildyoursinsareforgiven(Mark25)
PerfectTenseTheperfecttensedescribesanactionascompletedatthe
timeofwritingorspeakingWhiledealingwiththepasttosomeextenttheperfecttenseisprimarilyconcernedwithpresenttimeAnactionhasoccurredinthepastwhoseresultsarestillapparentThusτέθνηκε(theperfectofἀποθνῄσκω)doesnotmeanldquohediedrdquobutldquoheisnowdeadrdquoSimilarlyγέγραϕα(theperfectofγράϕω)meansldquo[itisthereonpaperbecause]Iwrote[it]rdquoThereisnoexactEnglishequivalenttotheGreekperfect
Theso-calledEnglishperfectformedbytheauxiliaryverbhaveisthenearestequivalentthatcanbegivenbutitwillnotalwaysservetotranslateaGreekperfectTheperfecttensehasthreemainuses
TheintensiveperfectexpressesapresentstateresultingfromapastactionοὕτωςγέγραπταιπαθεῖντὸνΧριστόνthusitiswrittenthattheChristshouldsuffer(Luke2446)Theconsummativeperfectemphasizesthecompletedactionἡπίστιςσουσέσωκένσεyourfaithhasmadeyouwell(Mark1052)
ThedramaticperfectisusedtobringapasteventvividlyintothepresentἸωάννηςμαρτυρεῖπερὶαὐτοῦκαὶκέκραγενJohntestifiesabouthimandcriesout(John115)
ActioninFutureTime
FutureTenseThefuturetensesometimesexpressesaoristicaspect(ldquoIwill
preachfromRomansnextyearrdquo)sometimesimperfective(ldquoIwillbepreachingeverySundayrdquo)withtheaoristicaspectbeingthemorefrequentNoticethattheelementoftimeismoreobviousinthefuturetensethanintheothertenses
Thepredictivefutureaffirmsthatanactionwilltakeplaceorthatastatewillcomeintobeingαὐτὸςὑμᾶςβαπτίσειhehimselfwillbaptizeyou(Matt311)TheprogressivefutureemphasizestheprogressofafutureactionἀλλὰκαὶχαρήσομαιindeedIwillkeeponrejoicing(Phil118)TheimperativalfuturecanbeusedinplaceoftheimperativemoodtoexpressacommandκαλήσειςτὸὄνομααὐτοῦἸησοῦνyouwillcallhisnameJesus[thatis]youaretocallhisnameJesus(Matt121)ThedeliberativefutureisusedinrealorrhetoricalquestionstoconsultthejudgmentofanotherpersonτίνιὁμοιώσωτὴνγενεὰνταύτηνtowhatshallIcomparethisgeneration(Matt1116)
AgainImustwarnyouthatonlythecontextcandeterminethedifferencebetweenpredictiveprogressiveandotherfuturesThefactthatscholarsoftenengageinlongandinconclusivedebatesovercertainusesshouldbesufficientproofthatthedifferencesarenotalwaysclear-cutCorrectmethodologytreatsthewholeclausefirstandthenallowsthecontexttodeterminethenuanceofthetensethatisused
FuturePerfectTenseThefutureperfecttensewasneverwidelyusedinKoine
GreekandisalmostextinctintheNewTestamentTheverbεἰδήσουσιν(Heb811)istheonlycertaininstanceandithaslostitsperfectiveforce(itmeansldquotheywillknowrdquo)
PeriphrasticTenses
InGreekasinEnglishtensesaresometimesformedbyaformoftheverbbe(usuallyεἰμί)andaparticipleἦνδιδάσκωναὐτούςldquohewasteachingthemrdquo(Matt729)Thesearecalledperiphrastictensesbecausetheyareexpressedinaldquoroundaboutrdquoway(fromπερίldquoaroundrdquoandϕράζωldquoIexpressrdquo)ThemostcommonperiphrastictensesintheNewTestamentaretheperiphrasticimperfecttheperiphrasticperfectandtheperiphrasticpluperfectTheperiphrasticconstructionisoftenusedtohighlightverbalaspect
TheperiphrasticimperfectisformedbytheimperfectofεἰμίandthepresentparticipleκαὶἦνπροάγωναὐτοὺςὁἸησοῦςandJesuswasgoingbeforethem(Mark1032)TheperiphrasticpluperfectisformedbytheimperfectofεἰμίandtheperfectparticipleκαὶἦνὁἸωάννηςἐνδεδυμένοςτρίχαςκαμήλουandJohnwasclothedwithcamelrsquoshair(Mark16)TheperiphrasticperfectisformedbythepresentofεἰμίandtheperfectparticipleὁλαὸςκαταλιθάσειἡμᾶςπεπεισμένοςγάρἐστινἸωάννηνπροϕήτηνεἶναιthepeoplewillstoneusfortheyarepersuadedthatJohnisaprophet(Luke206)
PrincipalParts
YouhavenowencounteredallthetensesoftheGreekverbAttheendofthebookyouwillfindachartsettingoutallthemoodsandtensesoftheverbλύω(ldquoIlooserdquo)Thisverbis
perfectlyregularintheformationofitstensesbutmanyGreekverbsformoneormoreoftheirtensesinanirregularwayThisisregrettablebutthereisnothingyou(orI)candoaboutitInordertoidentifythevariouspartsofagivenverbgrammarianshaveinventedaconventioncalledprincipalpartswhicharethepresentactivefutureactiveaoristactiveperfectactiveperfectmiddlepassiveandaoristpassiveformsoftheverbTheprincipalpartsofldquoIlooserdquoare
1 λύω(Iloose)2 λύσω(Iwillloose)3 ἔλυσα(Iloosed)4 λέλυκα(Ihaveloosed)5 λέλυμαι(IhaveloosedIhavebeenloosed)6 ἐλύθην(Iwasloosed)
AlistofthemainverbsyouarelikelytoneedinreadingtheNewTestamentisgiveninappendix2YoushouldeventuallylearnthewholelistbyheartThisisnotasdifficultasitmayseemifyouworkonafewatatimesayfiveaday
Conclusion
YouhavecometoitmdashtheendofyouroverviewofGreekinflectionsManyotherdetailscouldhavebeengivenbutatthisstageofthegameyouneedtoknowthosedetailsasmuchastheBostonCelticsneedelevatorshoesYoumusthoweverkeepinmindthatinterpretationsthat
leantooheavilyonsubtlenuancesofGreekverbsareseldomworthconsideringForinstanceitisalltooeasytoldquoover-exegeterdquoverbalaspectldquoDonotbelieveeveryspiritrdquo(1John41)usesanimperativeofprohibitioninthepresenttenseDoesthisimplythatJohnwantshisreaderstostopbeingdeceivedPossiblybutthisgrammaticalconstructiondoesnrsquotalwaysforbidanactioninprogressOnceagainitisthecontextandthecontextalonethatisdeterminative
YourchallengeistouseyourunderstandingofGreekverbsasonepartofyourongoingstudyofthemostimportantbookintheworldAndyouwillenhanceyourministryifyouwearthisknowledgewithgraceandhumility
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingsentences
1 κρίνειὁκύριοςτὰςψυχὰςτῶνἀνθρώπων2 ἡἐκκλησίαπιστήἐστιν3 τέκναἀγαπητάἐσμεντοῦθεοῦ4 ὁπρῶτόςἐστινἔσχατοςκαὶὁἔσχατοςπρῶτος5 ἅγιοςεἶκύριε6 καλοῦμεντοὺςἑτέρουςνεανίας7 ἐκηρύσσομεντὸεὐαγγέλιοντῷλαῷ8 ἔπεμπενὁθεὸςτοὺςἀγγέλουςαὐτοῦεἰςτὸνκόσμον9 ὁἸησοῦςαὐτὸςοὐκἐβάπτιζενἀλλὰοἱμαθηταὶαὐτοῦ10 ἐπέμπεσθεὑπὸτῶνδιδασκαλῶνπρὸςἕτερονὄχλον11 μετὰταῦταοἱτελῶναιἐδιδάσκοντοὑπὸπρεσβυτέρωνἐν
τῇἐκκλησίᾳ12 ἐπορευόμεθαμετὰτῶνμαθητῶνπρὸςτὴνθάλλασαν13 οἱπρεσβύτεροιἕξουσιτὰπρόβαταἃσώζεταιἀπὸτῶν
ἐχθρῶν14 προϕητεύσειςτῷλαῷτούτῳκαὶὑπακούσουσίνσοι15 κρύψομεντὸπαιδίονἐντῇοἰκίᾳ16 ἁγιάσατεἐαυτούςἐγγίζειγὰρἡἡμέρατοῦκυρίου17 ἡεἰρήνηκατοικείτωτὰςκαρδίαςὑμῶν18 ἔπεμψαςτοὺςτελώναςἀγοράσαιτὰἱμάτια19 εἶπενὅτιεἶδετὰπλοῖα20 ἐντούτῳγινώσκομεντὴνἀγάπηντοῦθεοῦὅτιἔπεμψεν
τὸνυἱὸναὐτοῦτὸνἀγαπητὸνεἰςτὸνκόσμον21 ἔγνωμενὅτιπολλὰἔμαθονοἱμαθηταὶἀπὸτῶνἀποστόλων
ὅτεδὲοἱστρατιῶταιἦλθονεἰςτὴνοἰκίανἀπήγγειλανὅτι
22 ὅτεδὲοἱστρατιῶταιἦλθονεἰςτὴνοἰκίανἀπήγγειλανὅτιἀπέστειλεναὐτοὺςὁΠέτρος
23 ὁδὲἸησοῦςεἶπεντῷπαραλυτικῷἜγειρεἆροντὴνκλίνηνσουκαὶὕπαγεεἰςτὸνοἶκόνσουὣςδὲἤκουσενταῦταἦρεντὴνκλίνηνκαὶὑπῆγεν
24 ὁπροϕήτηςεἶπενὅτιπάνταδυνατάἐστιπαρὰτῷθεῷ25 ἤχθηὁἸησοῦςὑπὸτοῦπνεύματοςεἰςτὰὄρηπειρασθήναι
ὑπὸτοῦδιαβόλου26 τῇγὰρχάριτιἐσώθημενδιὰθελήματοςθεοῦ27 καὶὅτεἐξεβλήθητὸδαιμόνιονἐθαύμαζενὁὄχλοςἔλεγον
δὲπολλοὶὅτιταῦτατὰτέραταοὐκἦσαντοῦθεοῦ28 ἐκλήθητεἄϕρονεςὑπὸτῶνσοϕῶντοῦαἰῶνοςτούτου29 πεπληρώκατετὴνἸερουσαλὴμτῆςδιδαχῆςὑμῶν30 ὁθεὸςεἴρηκετοῦτοδιὰστόματοςπάντωντῶνπροϕητῶν31 ἦλθενἵναμαρτυρήσῃπερὶτοῦϕωτός32 ὃςἂνπιστεύσῃεἰςτὸὄνοματοῦκυρίουσωθήσεται33 λέγωμενἆραποιήσωμεντὰκακάἵναἔλθῃτὰἀγαθά34 καλῶςἀθετεῖτετὴνἐντολὴντοῦθεοῦἵνατὴνπαράδοσιν
ὑμῶντηρήσητε35 μὴκρίνετεἵναμὴκριθῆτε36 μὴϕόβουἀλλὰλάλεικαὶμὴσιωπήσῃς
KeyTerms
aoristtenseaoristicpresentconstativeaoristconsummativeperfectdeliberativefuturedescriptivepresentdramaticaoristdramaticperfecteffectiveaoristepistolaryaoristfutureperfecttense
futuretensefuturisticpresentgnomicaoristhistoricalpresentimperativalfutureimperfecttenseinceptiveimperfectingressiveaoristintensiveperfectiterativeimperfectiterativepresentperfecttenseperiphrasticimperfectperiphrasticperfectperiphrasticpluperfectperiphrastictensespluperfecttensepredictivefuturepresenttenseprincipalpartsprogressivefutureprogressiveimperfectprogressivepresenttendentialimperfecttendentialpresent
ForFurtherReading
Seethereferencesattheendofchapter8
H
10
ToBeorNottoBe
TheInfinitiveamletponderedthequestionldquoTobeornottoberdquoTostudyornottostudytheinfinitiveisnotopentoquestionNobodyisreallysurewhichpartofspeechinfinitivesbelongtoeventodayTheGreekinfinitivesseemtohavestartedlifeasthedativeformofnounsmadefromverbsEventuallytheinfinitivewasvotedanewstatusitwasnowconsideredamoodoftheverbonaparwiththeindicativesubjunctiveoptativeandimperativeWhatthatmeansessentiallyisthatinfinitivesusuallygetlistedwithverbsinsteadofwithnouns
InEnglishtheprepositiontobeforethebareformoftheverbmarksitasaninfinitiveThisprepositionisnotapartoftheinfinitivebutisarelicofthedativecaseoftheverbalnouninOldEnglishTheinfinitiveformsofverbs(alongwiththeirhelpingprepositionto)areitalicizedinthefollowingsentences
DoyouwanttogowithmeIprefertostayathomeTotellthetruthIhavenrsquotgottenreadyyetTobesolateembarrassesme
Theprepositiontomaybeomittedaftercertainverbssuchascanmayletandothers(ldquocanyougowithmerdquo)Theformsofinfinitivesdonotconveypersonornumber
thoughtheydohavetenseinbothEnglishandGreek
Toloveisgood(presentinfinitive)rsquoTisbettertohaveloved(perfectinfinitive)
HoweverbecauseGreekdoesnotusegerundstheinfinitivemustdodoubleduty
Lovingisfun
HerelovingisagerundGreekwouldusetheinfinitiveInmanylanguagestheinfinitiveismarkedbyaspecialsuffix
Italianinfinitivesforexampleallendin-are-ireor-ereFrenchinfinitivesallendin-er-iror-reandGermaninfinitivesallendin-enInGreekinfinitivesaremarkedbythefollowingsuffixes
-εινinthepresentactive-αιintheaoristactive-ναιintheperfectandaoristpassive-σθαιelsewhere
NatureoftheGreekInfinitive
Butdowntobrass(orbronze)tacksTounderstandhowGreekinfinitivesoperateyoumustbeacquaintedwithcertainrulesoftheroad
AsasubstantivetheinfinitivemaybeusedinanycaseexceptthevocativeItisalwaysindeclinablealwaysinthesingularnumberandalwaysintheneutergenderTheinfinitivemaybequalifiedbyadjectivesandaccompaniedbyapreposition
Theinfinitivemaybeusedwithorwithoutthearticlethearticleifusedisalwaysdeclinedandalwaysneuter(τότoῦτῷ)TheneuterarticleisusedbecausetheinfinitiveisanabsoluteconceptHenceinEnglishitisperhapsbettertothinkoftheinfinitiveasldquotheactionofrdquoratherthanasldquotordquoτὸἐλθεῖνldquotheactionofgoingrdquoAsaverbtheinfinitivehasbothtenseandvoiceTheforceofthevoicemaynotbeasprominentasintheindicativemoodbutitisalwayspresentThetensewillalwaysbetimelessandtheaspectwilleitherbeaoristic(undefinedaction)imperfective(continuousaction)orperfective(completedaction)AsaverbtheinfinitivemayalsogoverncasesasafiniteverbdoesandbequalifiedbyadverbsThenegativeusedwiththeinfinitiveisalmostalwaysμήinsteadofoὐBoththesubstantivalandtheverbalforceoftheinfinitiveshouldbeobservedininterpretationBothwillbepresentalthoughonewillpredominateAgoodexampleisPhilippians121τὸζῆνΧριστόςldquotogoonliving[is]ChristrdquoldquoTogoonlivingrdquoisthesubjectoftheclause(thisbringsoutthesubstantivalidea)ItisinthepresenttenseemphasizingacontinuousrelationshipwithChrist(bringingouttheverbalidea)mdashamomentouspointoftenneglectedinEnglishtranslationsNormallyaninfinitiversquossubjectwillbethesamesubjectasthatofthemainverbNoteforexample1Thessalonians35ἔπεμψαεἰςτὸγνῶναιτὴνπίστινὑμῶνThismaybetranslatedasldquoIsent[him]inordertoknowaboutyourfaithrdquoorasldquoIsent[him]sothatIwouldknowaboutyourfaithrdquoWhenaninfinitivetakesadistinctsubjecthoweverthatsubjectwillbeintheaccusativecaseIn1Thessalonians18ἡμᾶς(accusativeplural)isthesubjectofἔχεινintheclauseὥστεμὴχρείανἔχεινἡμᾶςλαλεῖντιldquoAsaresultwedonothaveaneedtosayanythingrdquoWhentwoelementsarefoundintheaccusativeitissometimesdifficulttotellwhichelementisthesubjectof
theinfinitiveAwell-knownexampleisPhilippians17διὰτὸἔχεινμεἐντῇκαρδίᾳὑμᾶςDoesPaulmeanldquobecauseIhaveyouinmyheartrdquoorldquobecauseyouhavemeinyourheartrdquoTheGreekpermitseitherinterpretation(μεandὑμᾶςarethewordsinquestion)IfyoursquorewonderinghowsuchconfusionispossibletrythefollowingfingerexerciseMakeacirclewiththefingersonyourlefthandbytouchingthetipofyourindexfingertothetipofyourthumbNowpokeyourheadthroughthecircleIfyouunsuccessfullytriedtofityourheadthroughthesmalldigitalringyoutookthephraseldquopokeyourheadrdquotomeanthatyourheadwasthepokerButthephraseldquopokeyourheadrdquohasasecondoppositemeaningthattheheadisthepokeeSoifyouhadraisedyourlefthandwiththecircleoffingersupclosetoyourforeheadandpokedyourrightindexfingerthroughthecircleuntilittouchedyourforeheadyouwouldhavesuccessfullycompletedtheexerciseFortunatelyaruleofgrammarhelpsusintranslatingPhilippians17whentwoitemsarefoundintheaccusativecasethesubjectusuallyprecedestheobjectHencethetranslationldquoIhaveyouinmyheartrdquoisprobablycorrectFinallymanyGreekinfinitivesmaybetranslatedasEnglishinfinitivesλαβεῖνldquototakerdquoϕιλεῖνldquotoloverdquoandsoonOnotheroccasionstheymayberenderedasparticiplesorasindicativeverbs
MainUsesoftheInfinitive
NowthatyoursquoveencounteredthegeniusoftheinfinitiveitrsquostimetofeastyoureyesonapotpourriofinfinitivalexpressionsthatgracethetableoftheGreeklanguage
1ComplementaryInfinitiveThisisthemostcommonusagebyfarAninfinitivemaybeusedwithsuchverbsasbeablewantwishbegintryseekavoidaskallowhinderoweand
soonTheinfinitivecomplementsorcompletesthethoughtbegunbythatverb
καὶτίςδύναταισωθῆναιthenwhoisabletobesaved(Mark1026)εἴτιςθέλειπρῶτοςεἶναιἔσταιπάντωνἔσχατοςifanyonewantstobefirsthewillbelastofall(Mark935)
2EpexegeticalInfinitiveTheinfinitivemayfurtherexplainadjectivesnounsandpronounsInthiswayitdiffersfromthecomplementaryinfinitivewhichcomplementsverbs
ὃἐπήγγελταιδυνατόςἐστινκαὶποιῆσαιwhathepromisedheisablealsotodo[theinfinitiveποιῆσαιcomplementsthepredicateadjectiveδυνατός](Rom421)τοῦτογάρἐστινθέληματοῦθεοῦὁἁγιασμὸςὑμῶνἀπέχεσθαιὑμᾶςἀπὸτῆςπορνείαςforthisisthewillofGodyoursanctificationforyoutoabstainfromimmorality[theinfinitiveἀπέχεσθαιcomplementsthenounἁγιασμός](1Thess43)
3InfinitiveofIndirectDiscourseGreekhasseveralwaysofturningadirectstatementintoanindirectstatementTheusualidiominvolvesaὅτιclauseἐνόμισανὅτιπλεῖονλήμψονταιldquotheythoughtthattheywouldreceivemorerdquo(Matt2010)(ThedirectstatementwouldhavebeenldquoWewillreceivemorerdquo)Sometimeshowevertheinfinitiveisusedtoexpressindirectdiscourse
αὐτὸςἐπηρώτααὐτούςὑμεῖςδὲτίναμελέγετεεἶναιheaskedthemldquoWhodoyousaythatIamrdquo(Mark829)καὶἔρχονταιΣαδδουκαῖοιπρὸςαὐτόνοἵτινεςλέγουσινἀνάστασινμὴεἶναιandSadduceeswhosaythereisnoresurrectioncametohim(Mark1218)
Astheprecedingexamplesillustratetheinfinitivemayfunctionastheobjectofaverbexpressingthoughtorverbalcommunicationinastatementquestioncommandor
prohibitionVerbscommonlyemployedinthisfunctionincludeλέγωνομίζωandδοκέωThesubjectwillbeintheaccusativecaseandtheinfinitivemayneedtobetranslatedwithaparticipleorindicativeverbTheinfinitivealwaysappearswithoutadefinitearticle
ὁλέγωνἐναὐτῷμένεινtheonewhosaysthatheabidesinhim[theactualstatementwasἐναὐτῷμένω](1John26)ὥστεὁδοκῶνἐστάναιβλεπέτωμὴπέσῃsothattheonewhothinkshestandslethimseetoitthathedoesnotfall[theactualstatementwasἵστημι](1Cor1012)
4SubstantivalInfinitiveHeretheinfinitiveactslikeanounfunctioningasthesubjectorobjectofaverb
τὸζῆνΧριστὸςκαὶτὸἀποθανεῖνκέρδοςtogoonliving[is]Christandtodie[is]gain(Phil121)ἔλαχετοῦθυμιᾶσαιheobtainedbylottheprivilegeofmakingthesacrifice(Luke19)
5InfinitiveofTimeTheinfinitivemayfollowapreposition(πρὸτοῦorπρίνorπρὶνἤ=beforeἐντῷ=whileμετὰτό=afterἕωςτοῦ=until)andisnormallytranslatedlikeanindicativeverboraparticipleBelowareexamplesofeachcategoryNotethatthesubjectsoftheinfinitiveareintheaccusativecase
πρὶνἢσυνελθεῖναὐτοὺςεὑρέθηἐνγαστρὶἔχουσαbeforetheycametogethershewasfoundtobepregnant(Matt118)καὶἐντῷσπείρειναὐτὸνἃμὲνἔπεσενπαρὰτὴνὁδόνandwhilehesowedsome[seeds]fellbesidetheroad(Matt134)ἀλλὰμετὰτὸἐγερθῆναίμεπροάξωὑμᾶςεἰςτὴνΓαλιλαίανbutafterIhavebeenraisedIwillgobeforeyouintoGalilee(Mark1428)
καὶδιερχόμενοςεὐηγγελίζετοτὰςπόλειςπάσαςἕωςτοῦἐλθεῖναὐτὸνεἰςΚαισάρειανandwhilepassingthroughheevangelizedallthecitiesuntilhecametoCaesarea(Acts840)
6InfinitiveofPurposeTheinfinitiveofpurposeoftenstandsalonebutitmayfollowτοῦεἰςτόπρὸςτόὥστεorὡς
Ἄνθρωποιδύοἀνέβησανεἰςτὸἱερὸνπροσεύξασθαιtwomenwentuptothetempletopray(Luke1810)ἤλθομενπροσκυνῆσαιαὐτῷwehavecometoworshiphim(Matt22)
7InfinitiveofResultTheinfinitiveofresultmaystandaloneoritmayfollowτοῦεἰςτόπρὸςτόorὥστεThecontextmustdecidewhethertheauthorintendedtheinfinitivetoindicatepurposeorresult
ἡπίστιςὑμῶνἐξελήλυθενὥστεμὴχρείανἔχεινἡμᾶςλαλεῖντιyourfaithhasgoneoutsothatwedonothaveaneedtosayanything(1Thess18)σκοτισθήτωσανοἱὀϕθαλμοὶαὐτῶντοῦμὴβλέπεινlettheireyesbedarkenedinorderthattheyshouldnotsee[or]withtheresultthattheydonotsee(Rom1110)
NoteTheinterpretationofεἰςτόwiththeinfinitiveisoftenimportanttheologicallyForexamplewastherevelationofGodinnature(Rom120)designedtomakepeopleinexcusablewhentheysinned(infinitiveofpurpose)ordiditrevealGodclearlyenoughthatpeoplewereinexcusablewhentheysinned(infinitiveofresult)ByitselfGreekgrammarcannotresolvethequestion
8CausalInfinitiveTheinfinitivemaybeusedtoanswerthequestionldquoWhyrdquoThecausalinfinitivetypicallyfollowsδιὰτόandistranslatedasbecauseplusanindicativeverb
καὶδιὰτὸμὴἔχεινῥίζανἐξηράνθηandbecauseithadnorootitdriedup(Mark46)οὐκἔχετεδιὰτὸμὴαἰτεῖσθαιὑμᾶςyoudonothavebecauseyoudonotask(James42)
9ImperativalInfinitiveOnrareoccasionstheinfinitivemaystandaloneasthemainverbandbeusedtoexpressacommandThereareonlyafewNewTestamentexamplesofthisuseandthesemayalsobeconsideredcomplementaryorindirect-discourseinfinitiveswithimpliedverbs
χαίρεινμετὰχαιρόντωνκλαίεινμετὰκλαιόντωνrejoicewiththosewhorejoiceweepwiththosewhoweep(Rom1215)πρεσβύταςνηϕαλίουςεἶναιoldermenaretobesoberminded(Titus22)
ObservingtheAspectoftheInfinitive
AswehaveseenkindofactionismoresignificantthantimeofactionintheGreekverbsystemThusitisalwaysimportanttoobservehowtheauthorwishestodescribethekindofactionintheinfinitiveGenerallyspeakingtheaoristtenseisthedefaulttenseconsideringtheactionasundefinedasfarasprogressstateorcompletion(aoristicaspect)Thepresenttenseisusedwhenprogressiverepeatedorhabitualactionisdescribed(imperfectiveaspect)Theperfecttenseindicatesastatebasedonpreviousaction(perfectiveaspect)Notethefollowingexamples
AoristtenseinfinitiveμετὰδὲτὸσιγῆσαιαὐτοὺςἀπεκρίθηἸάκωβοςbutaftertheyhadbecomesilentJamesanswered[thefactoftheirsilenceisemphasized](Acts1513)Presenttenseinfinitiveδιαπονούμενοιδιὰτὸδιδάσκειναὐτοὺςτὸνλαόνbeingannoyedbecausetheywereteachingthepeople[thatistheykeptonteachingandrefusedtostop](Acts42)
PerfecttenseinfinitiveπίστεινοοῦμενκατηρτίσθαιτοὺςαἰῶναςῥήματιθεοῦbyfaithweunderstandtheworldstohavebeencreatedbythewordofGod[thefocusisontheresultofGodrsquoscreativeacthenotonlycreatedtheuniversebutmaintainsit](Heb113)
Conclusion
ThischapterdoesnotbyanymeansexhaustthelistofalltheusesoftheinfinitivebutitdoesincludethemostimportantonesAtthetableoftheGreekpartsofspeechtherewillalwaysbeaplaceofhonorfortheinfinitive
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingsentences
1 ὁἀπόστολοςἦλθενἰδεῖντὸνλαὸνκαὶλαλῆσαιτὸνλόγον2 ἐγὼμὲνχρείανἔχωβαπτισθῆναιὑπὸσοῦσὺδὲαἰτεῖςβαπτισθῆναιὑπrsquoἐμοῦ
3 ἐντῇβασιλείᾳδεῖὑμᾶςγενέσθαιτέκναπνευματικά4 οὐχἱκανόςεἰμιδιδάσκειντὸνμαθητὴνὃνἔπεμψας5 μέλλομενποεῖνμαθητὰςπάντωντῶνἔθνων6 αὕτηἐστὶνἡὥρατῆςμετάνοιαςκαιρὸςοὖνμετανοῆσαι7 ὁἸησοῦςεἰσῆλθενεἰςτὸνκόσμονπρὸςτὸσῶσαιἁμαρτωλούς
8 διὰτὸθεραπεῦσαιτὸνἸησοῦντοὺςὀϕθαλμοὺςαὐτῶνοἱτυϕλοὶἐπίστευσανἐναὐτῷ
9 τὸμὴγινώσκειντὴνἀλήθειανπονηρόνἐστιν10 πρὸτοῦἄρξασθαιτὸνἀπόστολονκηρύσσειντὸ
εὐαγγέλιονὁἸησοῦςἤδηἀνέβηπρὸςτὸνοὐρανόν11 διὰτὸἐλθεῖντὸνἸησοῦνεἰςτὸνοἶκονοἱμαθηταὶαὐτοῦ
εκήρυσσον12 μετὰτὸκηρῦξαιτὸνδοῦλονἄξομεντοὺςὄχλουςπρὸςτὸν
Ἰησοῦν
13 τὸϕιλῆσαικαλόνἐστιν14 ἦλθενὁἸησοῦςπρὸςτὸἰδεῖντοὺςμαθητάς15 ἀπήγαγοναὐτὸνεἰςτὸσταυρῶσαι16 ἐνδύσασθετὴνπανοπλίαντοῦθεοῦπρὸςτὸδυνάσθαιὑμᾶς
στῆναι17 οἶδενὁπατὴρὑμῶνὧνχρείανἔχετεπρὸτοῦὑμᾶςαἰτῆσαι
αὐτόν18 κατάβηθιπρὶνἀποθανεῖντὸπαιδίονμου19 οὐδύνασθεθεῷδουλεύεινκαὶμαμωνᾷ20 διδάσκεινδὲγυναικὶοὐκἐπιτρέπωοὐδὲαὐθεντεῖνἀνδρός
ἀλλrsquoεἶναιἐνἡσυχίᾳ21 ὑμῖνἐχαρίσθητὸὑπὲρΧριστοῦοὐμόνοντὸεἰςαὐτὸν
πιστεύεινἀλλὰκαὶτὸὑπὲραὐτοῦπάσχειν22 ἐλευθέραἐστὶνᾧθέλειγαμηθήναι23 ἔστωπᾶςἄνθρωποςταχὺςεἰςτὸἀκοῦσαιβραδὺςεἰςτὸ
λαλῆσαι24 ἤμελλενγὰρἀποθνῄσκειν25 οὐκἔξεστίνσοιἆραιτὸνκράββατόνσου26 ὑμεῖςδοκεῖτεἐναὐταῖςζωὴναἰώνιονἔχειν27 ποιήσατετοὺςἀνθρώπουςἀναπεσεῖν28 ἤκουσαντοῦτοαὐτὸνπεποιηκέναιτὸσημεῖον29 δεῖαὐτὸνἐκνεκρῶνἀναστῆσαι30 ἀπὸτότεἤρξατοὁἸησοῦςδεικνύειντοῖςμαθηταῖςαὐτοῦ
ὅτιδεῖαὐτὸνεἰςἹεροσόλυμαἀπελθεῖνκαὶπολλὰπαθεῖνἀπὸτῶνπρεσβυτέρωνκαὶἀρχιερέωνκαὶγραμματέωνκαὶἀποκτανθῆναικαὶτῇτρίτῃἡμέρᾳἐγερθῆναι
KeyTerms
causalinfinitivecomplementaryinfinitiveepexegeticalinfinitiveimperativalinfinitiveinfinitiveofindirectdiscourseinfinitiveofpurposeinfinitiveofresultinfinitiveoftime
substantivalinfinitive
ForFurtherReading
Robertson1050ndash95DanaandMantey208ndash20BDF196ndash212Zerwick132ndash36Wallace587ndash611
11GoingGoingGone
WTheParticiple
ehavealreadylearnedsomethingaboutparticiplesinchapter1Itwasnotedtherethattheparticipleisaverbal
adjectivesharingthecharacteristicsofbothverbsandadjectivesAsaverbtheparticiplehasasubjectandifitistheparticipleofaverbintheactivevoiceitmayhaveanobjectAsanadjectiveitagreeswiththenounthatitqualifiesingendernumberandcaseThislatterstatementdoesnotofcourseapplytoEnglish
participlesWhenIwasaschoolboyalotofusefulfunwasmadeoftheldquodanglingrdquoparticipleandoneIrememberstillamusesmetodayldquoDidyouseethegrandfatherclockcomingupstairsrdquoInaninflectedlanguagelikeGreekthiswouldbeharmlessenoughComingwouldbenominativesingularandnoridiculousinterpretationwouldoccurtoanyoneButinEnglishwecannotassumethatthejuxtaposedclockandcomingwillbedisassociatedbyasuddenonsetofcommonsenseInGreeksyntacticalrelationshipsareclearersincetheyare
grammaticallyfixedbyinflectionsToreview
Theactiveparticiplesaredeclinedwiththird-declensionendingsinthemasculineandneuterandfirst-declensionendingsinthefeminineThepresentmiddleandpassiveparticipleisdeclinedlikeanadjectiveoftheseconddeclensionTheaoristpassiveparticiplesaredeclinedwiththird-declensionendingsinthemasculineandneuterandfirst-declensionendingsinthefeminine
ForparticipledeclensionsseeyourbeginninggrammarParticiplesaregenerallynegatedbyμή
UsesoftheParticiple
AsIhavesaidbeforeparticiplesareusedmorefrequentlyinGreekthaninEnglish(thereare6674participlesintheNewTestament)HappilythereareonlytwomainusesoftheparticipleandthesearemasteredeasilyenoughParticiplesmaybeusedeitheradjectivallyoradverbially1Theadjectivalparticipleisgenerallyprecededbyan
articlewithwhichitagreesThisso-calledarthrousparticipleisoccasionallyusedinEnglishinexpressionslikethelivingandthemissingIntheNewTestamentitisverycommonTheadjectivalparticipleshouldnormallybetranslatedbyaclauseintroducedbyarelativepronounbutmaysometimesbetranslatedbyanoun
οἱπιστεύοντεςthosewhobelieveorthebelieversὁσπείρωνtheonewhosowsorthesowerοἱπεινώντεςκαὶδιψῶντεςτὴνδικαιοσύνηνthosewhohungerandthirstafterrighteousness(Matt56)οὗτόςἐστινὁπαρὰτὴνὁδὸνσπαρείςthisistheonethatwassownbytheroad(Matt1319)
NoticeinthefinalexampleabovethatinGreekanynumberofwordsmaybeinsertedbetweenthearticleandtheparticipleAdjectivalparticiplesmayalsomodifynounsandpronouns
Boththeparticipleandthenounmayhavethearticle
καὶὁδιάβολοςὁπλανῶναὐτοὺςἐβλήθηεἰςτὴνλίμνηντοῦπυρόςandthedevilwhodeceivedthemwasthrownintothelakeoffire(Rev2010)καθὼςἀπέστειλένμεὁζῶνπατήρevenasthelivingFathersentme(John657)
2TheadverbialparticiplemodifiessomeotherverbinthesentenceSuchparticiplesarebesttranslatedbyanEnglishadverbialclauseThecontextdetermineswhatkindofadverbialclausetheparticipleinquestionisequivalenttoIntheNewTestamentanadverbialparticipleisofteneither
temporal(indicatingwhenanactiontakesplace)orcausal(indicatingwhyanactiontakesplace)
καὶἐξελθὼνεἶδενπολὺνὄχλονandwhenhecameouthesawalargecrowd(Matt1414)καὶπάντεςἐϕοβοῦντοαὐτόνμὴπιστεύοντεςὅτιἐστὶνμαθητήςandallwereafraidofhimbecausetheydidnotbelievethathewasadisciple(Acts926)
HowevertheadverbialparticiplecanalsodenoteattendantcircumstancesinwhichcaseitisbesttranslatedintoEnglishbyafiniteverbaccompaniedbyand
ἀποκριθεὶςεἶπενheansweredandsaidεὐθὺςκράξαςὁπατὴρτοῦπαιδίουἔλεγενandimmediatelythefatheroftheboycriedoutandsaid(Mark924)
InotherinstancestheGreekparticipleisbesttranslatedbyasimpleEnglishparticiple
ἐνδὲταῖςἡμέραιςἐκείναιςπαραγίνεταιἸωάννηςὁβαπτιστὴςκηρύσσωνἐντῇἐρήμῳτῆςἸουδαίαςκαὶλέγωνΜετανοεῖτεinthosedaysJohntheBaptistcameintothewildernessofJudeapreachingandsayingldquoRepentrdquo(Matt31ndash2)
OtherusesoftheadverbialparticiplearemuchlessfrequentintheNewTestamentForthesakeofcompletenessIlistthemhere
Thetelicfinalparticipleindicatespurpose(usuallywiththefutureparticiple)ItisbesttranslatedbytheEnglishinfinitiveἴδωμενεἰἔρχεταιἨλίαςσώσωναὐτόνletusseeifElijahcomestosavehim(Matt2749)Theconditionalparticipleisusedintheifclauseofaconditionalstatementἐξὧνδιατηροῦντεςἑαυτοὺςεὖπράξετεfromwhichifyoukeepyourselvesyouwilldowell(Acts1529)
TheconcessiveparticipledenotesasenseofmdashwhatelsemdashconcessionεἰγὰρἐχθροὶὄντεςκατηλλάγημεντῷθεῷforifthoughwewereenemieswewerereconciledtoGod(Rom510)Theinstrumentalparticipleindicatesthemeansbywhichtheactionofthemainverbisaccomplishedἐργασίανπολλὴνπαρεῖχενμαντευομένηshebroughtmuchgainbypredictingthefuture(Acts1616)ThecomplementaryparticipleisusedtocompletetheideaoftheactionexpressedinthemainverbοὐπαύομαιεὐχαριστῶνὑπὲρὑμῶνIdonotceasegivingthanksforyou(Eph116)Theimperativalparticipleisusedtoexpressacommandτῇἐλπίδιχαίροντεςτῇθλίψειὑπομένοντεςτῇπροσευχῇπροσκαρτεροῦντεςrejoiceinhopebesteadfastintribulationbedevotedtoprayer(Rom1212)Theperiphrasticparticipleaswesawinchapter8usesalinkingverb(usuallyaformofεἰμί)andthepresent-orperfect-tenseparticipletoemphasizetheaspectoftheparticipleχάριτίἐστεσεσῳσμένοιbygraceyouhavebeensaved(Eph25)Theparticipleofattendantcircumstance(alludedtoabove)isusedbothtointroduceanewactionandtofocusattentiononthemainverbInthisconstructionthetenseoftheparticipleisusuallyaoristasisthetenseofthemainverbandtheparticipleprecedestheverbπορευθέντεςδὲμάθετετίἐστινnowgoandlearnwhatthismeans(Matt913)TheparticipleabsoluteinvolvesaparticipleandnounorpronouninthegenitivecaseTheclausecontainingtheparticipleisldquoloosedrdquofromtherestofthesentenceandtheconstructioniscalledabsolute(fromtheLatinabsolutusldquoloosedrdquo)καὶἐκβληθέντοςτοῦδαιμονίουἐλάλησενὁκωϕόςandwhenthedemonhadbeenthrownoutthemutemanspoke(Matt933)Thisconstructionisalsocalledthegenitiveabsolute(seechapter3)
OfcoursetheparticipleitselfcontainsnoneoftheideaspresentedaboveItisonlybyobservingthecontextthatthesignificanceoftheparticiplecanbedetermined
TheMeaningofTenseintheParticiple
ThoughthetenseoftheparticipleneverconveysanindependentexpressionoftimeitusuallyinvolvesatemporalsignificancederivedfromthecontextThisisespeciallytrueofadverbialparticiplesGenerallyspeakingthepresentparticipledenotesactiontakingplaceatthesametimeastheactionofthemainverb(contemporaneousaction)andtheaoristparticipledenotesactionthattookplacebeforetheactionofthemainverb(antecedentaction)(ThefutureparticipledenotestimesubsequenttothatofthemainverbitisveryrareintheNewTestament)
Presentparticipledenotingcontemporaneousactionὤϕθηαὐτοῖςμαχομένοιςheappearedtothemwhiletheywerefighting(Acts726)Aoristparticipledenotingantecedentactionκαὶνηστεύσαςἡμέραςτεσσαράκοντακαὶνύκταςτεσσαράκονταὕστερονἐπείνασενandafterhehadfastedforfortydaysandfortynightsheafterwardsbecamehungry(Matt42)
Itisimportanttorememberthatthesetemporalrelationsaredeterminedsolelybythecontextandthattherearemanyexceptions
Conclusion
ThenumberofwordsthatfallintothecategoryofparticipleissubstantialAllofthiselbowroomisgoodnewsmdashifyouhaveafirmhandleonthesubjectMeanwhiletherulingconsiderationininterpretingparticiplesisthattheyexpress
somethingthatisdependentonthemainverbasthesentencesbelowamplyillustrate
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingsentences
1 ὑμεῖςοὖνἀκούσατετὴνπαραβολὴντοῦσπείραντος2 καὶἦλθενκηρύσσωνεἰςτὰςσυναγωγὰςαὐτῶνκαὶδαιμόνιαἐκβάλλων
3 ἰδοὺθεωρῶτοὺςοὐρανοὺςδιηνοιγμένους4 ζῶνὁλόγοςτοῦθεοῦ5 ἦσανοἱϕαγόντεςτοὺςἄρτουςπεντακισχίλιοιἄνδρες6 τοῦτοδέἐστιντὸθέληματοῦπέμψαντόςμε7 πᾶςὁὄχλοςἰδόντεςαὐτὸνἐξεθαμβήθησαν8 ἀπῆλθενλυπούμενος9 κοπιῶμενἐργαζόμενοιταῖςἰδίαιςχερσίν10 ἑαυτὸνἐκένωσενμορϕὴνδούλουλαβών11 θερίσομενμὴἐκλυόμενοι12 γνόντεςτὸνθεὸνοὐχὡςθεὸνἐδόξασαν13 τοῦτοδὲἔλεγενσημαίνωνποίῳθανάτῳἤμελλεν
ἀποθνῄσκειν14 ἀπελθὼνδεῖξονσεαυτὸντῷἱερεῖ15 ἰδὼνδὲὅτιἀρεστόνἐστιντοῖςἸουδαίοιςπροσέθετο
συλλαβεῖνκαὶΠέτρον16 τότεὁΠαῦλοςἐκτείναςτὴνχεῖραἀπελογεῖτο17 ἀκούωνδὲὁἉνανίαςτοὺςλόγουςτούτουςπεσὼν
ἐξέψυξενκαὶἐγένετοϕόβοςμέγαςἐπὶπάνταςτοὺςἀκούοντας
18 καίπερὢνυἱόςἔμαθενἀϕ᾽ὧνἔπαθεντὴνὑπακοήν19 ἦλθενγὰρἸωάννηςμήτεἐσθίωνμήτεπίνωνκαὶλέγουσιν
Δαιμόνιονἔχει20 οὐπᾶςὁλέγωνμοικύριεκύριεἀγαθόςἐστινἀλλ᾽ὁ
ποιῶντὸθέληματοῦπατρόςμουἐντοῖςοὐρανοῖς
21 ἦνγὰρδιδάσκωναὐτοὺςὡςἐξουσίανἔχωνκαὶοὐχὡςοἱγραμματεῖςαὐτῶν
22 ἔτιδὲλαλοῦντοςτοῦΠέτρουτὰῥήματαταῦταἔπεσεντὸπνεῦματὸἅγιονἐπὶπάνταςτοὺςἀκούσανταςτὸνλὸγον
23 ἰδὼνδὲτοὺςὄχλουςἀνέβηεἰςτὸὄροςκαὶκαθίσαντοςαὐτοῦπροσῆλθοναὐτῷοἱμαθηταὶαὐτοῦκαὶἀνοίξαςτὸστόμααὐτοῦἐδίδασκεναὐτοὺςλέγωνΜακάριοιοἱὄντεςπτωχοὶτῷπνεύματίεἰσινὅτιαὐτῶνἐστινἡβασιλείατῶνοὐρανῶν
KeyTerms
adjectivalparticiple
adverbialparticiple
causalparticiple
complementaryparticiple
concessiveparticiple
conditionalparticiple
finalparticiple
genitiveabsolute
imperativalparticiple
instrumentalparticiple
participleabsolute
participleofattendantcircumstance
periphrasticparticiple
telicparticiple
temporalparticiple
ForFurtherReading
Robertson1095ndash1141DanaandMantey220ndash33BDF212ndash20Zerwick125ndash31Wallace612ndash55
N
12
ItrsquosaSmallWordafterAll
AdverbsConjunctionsandParticleseverstartasentencewithandrdquoNobodyseemstoknowwherethiswidelydisseminatedkernelofadviceonldquogoodwritingrdquofirstbegantogrow
Thebestexplanationisthatittookrootwhenteacherstriedtodissuadegrade-schoolersfromstringingtogethereverysentencetheywrotewithoneandafteranotherUndoubtedlythisguidelineisworthrememberingmdashbutself-
defeatingifyoufollowittotheletterStartinganoccasionalsentencewithandisaneffectivewaytosmoothoutthetransitionfromonesentencetothenextAfteralliftherewereanythingunhealthyaboutthepracticetheBiblewouldbeforbiddenreadinginmostgrammarclassesThischapterdealswithadverbsconjunctionsandparticles
mdashthoseldquosmallrdquowordsoflanguageOftenneglectedinthestudyofgrammartheyareimportantelementsinasentence
Adverbs
TheadverbisoneoftheeightbasicpartsofspeechAdverbstypicallyaddspecificinformationabouttimemannerorplacetothemeaningofverbsinwholeclausesThusthereareadverbsoftimeadverbsofmannerandadverbsofplace(Thesethreecategoriesdonrsquotactuallycovereverythingthatcanbecalledanadverb)Todaytomorrowyesterdaythennowsoonrecentlyand
alwaysareadverbsoftimetheyaddinformationaboutthe
timewhensomethinghappensSlowlyquicklyfastearlybadlyandwellareadverbsof
mannertheyaddinformationaboutthemannerinwhichsomethingisdoneHeretheresomewhereanywhereandeverywhereare
adverbsofplacetheyaddinformationabouttheplacewheresomethinghappensInEnglishmanyadverbsofmannerareformedbyadding
thesuffix-lytoanadjectiveslow(adjective)slowly(adverb)AdverbsmaybeplacedatthebeginningmiddleorendofaclausewithaslightdifferenceofemphasisAdverbsarealwaysoptionalelementsofclausesifyouomitanadverbyougetlessinformationbuttheclausestillmakessensewithoutitSomelanguagesdonrsquothaveadverbsasaseparatepartof
speechGermanforexamplemainlyusesitsadjectivesforadverbsallowingthemtomodifyverbsaswellasnounsThusGermanusesoneword(schnell)forbothquickandquicklyandoneword(gut)forbothgoodandwellNonstandardEnglishsometimesdoesthesamethingldquoShediditgoodrdquo(asentencethatusesnoadverbs)isanotherwayofsayingldquoShediditwellrdquoInGreekalladverbsoriginallyhadclear-cutcaseformslike
nounsSoitneednotsurpriseustofindanounpronounorparticipleusedadverbiallyThemostcommonadverbialsuffixintheNewTestamentis-ωςasurvivalofanoldgenitivecaseendingThuswehaveὁμολογουμένωςconfessedly(1Tim316)κακῶςbadly(Matt1435)σπουδαιοτέρωςmorezealously(Phil228)ἐσχάτωςextremely(Mark523)andaboutahundredotheradverbsendingin-ωςOtheradverbialcasesuffixesinclude
Nominativeἅπαξonce(2Cor1125)Genitiveὅπουwhere(Matt619)Dativeκύκλῳinacircle(Mark334)Accusativeδωρεάνfreely(Matt108)
OtherthanpossessingtheseoriginalcasesuffixesadverbsareneverinflectedTheirspellingalwaysremainsthesamewith
theexceptionofthemovableςaswithοὕτω(ς)thusThefollowingNewTestamentadverbsoccurfrequentlyand
shouldbememorized
Adverbsoftimeτότε(then)νῦν(now)ἤδη(already)σήμερον(today)πάλιν(again)Adverbsofmannerοὕτως(thusinthismanner)καλῶς(rightlywell)ὁμοίως(likewisesimilarly)ἀληθῶς(truly)ταχέως(quickly)Adverbsofplaceἐκεῖ(there)ἔξω(outside)ὧδε(here)ἐκεῖθεν(fromthere)πού(somewhere)Interrogativeadverbsπῶς(how)ποῦ(where)πόθεν(fromwhere)πότε(when)Numericaladverbsἅπαξ(once)δίς(twotimes)τρίς(threetimes)ἑπτάκις(seventimes)Adverbsofdegreeλίαν(very)μάλιστα(especially)μᾶλλον(rathermore)σϕόδρα(extremely)
Ininterpretingtheseadverbsfourrulesshouldberemembered
1 Anadverbusuallymodifiestheverbclosesttoit2 Adverbsoftimeandmannerusuallyprecedethewordtheymodifyἐβουλήθηλάθρᾳἀπολῦσαιαὐτήνhedesiredtodivorcehersecretly[notldquohesecretlydesiredtodivorceherrdquo](Matt119)
3 Adverbsofplaceusuallyfollowthewordmodifiedκαὶπροβὰςἐκεῖθενεἶδενἄλλουςδύοἀδελϕούςandwhenhewentonfromtherehesawtwootherbrothers[notldquoandwhenhewentonfromtherehesawtwootherbrothersrdquo](Matt421)
4 Adverbscanmodifyverbsadjectivesandotheradverbsthoughsometimestheyfunctionasnouns
ἐγὼσήμερονγεγέννηκάσεtodayIhavebegottenyou[modifyingaverb](Heb15)
ὁμολογουμένωςμέγαἐστὶντὸτῆςεὐσεβείαςμυστήριονconfessedlygreatisthesecretofgodliness[modifyinganadjective](1Tim316)ἔτιἅπαξἐγὼσείσωοὐμόνοντὴνγὴνἀλλὰκαὶτὸνοὐρανόνoncemoreIwillshakenotonlytheearthbuttheheavenalso[modifyinganadverb](Heb1226)οὐχὁποιήσηςτὸἔξωθενκαὶτὸἔσωθενἐποίησενdidnottheonewhomadetheoutsidemaketheinsidealso[functioningasanoun](Luke1140)
Conjunctions
TheconjunctionisthatpartofspeechthatconnectswordsphrasesclausesorsentencesorthatshowsrelationshipsbetweensentencesConjunctionsareessentialtothebalancerhythmandstructureofsentencesthewrongchoicecanshifttheweightalterthetemposplatterthepunctuationfragmentthemeaningjogglethetransitionandsinkthesentenceorgiveitaseasicklurchIntheNewTestamentconjunctionsareimportantgap-fillersthecartilageatthejointsofspeechTherearetwomainclassesofconjunctionscoordinatingand
subordinatingAcoordinatingconjunctionisonethatjoinstwocoordinateelementsthatiselementsofequalorderorrankmdashtwonounstwoverbstwophrasesortwoclausesneitherofwhichisdependentontheotherasinldquoYouandIlikefruitrdquoAsubordinatingconjunctionisonethatjoinsasubordinateelementtotheprincipalelementofthesentenceldquoWhenJohnspokeeverybodylistenedrdquoSubordinatingconjunctionsgenerallydenotethefollowing
relations
TimewhensinceuntilaslongasassoonasetcReasoncauseorconcessionasbecauseforsincealthoughetcContingencyorsuppositionifthoughunlessprovidedetc
PurposeresultorcontentinorderthatsothatthatetcComparisonthanotherwiseratheretc
Youwillrecallfromchapter2thatcompoundsentencesarecomprisedofindependentclausesTheindependentclausesofcompoundsentencesarejoinedbycoordinatingconjunctionsThesubordinateclausesofcomplexsentencesarejoinedtomainclausesbysubordinatingconjunctionsSubordinatingconjunctionsaremoredifficultbecausetherearemoreofthemandbecausethefunctionofconnectingsubordinateclausesismoresubtlethancouplingequalelementsEnglishconjunctionsaregenerallypositionedatthe
beginningofthesentenceortheclausethattheyarejoiningtotheprecedingsentenceorclauseInGreekhoweverseveralconjunctionsarepostpositivethatistheycannotstandfirstintheirsentenceorclausePostpositiveconjunctionsincludeἄραγάρδέοὖνandτεSometimesaconjunctionisnotusedwhereanEnglishreader
wouldexpectitThisiscalledasyndetonmeaningldquonotboundtogetherrdquo(ἀσύνδετον)WhenasyndetonoccursbetweenwordsorphrasesitsuggestsexcitementorurgencyWhenasyndetonoccursbetweenparagraphsitusuallyindicatestheintroductionofanewsubjectInalongseriesofcoordinatenounsadjectivesorverbsconjunctionsaremoreoftenomittedthaninserted(seeLuke627ndash28John538Rom129ndash311Thess515ndash22)
CoordinatingConjunctionsLetrsquosnowtakeacloserlookatconjunctionsthatuniteelementsofequalrank(Thesearealsocalledparatacticconjunctions)TherearefivemainclassesofcoordinatingconjunctionsintheNewTestament
1Copulativeconjunctionssimplyldquocoupletogetherrdquowithoutstatingtherelationshipbetweentheelementsunited
καίthemostfrequentlyusedconjunctionintheNewTestamentisusuallycopulative(and)Sometimesitisused
adverbially(alsoeven)ἀληθῶςκαὶσὺἐξαὐτῶνεἶtrulyyoualsoare[one]ofthem(Matt2673)τεmeaningandindicatesaslightlycloserconnectionthanκαίItisacommonconjunctioninActsχάριςτεμεγάληἦνἐπὶπάνταςαὐτούςandmuchgracewasuponthemall(Acts433)δέmayhaveacopulativeuse(andnow)thoughitfrequentlyhasanadversativesense(but)ThecopulativeforceisclearlyseeninthegenealogyofMatthew12ndash16ἀλλάmostoftenmeansbut(seebelow)thoughthisisnotitsonlymeaningLikeδέthethingintroducedbyἀλλάisnewbutnotnecessarilyincontrasttosomethingelse
2AdversativeconjunctionsimplycontrastorantithesisThecontextwillindicatehowstrongthecontrastis
ἀλλάusuallyimpliesastrongcontrastθεὸςδὲοὐκἔστιννεκρῶνἀλλὰζώντωνnowheisnottheGodofthedeadbutoftheliving(Luke2038)Ἀλλάhasalsobeencalledaneliminativeadversativesinceitisusedwhereoneoftwocontrastedmembersisnegatedthetruebeingsubstitutedforthefalseδέisfrequentlyadversative(thoughnotasstrongasἀλλά)ἐγὼἐβάπτισαὑμᾶςὕδατιαὐτὸςδὲβαπτίσειὑμᾶςπνεύματιἀγίῳIbaptizedyouwithwaterbuthehimselfwillbaptizeyouwiththeHolySpirit(Mark18)Incontrasttoἀλλάδέisabalancingadversativeusedwhentwotruthsofdivergenttendencyarepresented
3Disjunctiveconjunctionsindicateacontrastoranalternativebetweenwordsorclauses
ἤ(or)ismutuallyexclusiveμενέτωἄγαμοςἢτῷἀνδρὶκαταλλαγήτωletherremainunmarriedorbereconciledtoherhusband(1Cor711)εἴτεεἴτεmeanswhetherorἵναεἴτεγρηγορῶμενεἴτεκαθεύδωμενἅμασὺναὐτῷζήσωμενinorderthat
whetherweareawakeorasleepwewilllivetogetherwithhim(1Thess510)
4Inferentialconjunctionsareusedtodrawaconclusionfromatruthjuststatedortoindicatearesultfromwhathaspreceded
ἄρά(thereforethen)isnearlyalwaysinferentialintheNewTestamentεἰγὰρδιὰνόμουδικαιοσύνηἄραΧριστὸςδωρεὰνἀπέθανενforifrighteousness[comes]throughtheLawthenChristdiedfornopurpose(Gal221)διόandδιόπερbothmeanforthisreasonthereforeδιὸοὐδὲἐμαυτὸνἠξίωσαπρὸςσὲἐλθεῖνthereforeneitherdidIcountmyselfworthytocometoyou(Luke77)οὖνisthemostcommoninferentialconjunctionintheNewTestamentoccurringsomefourhundredtimesItisusuallytranslatedasthereforeorthenμετανοήσατεοὖνκαὶἐπιστρέψατεrepentthereforeandturn(Acts319)ButawarningisnecessaryhereΟὖνsometimeshasmerelyacontinuativeforceespeciallyintheGospelofJohnwhereitlooselystringsclausesandsentencestogether(fornumerousexamplesseeJohn11)
5FinallythemaincausalconjunctionintheNewTestamentisγάρ(for)τέξεταιδὲυἱόνκαὶκαλέσειςτὸὄνομααὐτοῦἸησοῦναὐτὸςγὰρσώσειτὸνλαὸναὐτοῦἀπὸτῶνἁμαρτιῶναὐτῶνldquoandshewillgivebirthtoasonandyouaretocallhisnameJesusforhehimselfwillsavehispeoplefromtheirsinsrdquo(Matt121)
SubordinatingConjunctionsSubordinatingconjunctions(alsocalledhypotacticconjunctions)introducegrammaticallydependentclausesthatexpresssuchideasaspurposeresultcauseconditioncomparisonconcessionandtimeThesefunctionsareindicatedbythefollowingconjunctions
ἵναwiththesubjunctivegenerallyexpressespurposeτεκνίαμουταῦταγράϕωὑμῖνἵναμὴἁμάρτητεmylittlechildrenIamwritingthesethingstoyouinorderthatyoumaynotsin(1John21)DonotthinkhoweverthatἵναalwaysmeansinorderthatItoftenintroducesasubstantiveclauseκαὶαὕτηἐστὶνἡἀγάπηἵναπεριπατῶμενκατὰτὰςἐντολὰςαὐτοῦandthisislovethatweshouldwalkaccordingtohiscommands(2John6)ὅπωςwiththesubjunctivemayintroducepurposeἀπαγγείλατέμοιὅπωςκἀγὼἐλθὼνπροσκυνήσωαὐτῷreporttomeinorderthatItoomaygoandworshiphim(Matt28)NotethatἵναandὅπωςareoftenusedsynonymouslyCompareMatthew122(ἵναπληρωθῇτὸῥηθέν)andMatthew223(ὅπωςπληρωθῇτὸῥηθέν)inorderthatwhathadbeenspokenmightbefulfilledὥστεnormallyindicatesresulteffectorconsequenceσυνήχθησανπολλοὶὥστεμηκέτιχωρεῖνmanywereassembledtheresothattherewasnomoreroom(Mark22)ὅτιprimarilyindicatescauseorreasonὅτιοὐκεἰμὶχείροὐκεἰμὶἐκτοῦσώματοςbecauseIamnotahandIdonotbelongtothebody(1Cor1215)ὅτιmayalsointroducecontentclausesἐντούτῳἐστὶνἡἀγάπηοὐχὅτιἠγαπήκαμεντὸνθεόνἀλλ᾽ὅτιαὐτὸςἠγάπησενἠμᾶςInthisislovenotthatwehavelovedGodbutthathehimselflovedus(1John410)ἐπείoftenhasthemeaningsinceorbecauseἐπεὶκατ᾽οὐδένοςεἶχενμεὶζονοςὀμόσαιὤμοσενκαθ᾽ἑαυτοῦsincehecouldswearbynoonegreaterhesworebyhimself(Heb613)ὡςtypicallyexpressesacomparisonbetweentwowordsphrasesorclausesἡμέρακυρίουὡςκλέπτηςἐννυκτὶοὕτωςἔρχεταιthedayoftheLordwillsocomelikeathiefinthenight(1Thess52)Ὡςmayalsobeusedasatemporalconjunctionandbetranslatedwhenafterwhileorasὡςἀτενίζοντεςἦσανεἰςτὸνοὐρανὸνπορευομένου
αὐτοῦwhiletheywerewatchinghimgointoheaven(Acts110)ὡσείusuallyindicatescomparisonὡσείπεριβόλαιονἑλίξειςαὐτούςlikeacloakyouwillrollthemup(Heb112)εἰexpressesifinaconditionalclausethatusestheindicativemoodεἰδὲΧριστὸςοὐκἐγήγερταιματαίαἡπίστιςὑμῶνbutifChristhasnotbeenraisedyourfaith[is]invain(1Cor1517)ἐάνexpressesifinaconditionalclausethatusesthesubjunctiveἐὰνγὰρἀγαπήσητετοὺςἀγαπῶνταςὑμᾶςτίναμισθὸνἔχετεforifyoulovethosewholoveyouwhatrewarddoyouhave(Matt546)εἰκαίἐὰνκαίκαὶἐάνandκἄν(acombinationofκαὶἐάν)mayallbeusedtoindicateconcessionεἰγὰρκαὶτῇσαρκὶἄπειμιἀλλάτῷπνεύματισὺνὑμῖνεἰμιforalthoughIamabsentinthefleshyetIamwithyouinthespirit(Col25)ὅτεwiththeindicativeisatemporalconjunctionindicatingatimeframewithinwhichsomethingtakesplaceνῦνγὰρἐγγύτερονἡμῶνἡσωτηρίαἢὅτεἐπιστεύσαμενfornowoursalvationisnearerthanwhenwebelieved(Rom1311)ἕωςwiththesubjunctivehasthemeaningwhileoruntilκαθίσατεὧδεἕωςπροσεύξωμαιsitherewhileIpray(Mark1432)ὅτανwiththesubjunctivemaybetranslatedwheneverorwhenχαίρομενγὰρὅτανἡμεῖςἀσθενῶμενwerejoicewheneverweareweak(2Cor139)
Particles
Particlesaresmallwordsthatdonrsquoteasilyfitintoanyclear-cutwordclassItisthussomethingofaldquocop-outcategoryrdquoforgrammariansifitrsquossmallandyoudonrsquotknowwhattocallitcallitaparticleSomegrammariansusethetermtoincludeadverbsprepositionsconjunctionsandinterjectionsIam
usingitinamorerestrictedsensetorefertonegativeandemphaticparticlesincludinginterjections(Donrsquotconfuseparticlewiththesimilar-lookingparticipleThelatterhasamuchmorewell-definedapplication)NegativeParticlesTherearetwosimplenegativeparticlesinGreekοὐ(alsowrittenοὐκandοὐχ)andμήTheparticleοὐisusedforaclear-cutdenialοὐκοἴδαμενldquowedonotknowrdquo(Matt2127)ItisthenaturalnegativetousewiththeindicativemoodTheemphaticformοὐχίisusedforstrongdenialοὐχίἀλλὰκληθήσεταιἸωάννηςldquoNoButhewillbecalledJohnrdquo(Luke160)ΟὐhasseveralcompoundsincludingοὐδείςοὐδέοὔτεandοὐκέτιTheparticleμήisthenegativeusedforhypotheticalor
hesitantdenialItisquitenaturalthatμήshouldbeusedwiththesubjunctiveoptativeandimperativemoodsΜήisfrequentlyusedwiththeaoristsubjunctiveandthepresentimperativetoexpressprohibitionWiththeaoristsubjunctiveithasaningressiveforce(ldquodonrsquotbegintodordquo)orageneralmeaning(ldquodonotdordquo)WiththepresentimperativeiteithermeansldquostopwhatyouaredoingrdquoorldquomakeityourhabitnottodordquoIftheactionisclearlyinprogresstheformermeaningisinviewμὴθησαυρίζετεldquostoplayinguptreasuresrdquo(Matt619)IftheactionhasnotbegunthiswouldmeanldquomakeityourhabitnottolayuptreasuresrdquoΜήhasanumberofcompoundsincludingμηδέμηδείςandμηδέπωInstandardEnglishonlyonenegativeelementcannormally
standinaclauseInmanynonstandardEnglishdialectshowevermultiplenegationisquitecommonldquoIdonrsquotgotnomoneyrdquoGreekhasadouble-negationconstructionthatisveryemphaticοὐμήItmaybetranslatedcertainlynotneverorbynomeansοὐμὴεἰσέλθητεεἰςτὴνβασιλείαντῶνοὐρανῶνldquoyouwillcertainlynotenterthekingdomofheavenrdquo(Matt520)
EmphaticParticlesEmphaticparticlesexpressfineshadesofthoughtoremotionTheyareinsertedinthesentencetoemphasizesomewordorthethoughtofthe
sentenceasawholeEmphaticparticlesmaybecomparedtothemarksofexpressioninamusicalscore(egconspiritoplayinalivelymannerdolceplaysoftlysweetly)whichsuggestinterpretationratherthandictateitInthissenseapagefromPaulrsquoswritingsbearssomeresemblancetoapagefromBachorBeethovenIncontrastwithClassicalGreektherearecomparativelyfew
emphaticparticlesintheNewTestamentmdashafactthatmakestheiruseallthemoresignificantThefollowingparticlesdeservespecialmention
ἀμήνisatransliterationofaHebrewverbaladjectivethatmeanstobefirmItiscommonlyusedtoexpressassenttoprayersὁδὲθεὸςτῆςεἰρήνηςμετὰπάντωνὑμῶνἀμήνandtheGodofpeacewillbewithyouAmen(Rom1533)IntheGospelsitisfrequentlyusedbyJesustointroduceasolemnstatementἀμὴνλέγωὑμῖνἐὰνμήστραϕῆτεκαὶγένησθεὡςτὰπαιδίαοὐμὴεἰσέλθητεεἰςτὴνβασιλείαντῶνοὐρανῶνtrulyItellyouunlessyouturnandbecomelikelittlechildrenyouwillcertainlynotenterthekingdomofheaven(Matt183)ἄνimpliesuncertaintyorvaguenessandgenerallyimpartsthemeaning-everὅταν(ldquowheneverrdquo)ὃςἄν(ldquowhoeverrdquo)etcγεemphasizesthewordwithwhichitisusedandmaybetranslatedatleastindeedevenorinfactεἴγεἠκούσατετὴνοἰκονομίαντῆςχάριτοςτοῦθεοῦifinfactyouheardoftheadministrationofthegraceofGod(Eph32)ἴδεisthesecondpersonsingularactiveimperativeofεἶδονItisastereotypedparticleintheNewTestamentandmeansseeorhereisἴδεὁτόποςὅπουἔθηκαναὐτόνhereistheplacewheretheylaidhim(Mark166)Ἰδού(middleimperative)isusedinthesamewayἰδοὺἡμήτηρμουhereismymother(Matt1249)μένisanaffirmativeadversativeoremphaticparticleWhenitisusedwiththearticletheexpressionmaybe
translatedasapronounοἱμὲνἔλεγονsomeweresaying(John712)OtherrenderingsincludeinfactratherontheonehandindeedναίisastrongemphaticparticlewiththesignificanceofindeedorcertainlyναὶλέγωὑμῖνἐκζητηθήσεταιἀπὸτῆςγενεᾶςταύτηςindeedItellyouitwillberequiredofthisgeneration(Luke1151)
Conclusion
SmallwordssuchasadverbsconjunctionsandparticlesareimportantmdashdespitetheirsizeIhopeIdonotshockyouwhenIsaythatΧριστόςisnomoreinspiredthanοὐSmallwordsarestillincludedintheallthatispartofGod-breathedScripture(2Tim316)InfactyoucanrsquotdecidethemeaningofapassageuntilyouunderstandtheflowoftheauthorrsquosthoughtandthisisimpossiblewithoutunderstandingsmallwordsIfyouwanttodoathoroughjobofexegesisyoumusttakealookatthelittleguysandnotonlythebigshotsIfyoudevoteconsiderabletimetothispracticenowIguaranteethatitwillpayyourichdividendslateron
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingpassagenotingespeciallytheadverbsconjunctionsandparticles
ὍτεοὖνἠρίστησανλέγειτῷΣίμωνιΠέτρῳὁἸησοῦςΣίμωνἸωάννουἀγαπᾷςμεπλέοντούτωνλέγειαὐτῷναὶκύριεσὺοἶδαςὅτιϕιλῶσελέγειαὐτῷβόσκετὰἀρνίαμουλέγειαὐτῷπάλινδεύτερονΣίμωνἸωάννουἀγαπᾷςμελέγειαὐτῷναὶκύριεσὺοἶδαςὅτιϕιλῶσελέγειαὐτῷποίμαινετὰπρόβατάμουλέγειαὐτῷτὸτρίτονΣίμωνἸωάννουϕιλεῖςμεἐλυπήθηὁΠέτροςὅτιεἶπεναὐτῷτὸτρίτονϕιλεῖςμεκαὶλέγειαὐτῷκύριεπάντασὺοἶδαςσὺγινώσκειςὅτιϕιλῶσελέγειαὐτῷὁἸησοῦςβόσκετὰπρόβατάμουἀμὴνἀμὴνλέγωσοιὅτεἦςνεώτεροςἐζώννυεςσεαυτὸνκαὶπεριεπάτειςὅπουἤθελες
ὅτανδὲγηράσῃςἐκτενεῖςτὰςχεῖράςσουκαὶἄλλοςσεζώσεικαὶοἴσειὅπουοὐθέλειςτοῦτοδὲεἶπενσημαίνωνποίῳθανάτῳδοξάσειτὸνθεόνκαὶτοῦτοεἰπὼνλέγειαὐτῷἀκολούθειμοι
KeyTerms
adverbofdegreeadverbofmanneradverbofplaceadverboftimeadverbadversativeconjunctionasyndetonbalancingadversativecausalconjunctionconjunctioncoordinatingconjunctioncopulativeconjunctiondisjunctiveconjunctioneliminativeadversativeemphaticparticlehypotacticconjunctioninferentialconjunctioninterrogativeadverbnegativeparticlenumericaladverbparatacticconjunctionparticlepostpositivesubordinatingconjunction
ForFurtherReading
Robertson544ndash521142ndash93DanaandMantey234ndash67BDF220ndash39
Zerwick137ndash60Wallace666ndash78
A
13
ACureforClausetrophobia
GreekClauses
swesawinchapter2therearetwobasictypesofclausesindependent(main)anddependent(subordinate)An
independentclausecanstandaloneasasentenceAdependentclausecannotstandaloneasasentenceitsdependenceonthemainclauseissignaledbyasubordinatingconjunctionrelativepronounorsomeothergrammaticalfeaturethatindicatessubordinationEverysentencecontainsanindependentclauseandeveryindependentclausecontainsasimplesubjectandasimplepredicatewhichcanbeexpandedwithsinglewordsphrasesanddependentclausesThefollowingarethemostcommontypesofclausesfoundin
theNewTestament
TemporalClauses
AtemporalclausedenotesthetimeoftheactionoftheverbinthemainclauseonwhichitdependsTemporalclausesarefrequentlyintroducedbyὅτεὡςorὅτανmeaningwhenorwhenever
ὅτεἐτέλεσενὁἸησοῦςτοὺςλόγουςτούτουςμετῆρενwhenJesushadfinishedthesewordsheleft(Matt191)ὅτανστήκετεπροσευχόμενοιἀϕίετεwheneveryoustanduptoprayforgive(Mark1125)
Theymayalsobeintroducedbyἕωςἄχριοὗorἐϕ᾽ὅσονmeaningwhile
ἠνάγκασεντοὺςμαθητὰςἐμβῆναιἕωςἀπολύειτὸνὄχλονheorderedthedisciplestogetintotheboatwhilehedismissedthecrowd(Mark645)
Ortheymaybeintroducedbyἕωςἄχριἄχριοὗμέχριorμέχριοὗmeaninguntil
ὁἀστήρπροῆγεναὐτοὺςἕωςἐστάθηἐπάνωοὗἦντὸπαιδίονthestarwentaheadofthemuntilitstoodovertheplacewherethechildwas(Matt29)
InadditiongreatnumbersoftemporalclausesareexpressedinGreekbytheuseofparticipleseitherinagreementwithwordsinthesentenceorinthegenitiveabsoluteLikewisetemporalclausescanbeexpressedbyprepositionswiththearthrousinfinitive(ἐντῷ=whileπρὸτοῦ=beforeμετὰτό=afterἕωςτοῦ=until)
RelativeClauses
RelativeclausesaremostfrequentlyintroducedbytherelativepronounὅςWhenapronounintroducesarelativeclauseitfunctionsasapartofspeechwithinthatclause(ieassubjectindirectobjectobjectetc)
ἐσαλεύθηὁτόποςἐνᾧἦσανσυνηγμένοιtheplaceinwhichtheyweregatheredwasshaken(Acts431)κράτειὃἔχειςholdfastthatwhichyouhave(Rev311)
ComparativeClauses
Comparativeclausesaremostfrequentlyintroducedbyὡςὡσείὥσπερκαθῶςandκαθάπερ
ὀψόμεθααὐτὸνκαθώςἐστινwewillseehimasheis(1John32)
ὅτεἤμηννήπιοςἐλάλουνὡςνήπιοςwhenIwasachildIusedtospeaklikeachild(1Cor1311)
CausalClauses
Causalclausesaremostfrequentlyintroducedbyὅτιγάρδιότικαθότιἐπείἐπειδήὅθενἐϕ᾽ᾧἐϕ᾽ὅσονandοὗχάριν(Theinfinitiveandparticiplemayalsobeusedincausalclauses)
οὐκἤϕιενλαλεῖντὰδαιμόνιαὅτιᾔδεισαναὐτόνhewouldnotletthedemonsspeakbecausetheyknewhim(Mark134)μάρτυςγάρμούἐστινὁθεόςforGodismywitness(Rom19)
LocalClauses
Localclausesareintroducedbyarelativeadverbofplaceὅπουοὗorὅθεν
καὶἄλλοἔπεσενἐπὶτὸπετρῶδεςὅπουοὐκεἶχενγῆνπολλήνandtheother[seed]fellonstonygroundwhereitdidnrsquothavemuchsoil(Mark45)ἀναπτύξαςτὸβιβλίονεὗρεντὸντόπονοὗἦνγεγραμμένονwhenheopenedthebookhefoundtheplacewhereitwaswritten(Luke417)
PurposeClauses
Purposemaybeexpressedinseveralwaysmostcommonlybyἵναandὅπωςmeaningthatinorderthatbythesimpleinfinitivebytheinfinitivewithτοῦbythearthrousinfinitivewithεἰςandπρόςandrarelybytherelativepronounwiththefutureindicativeorthesubjunctiveandbythefutureandpresentparticiple
ἦλθενἵναμαρτυρήσῃπερὶτοῦϕωτόςhecameinorderthathemighttestifyaboutthelight(John17)μὴνομίσητεὅτιἦλθονκαταλῦσαιτὸννόμονdonotthinkthatIcametodestroythelaw(Matt517)μέλλειγὰρἩρῴδηςζητεῖντὸπαιδίοντοῦἀπολέσαιαὐτόforHerodisabouttolookforthechildtodestroyit(Matt213)πᾶςὁβλέπωνγυναῖκαπρὸςτὸἐπιθυμῆσαιαὐτὴνἤδηἐμοίχευσεναὐτὴνἐντῇκαρδίᾳαὐτοῦeveryonewholooksatawomanforthepurposeofdesiringherhasalreadycommittedadulterywithherinhisheart(Matt528)
ItshouldbenotedthattherearemanypassageswhereἵναwiththesubjunctiveandτοῦwiththeinfinitivehavelostallornearlyalloftheideaofpurposeandinsteadplaythepartofsimplenounclausesTheseinstancesshouldbecarefullynotedinexegesis(egActs1025ἐγένετοτοῦεἰσελθεῖνldquosoitwasthatheenteredrdquo)
ResultClauses
ResultclausesexpresswhatissuesfromtheactionofthemainverbMostfrequentlyresultisindicatedbyὥστεandtheinfinitivethesimpleinfinitiveortheinfinitivewithτοῦislesscommonlyused
καὶἐθαμβήθησανἅπαντεςὥστεσυζητεῖνπρὸςἑαυτούςandallofthemwereamazedsothattheyweredebatingwitheachother(Mark127)ἐλευθέραἐστὶνἀπὸτοῦνόμουτοῦμὴεἶναιαὐτὴνμοιχαλίδαsheisfreefromthelawsothatsheisnotanadulteress(Rom73)
ContentClauses
ContentclausesinvolveasubjectpredicatenominativedirectobjectoranappositionalnounclauseSuchclausesare
commonlyintroducedbyἵναὅτιὅπωςandὡς
ζητεῖταιἐντοῖςοἰκονόμοιςἵναπιστόςτιςεὑρεθῇitissoughtinstewardsthatapersonbefoundfaithful(1Cor42)κύριεθεωρῶὅτιπροϕήτηςεἶσύsirIseethatyouareaprophet(John419)
ConditionalClauses
Aconditionalsentencehastwopartsanldquoifrdquoclause(theprotasis)andaldquothenrdquoclause(theapodosis)ldquoIfGodisforusthenwhocanbeagainstusrdquoOnlytheapodosiscanstandaloneasasentence(ldquoThenwhocanbeagainstusrdquo)Theprotasis(ldquoIfGodisforusrdquo)ontheotherhandisgrammaticallydependentontheapodosisTherearefourgeneraltypesofconditionalsentencesintheNewTestamentThefirst-classcondition(alsocalledthesimple
condition)assumestherealityoftheprotasisforthesakeofargument(Objectivelyspeakingthestatementmayormaynotbetrue)IntheprotasistheparticleεἰisusedwiththeindicativemoodwhileintheapodosisanymoodandanytensecanoccurThisisafrequentNewTestamentconditionalclauseoccurringsomethreehundredtimes
εἰδὲπνεύματιἄγεσθεοὐκἐστὲὑπὸνόμονbutifyouarebeingledbytheSpirityouarenotunderlaw(Gal518)
Thesecond-classcondition(alsocalledthecontrary-to-factcondition)assumestheunrealityoftheprotasisforthesakeofargumentTheprotasiscontainsεἰwithasecondarytenseoftheindicative(usuallytheaoristortheimperfect)andtheapodosishasἄνandasecondarytenseoftheindicativeThereareaboutfiftyoccurrencesofthesecond-classconditionintheNewTestament
εἰἐπιστεύετεΜωϋσεῖἐπιστεύετεἂνἐμοίifyouhadbelievedMosesyouwouldhavebelievedme(John546)
HeretheideaisldquoIfyouhadbelievedMoses(andyoudidnrsquot)rdquoThethird-classcondition(alsocalledthemore-probable
futurecondition)presentstheconditionasuncertainoffulfillmentthoughstilllikelyTheprotasishasἐάνorἐάνπερfollowedbythesubjunctiveinanytensetheapodosiscanhaveanymoodandanytenseThisclassofconditionoccursaboutthreehundredtimesintheNewTestament
καὶτοῦτοποιήσομενἐάνπερἐπιρέπῃὁθεόςandthiswewilldoifGodpermits(Heb63)
Finallythefourth-classcondition(alsocalledtheless-probablefuturecondition)indicatesapossibleconditioninthefuturebutonethatisveryremoteTheprotasishasεἰwiththeoptativemoodtheoptativeisalsousedintheapodosisalongwithἄνThereisnocompleteexampleofthisclassofconditionintheNewTestamentdueinlargeparttothedecreaseintheuseoftheoptativeinKoineGreek
εἰκαὶπάσχοιτεδιὰδικαιοσύνηνμακάριοιevenifyoushouldsufferforrighteousness[youwouldbe]blessed(1Pet314)
Conclusion
AtalltimesitisnecessarytodeducefromthecontexttheexactmeaningofeachoftheseconstructionsNosetofrulesappliesAclearunderstandingoftheimmediatecontextcoupledwithagooddoseofcommonsenseisbetterthanalltherulesthatcouldbedevised
ForPractice
PutintoEnglishthefollowingpassage
ΤὸνμὲνπρῶτονλόγονἐποιησάμηνπερὶπάντωνὦΘεόϕιλεὧνἤρξατοὁἸησοῦςποιεῖντεκαὶδιδάσκεινἄχριἧςἡμέραςἐντειλάμενοςτοῖςἀποστόλοιςδιὰπνεύματοςἁγίουοὓςἐξελέξατοἀνελήμϕθηοἷςκαὶπαρέστησενἑαυτὸνζῶνταμετὰτὸπαθεῖναὐτὸνἐνπολλοῖςτεκμηρίοιςδι᾽ἡμερῶντεσσεράκονταὀπτανόμενοςαὐτοῖςκαὶλέγωντὰπερὶτῆςβασιλείαςτοῦθεοῦκαὶσυναλιζόμενοςπαρήγγειλεναὐτοῖςἀπὸἹεροσολύμωνμὴχωρίζεσθαιἀλλὰπεριμένειντὴνἐπαγγελίαντοῦπατρὸςἣνἠκούσατέμουὅτιἸωάννηςμὲνἐβάπτισενὕδατιὑμεῖςδὲἐνπνεύματιβαπτισθήσεσθεἁγίῳοὐμετὰπολλὰςταύταςἡμέρας
KeyTerms
apodosiscausalclauseclausecomparativeclauseconditionalclausecontentclausecontrary-to-factconditionfirst-classconditionfourth-classconditionless-probablefutureconditionlocalclausemore-probablefutureconditionprotasispurposeclauserelativeclauseresultclausesecond-classconditionsimpleconditiontemporalclausethird-classcondition
ForFurtherReading
Robertson950ndash1049DanaandMantey269ndash303BDF239ndash56Wallace656ndash725
S
14ToKoinePhrase
TheGreekoftheNewTestamenttartinginMayof334BCAlexanderthe22-year-oldkingofMacedonledhisvictoriousarmythroughfourpitchedbattlestwosiegesandinnumerablesmallerengagementsthatenabledhimtoconquerterritorythatnowgoesunderthenamesofTurkeySyriaLebanonPalestineIsraelEgyptIraqIranandAfghanistanReachingthebanksoftheBeasRiverinPakistanhereluctantlyturnedbackashisexhaustedtroopsthreatenedmutinyThreeyearslaterin323BChediedinBabylonjustashewasplanninganexpeditionallthewayfromEgyptalongtheNorthAfricancoasttotheAtlantic
Historiansagreeaboutthemagnitudeofhisconquestsandaboutoneofitsmostimportanteffectstheestablishmentofacity-basedGreekcolonialaristocracythatimposeditscultureonthenativepeoplesinwhatweknowtodayastheMiddleEastButaboutthemotivesandcharacteroftheyoungmanwhocarriedoutthistremendousenterprisetherehasbeencontinualcontroversyOntheonehandhehasbeencreditedwithabeliefinandapolicyofestablishingldquothebrotherhoodofmankindrdquoOntheotherhandhisexpeditionhasbeen
dismissedasutterfollyandscholarshavecomparedhimtoayoungNaziletlooseontheworldavisionarymegalomaniacservingtheneedsofhisownall-consumingegoInhisshortlifetimehedefiedthelimitssetonhuman
achievementbythegodsafterhisdeathhebecamethestuffoflegendContrarytopopularbeliefAlexanderdidnotburnthePersiankingrsquosgreatpalaceatPersepolisduringadrunkenstuporHedidindeedburnthepalacebutitwasinretaliationforthePersianrsquosdesecrationofGreektemplesduringthePersianinvasionofGreecenotastheresultofadrunkenescapadeOntheotherhandthestoryofhistamingofthewildhorseBucephalusthehorsehelaterrodeallthewaytoPakistanisbasedonsolidhistoricalevidenceThereishoweveroneaspectofAlexanderrsquossagaonwhich
allhistoriansareinagreementhehadashasbeensaidoftheGermansageniusforwarfareFromchildhoodhehadbeentrainedforitasamemberofthecorpsofroyalpagesLaterattheripeoldageofsixteenhesuppressedatribalrevoltinMacedonwhilehisfatherPhilipcampaignedabroadTwoyearslaterheledthefamouscavalrychargethatdeliveredthedecisiveblowtotheGreekforcesatChaeroneathusmakingPhilipthemasterofGreeceAndattheageoftwenty-twonowkingafterPhiliprsquosassassinationhemovedwithastoundingspeedtodefeattheGetaeontheDanubefartothenorthandthensweptsouthtosuppressarevoltoftheGreekcitiesledbythecityofThebeswhichhedestroyedInthegreatpitchedbattlesthatfollowedinaswiftmaneuverthroughtheawesomemountainsofAfghanistanandinthecomplicatedsiegeoperationsatTyreandGazahiscourageinthevanguardofhistroops(hewaswoundedsixtimes)madehimἀνίκητοςldquoinvinciblerdquothewordtheSibylatDelphiscreamedathimandwhichheadoptedasanofficialtitleAfterthedefeatofthePersiankingrsquoslastarmyatGaugamela
in331inwhatisnowIraqandafterthedeathofDariusshortlyafterwardAlexanderfacedacrucialchoicebetweentwopoliciesHecouldhavecalledahaltthereandestablishedadefensiblefrontierthatgavehimcontrolofthemostfertile
areasofthePersianEmpireInsteadhechosetopressonintounknownandfearsomelydifficultterrainmostofitmountainordesertThisdecisionwaspartlytheresultofhisbeliefthatthegodshaddecreedthathewouldbekingofallAsiaHehadbeentaughtbyhistutorAristotlethatthelandmassofAsiamettheencirclingoceannotfareastofwherehewasYetthesoberpoliticalrealitywasthatheandhisMacedoniansinanagewhencommunicationswerenofasterthanahorsecouldridecouldnevereffectivelygovernanempireaslargeastheonehehadacquiredSoheappointedmoreandmorehigh-rankingPersianofficialstopositionsofinfluenceonhisstaffencouragedintermarriagebetweenMacedoniansandPersiansandinstitutedaprogramfortrainingPersianboysforeventualserviceinthearmyMeasuressuchasthesedidnotsitwellwithsomeofhisoldergeneralsandgrowingresentmentfueledconspiraciesagainsthimWhenAlexanderdiedhisempirebrokeupintoseparate
kingdomsheadedbyhisdisgruntledgeneralsButhehadchangedtheworldIntheoldnowliberatedcitiesofAsiaMinormdashEphesusandPergamummdashaswellasinthenewlyfoundedcitiesoftheMiddleEastmdashAntiochandAlexandriamdashthecultureandlanguageofthecolonialaristocracywasGreekWhenthreecenturiesafterAlexanderrsquosdeaththelifeandteachingsofJesusofNazarethwerewrittendownthelanguageusedwasnotJesusrsquonativeAramaicbutGreekwhichthankstoAlexanderrsquosconquestshadbecometheculturallinguafrancaoftheMediterraneanworld
TheLanguageoftheNewTestament
ItwouldbeoutsidetheprovinceofthisbooktodiscussthedetaileddevelopmentoftheGreeklanguagefromHomerictomodernGreekbutthelessonisplainthatGreekasitspreadoverthecivilizedworlddevelopedintoalanguageofabidingimportanceTheconclusionnowuniversallyacceptedbyphilologistsisthattheGreekoftheNewTestamentinall
essentialrespectsisthevernacularKoineofthefirstcenturyADthecommonlanguageoftheRomanimperialperiodKoine(κοινή)meansldquocommonrdquointhesenseofpertainingto
thepublicatlargeHenceKoineGreekmeansthelanguagecommonlyspokeneverywheremdashthebasicmeansofcommunicationofpeoplethroughouttheRomanEmpireThisdialectwasbasicallythelateAtticvernacularspokeninAthenswithdialecticalandprovincialinfluencesTheKoinehasleftinadditiontotheGreekNewTestamentotherliterarymonumentsthatareinvaluablesourcesoflightonthesacredtextincludingthepapyriinscriptionsandabovealltheSeptuaginttheancientversionoftheOldTestamentthatbecametheBibleoftheearlychurchandwasusedextensivelybytheNewTestamentwritersKoineGreekitselfexhibitsthreeimportantcharacteristics
ThefirstsemanticchangeisanaturalfeatureofanylivinglanguageOftencertainwordssimplyweakenedtheirmeaningintheKoineperiodForexampletheverbλαλέωmeantbabbleinClassicalGreekbutintheNewTestamentitappearsastheordinarywordforspeakIntheNewTestamenttheprepositionεἰςcanmeaninaswellasintoTheconjunctionἵναaswehaveseenhasamuchwidermeaningthaninorderthat(itisoftenusedincontentclauses)ThetendencytousethecomparativedegreeoftheadjectiveforthesuperlativehasalsobeennotedInthesecondplaceKoineGreekexhibitsgreatersimplicity
thanClassicalGreekThisisseenparticularlyinthecompositionofitssentenceswhichtendtowardcoordinationratherthansubordinationofclausesInmorphologyithasacleartendencytowardsimplificationThisisperhapsmostnoticeableinthefactthattheoldμι-verbsaresteadilybeingreplacedbyω-verbs(egδεικνύωiscompetingwithδείκνυμι)InadditionperiphrastictensesareontheriseandtheoptativemoodisdisappearingThefuturetenseofinfinitivesandparticipleshardlyoccursatallFinallyKoineGreekshowsunmistakabletracesofatendency
towardmoreexplicit(somewouldsaymoreredundant)expressionWeseeapreferenceforcompoundverbsover
simplexverbstheuseofpronounsassubjectsofverbstheuseofprepositionalphrasestoreplacesimplecasesapreferenceforἵναinsteadoftheinfinitiveandtheuseofdirectratherthanindirectdiscourseAdverbsaboundasdoparentheticalstatementsandemphaticexpressionssuchaseachandeveryandtheverysameForthemostpartthemenwhowrotetheNewTestament
employedthiscommonlanguageandstudentsoftheNewTestamentwoulddowelltostudyitscharacteristicsindetailLikeanewalloytheKoinepowerfullyblendedtogetherthevariousGreekdialectsintoasinglelanguageusedbyGreeksaswellasnon-GreeksEventhosewhoheldtenaciouslytotheirnativetonguesliketheEgyptiansknewGreekAtthesametimeKoineGreekwasnotentirelyuniform
VariousliterarylevelsexisteddependingonthewriterrsquosbackgroundoreducationInthefirstcenturyADsomewritersevenattemptedtoturntheclockbackbyadvocatingareturntotheoldclassicalformofGreekdecryingtheKoineasadebasedformofthelanguageTheartificialstyletheyproduced(calledldquoAtticisticrdquoGreek)contrastedwiththedialectofeverydaylifeTheNewTestamentitselfrevealsseveralstylesofGreek
amongitsauthorsTheEpistletotheHebrewswithitscarefulprogressionofargumentandelevateddictionliesatoneextremeLukeandActsalsorevealgoodliterarystylethoughtheauthorisabletovaryhisstyleconsiderably(cfthecolloquialGreekofPeterrsquosspeechinActs157ndash11withtherhetoricalnatureofPaulrsquosAreopagusspeechinActs1722ndash31)PaulrsquosGreekismoreorlesscolloquialbutthatmaybepartlyduetohisamanuensesthesecretarieswhowrotefromhisdictationAttheotherendofthespectrumliesthegrammarofRevelationwhichreflectstheworkofaSemitic-speakingpersonwhoisjustlearningGreek(thoughmanyoftheidiomsheuseshaveparallelsincolloquialpapyritexts)
NewTestamentSemitisms
ThespecialcaseofRevelationraisesthelargerissueofpossibleSemiticinfluencesinthelanguageoftheGreekNewTestamentNoonewhoknowsHebreworanotherSemiticlanguagecouldfailtobeimpressedbytheSemitictoneandflavoroftheNewTestamentandbyitsadoptionofSemiticmodesofspeechForexampletheexpressionldquoheopenedhismouthrdquoatthebeginningoftheSermonontheMount(Matt52)cannotbeinterpretedsolelyinthelightofGreekgrammarbutmustalsobereadinthelightofSemiticlanguagepatternssincethephraseindicatesthebeginningofsomeprofoundorsolemnpronouncement(cfJob31)AnotherexampleistheverycommonἀποκριθεὶςεἶπενldquoansweringhesaidrdquoNoGreekpersonofanyperiodwouldsayorwriteἀποκριθεὶςεἶπενanymorethanyouorIwouldsayldquoHeansweredandsaidrdquounlesswewereseekingtoimitatebiblicallanguageThesearebuttwoindicationsthattheNewTestamentcannotbeinterpretedsolelyintermsofGreekgrammarbutmustalsobestudiedintermsofitsSemiticbackgroundTheoccurrenceofSemitismsintheNewTestamentcanbe
attributedtofourbasiccausesFirstbythetimetheNewTestamentwaswrittenKoineGreekhadalreadyabsorbedmanySemiticwordsandidiomsthatwereinusebyGreekwriterswhoknewnoHebreworanyotherSemiticlanguageSecondalltheNewTestamentwriterswiththepossibleexceptionofLukewereJewswhoseusuallanguageofspeechwasAramaicorHebrewandwhohadaconsiderableknowledgeoftheHebrewBibleThirdthesewritersconsciouslymodeledthemselvesafterthestyleoftheGreekversionoftheOldTestamenttheSeptuagintwhichoftengivesaliteraltranslationoftheoriginalHebrewFinallyitispossiblethattheNewTestamentwritersincorporatedoralorwrittensourcesthatweretranslationsofAramaicorHebrewintoGreekandthatcontainedSemitismsinproportiontotheliteralnessofthetranslationThusitwouldbesurprisingifspeakerswhoselinguisticbackgroundwasSemiticdidnotbetraysomeSemiticinfluenceintheiruseofGreekThemostcommonSemitismsarethefollowing1
WordorderInSemiticlanguagestheverbtendstocomefirstinasentenceorclauseandthistendencyisalsofoundintheNewTestament(seeLuke151ndash551Tim316)AsyndetonTheabsenceofaconjunctionwhereonemightbeexpectedisafeaturethatiscontrarytothenatureoftheGreeklanguageMostGreeksentencesarelinkedbyaconnectingparticleandasyndetonisgenerallyusedforrhetoricaleffect(seeActs2017ndash35)ThefrequentuseofasyndetonintheFourthGospel(seeforinstanceJohn53)isbestexplainedastheresultofSemiticinfluenceCoordinationofclausesInClassicalGreeksentencesusuallycontainedonemainverballotherverbstendedtobesubordinatedinadverbialclausesofonekindoranotherHebrewontheotherhandtendedtoplacemainverbssidebysidejoiningthemtogetherwithasimpleconjunction(wawand)Theconstantlyrecurringand(καί)oftheGospelsiscertainlySemiticinflavorThistypeofconstructionismostcharacteristicoftheGospelofMarkwhichhasonlyasingleinstanceofalongerGreeksentencewithsubordinatingparticiples(seeMark525ndash27)RedundantpronounsTheHebrewrelativepronounisindeclinableandgenderlessandthereforerequiresapersonalpronounintheclausethatfollowsThishasinfluencedafewNewTestamentpassagesinwhichanunnecessarypronounappearsafterarelativepronoun(seeforexampleMark725)RedundantuseofprepositionsAcharacteristicfeatureofSemiticusageistherepetitionofaprepositionbeforeeverynounofaseriesthatitgovernsSuchaconstructionisintolerableinliteraryGreekbutitoccursnolessthaneleventimesinMarkalone(seeforexampleMark37ndash8656111)TheuseofthepositiveadjectiveforthecomparativeorsuperlativeSemiticlanguageswiththeexceptionofArabichavenospecialformsforthecomparativeandsuperlativeadjectivesInsteadthepositiveadjectiveisusedasreflectedforexampleinMark943ldquoIfyourhand
causesyoutostumblecutitoffitisbetter(καλόνgood)foryoutoenterlifecrippledthantohaveyourtwohandsandtogotohellrdquoRedundantuseofldquosayingrdquoIndirectspeechisunknowninbiblicalHebrewAllspeechisrecordeddirectlywhetherthewordsrecordedweretheactualwordsspokenorrepresentthegeneralmeaningofwhatwassaidTheHebrewwordmostcloselycorrespondingtotheGreekparticipleλέγων(saying)isusedtointroduceaquotationThisidiomiswellillustratedinMark828ldquoAndtheysaidtohimsayingrdquoForotherexamplesseeMatthew231ndash22818Luke143246ndash7IntroductoryἐγένετοThepeculiaruseoftheGreekverbἐγένετοwithanotherverboftenreproducesacloselycorrespondingSemiticidiommeaningsoitwasoritcametopassThisSemitismappearsfarmorefrequentlyinLukersquoswritingsthananywhereelse(Markhasonlyfourinstances)AnexampleisLuke26ldquoAndsoitwaswhiletheyweretherethedayswerecompletedforhertogivebirthrdquoFutureindicativeusedasanimperativeTheHebrewverbformmostcloselycorrespondingtotheGreekfutureindicativeisoftenusedtoexpresscommandsThisconstructionhasprobablyinfluencedapassagelikeMark935ldquoWhoeverwantstobefirsthewillbelast[=hemustbelast]rdquoTheuseofἰδούTheparticleἰδού(behold)isoftenusedintheNewTestamentinimitationofthecorrespondingHebrewexpression(seeMatt12029316Luke1203136Acts127James59)ThemeaningofwordsProbablythemostimportantinfluenceexertedbytheSemiticlanguagesonNewTestamentGreekisfoundinthemeaningofcertaintheologicalandethicaltermsOneexampleistheGreekwordνόμοςwhichisusuallytranslatedlawThebasicmeaningofthewordinGreekiscustomorconventionfortheGreeksheldthatlawwassimplycodifiedcustomButin
theSeptuagintthewordisusedastheequivalentoftheHebrewtermtorahwhichmeansinstructionandwasappliedtotheBooksofMosesortheLawThuswhentheNewTestamentwriterswishedtospeakoflawnotinthesenseofhumanconventionbutinthesenseofGodrsquosrevealedwillthenounνόμοςlayreadyathandMuchthesamehappenedwithanumberofotherwordsincludingnamesandtitlesofdivinebeingspsychologicaltermsandwordsdenotingsuchtheologicalconceptsasrighteousnessmercysinatonementsacrificepropitiationandreconciliationThusthemeaningofmanysignificantwordsintheNewTestamentcannotbefoundintheordinaryGreekdictionarybutmustbesoughtagainstthebackgroundoftheHebrewOldTestamentanditsGreektranslationtheSeptuagint
Conclusion
FlyingintoRomeonedaythethoughtoccurredtomethatourItaliancaptainpilotinganAlitaliajetlinerthatwaslandingatDaVinciAirportwasrequiredbyinternationallawtospeaknotItalianbutEnglishwiththetowerSimilarlytwothousandyearsagoGreekwasthelingua
francaofthecivilizedworldthemediumthroughwhichtheapostlescouldcommunicatetheirmessageacrossthelengthandbreadthoftheMediterraneanregionsWhobutProvidencecouldhaveenabledtheapostlestocarrythemessageofChristinonelanguageandbeunderstoodwherevertheywentTheconquestsofAlexanderhaditseemsadivinepurposeafterall
ForFurtherReading
Robertson49ndash139DanaandMantey1ndash15BDF1ndash6Zerwick161ndash64
Wallace12ndash30
Y
Postscript
ouwouldnothavecomethisfarwithmeifyouwerenrsquotreasonablyinterestedinGreekgrammarDoubtlessyouwill
catchyourselfinanoccasionalweakmomentthekindallfleshisheirtoandwonderifitwasworthallthetroubleLaterasyoubegintounearththetreasuresinyourGreekNewTestamentyouwillbegladyoupausedtomullovertheexamplesthatlitterthisbookButthoughyoumayactuallyendupenjoyingGreekyoushoulddosowithoutself-consciousnessoryouwillbecomepretentiousandsillyYouwouldthenbelikeahorsewithabrokenlegoutofkindnessyoushouldbeshotStudiesindicatethataknowledgeofGreekgrammarmaybe
helpfultoonersquospreachingthatitmayhelponestudybetterorganizesermonsbetterandthinkmoreclearlyaboutabiblicalpassageButbecautiousabouttakingmywordforthisthefinalevidenceisnotinErrorsinNewTestamentinterpretationstillsproutlikedandelionsinsermonsandcommentariesTakenindividuallynoneofthemisnecessarilycalamitousbuttoomanydandelionssignifyapoorlytendedlawnThemostinsidiouserroristothinkthatonehasarrived
WhenHarvardpresentedAndrewJacksonwithanhonorarydoctoratein1833JacksonhadasmallproblemHisschoolingwasmeagerandtheceremonywasinLatinToexpresshisthankshethunderedoutalltheLatinheknewldquoEpluribusunummydearfriendsSinequanonQuidproquordquoManypastorshavebeenlesshonestwiththeiraudiencesSoyoumustkeeponkeepingonAsIsaidinthepreface
therersquosalwaysmoreForstartersifyoulikedthisbookreaditagainHerearesomeothersuggestionsAcquireagooddictionaryofNewTestamentGreekAn
excellentinvestmentisWalterBauerAGreek-EnglishLexiconoftheNewTestamentandOtherEarlyChristianLiteraturea
GermanimporttranslatedandadaptedbyWilliamFArndtandFWilburGingrich(2dedrevandaugmentedbyFWilburGingrichandFrederickWDankerChicagoUniversityofChicagoPress1979)[1]ThisstandardNewTestamentlexiconmaybesupplementedbyGAbbott-SmithAManualGreekLexiconoftheNewTestament3ded(EdinburghTampTClark1937)mdashldquomanualrdquomeaningthatyoucanpickitupwithonehandYouwillalsowanttoacquireacompendiousreference
grammarsuchasATRobertsonrsquosmassiveGrammaroftheGreekNewTestamentintheLightofHistoricalResearch(NashvilleBroadman1934)ForexegeticalissuesIstronglyrecommendDanielBWallaceGreekGrammarbeyondtheBasics(GrandRapidsZondervan1996)mdashabookthathappilygoeswaybeyondthebasicsBothtomesaregoodtobrowseinandwithalittlepatienceandingenuityyoucangenerallyfindananswertoeventheobscurestgrammaticalquestionsaccompaniedbyabundantillustrationsForbuildingaworkingvocabularyofNewTestamentGreek
aguidelongtreasuredbystudentsandteachersofGreekisBruceMMetzgerLexicalAidsforStudentsofNewTestamentGreek3ded(reprintGrandRapidsBaker1998)AmongitsusefulfeaturesistheclassificationofwordsaccordingtotheirrootsWarrenCTrenchardhasrefinedandfurtheredthisapproachinTheStudentrsquosCompleteVocabularyGuidetotheGreekNewTestament(GrandRapidsZondervan1992)ItincludeseverycommonwordthathasacognateaffinityforanotherintheGreekNewTestamentOfcourseitalsoincludesasectionwithwordsaccordingtotheirfrequencyofoccurrenceWhatthenTwotracksdeservementionThefirstinvolves
exegesisandherestudentsareverywellservedindeedseeespeciallyGordonDFeeNewTestamentExegesisreved(LouisvilleWestminsterJohnKnox1993)WalterLLiefeldNewTestamentExposition(GrandRapidsZondervan1984)NealWindhamNewTestamentGreekforPreachersandTeachers(LanhamMdUniversityPressofAmerica1991)
andDavidAlanBlackUsingNewTestamentGreekinMinistry(GrandRapidsBaker1993)ThesebooksmaybeusedinconjunctionwithtwostandardtextbooksonNewTestamentinterpretationIHowardMarshalledNewTestamentInterpretation(GrandRapidsEerdmans1977)andDavidAlanBlackandDavidSDockeryedsNewTestamentCriticismandInterpretation(GrandRapidsZondervan1991)Ontext-criticalissuesthestandardtextbookisstillBruceMMetzgerTheTextoftheNewTestament3ded(OxfordOxfordUniversityPress1992)thoughalesstechnicalalternativeisDavidAlanBlackNewTestamentTextualCriticism(GrandRapidsBaker1994)Thesecondtracktopursuetakesyouintotheworldof
linguisticsviasuchworksasMoiseacutesSilvaBiblicalWordsandTheirMeaningAnIntroductiontoLexicalSemanticsreved(GrandRapidsZondervan1994)DavidAlanBlackLinguisticsforStudentsofNewTestamentGreek2ded(GrandRapidsBaker1995)andPeterCotterellandMaxTurnerLinguisticsandBiblicalInterpretation(DownersGroveIllInterVarsity1989)OntherelatedtopicofdiscourseanalysisseeDavidAlanBlackedLinguisticsandNewTestamentInterpretationEssaysonDiscourseAnalysis(NashvilleBroadmanampHolman1992)andStanleyEPorterandDACarsonedsDiscourseAnalysisandOtherTopicsofBiblicalGreek(SheffieldSheffieldAcademicPress1995)(Itmayappearabitself-servingtolistheresomanyofmyownwritingsonNewTestamentstudiesbutIassureyoudearreaderthatallroyaltiesIreceivegodirectlytoneedychildren)[2]InconclusionIhopeyouenjoyyourGreekstudiesandthat
manyyearsfromnowyouwillbeabletosayproudlyandwithdeepsatisfactionldquoItrsquosstillGreektomerdquo
KeytotheExercises
Chapter1
1 Thediscipleshearthewordsoftheprophets2 Weremainwiththebrothersinthehouseaccordingtothelaw
3 Youspeakwordsagainstthelawofthedisciplesandtheprophets
4 InthechurchwearelearningthewordofGod5 TheyoungmenareteachingthechildreninthewildernessLord
6 TheapostleswerewritingtheepistlesontheSabbath7 Wewereteachingthegospeltothechildrenofthesoldiers8 Nowthecrowdswereeatingtheloavesinthewildernessanddrinkingthefruitofthevine
9 Jesushimselfwassavingthesinnersfromsin10 Theapostlesenttheservanttoyourhouse11 Forthediscipleswerefastingforfortydays12 Theservantsthemselveswillsendthesebooksintothat
temple13 Godsentangelssothattheymightpreachtothecrowds14 Donotforbidthelittlechildrentocometome15 JesussaidtoherldquoItistruethatyoudonothaveahusband
ForyouhavehadfivehusbandsandtheonewhomyounowhaveisnotyourhusbandrdquoThewomansaidtohimldquoLordIseethatyouareaprophetrdquo
Chapter2
SeePhil19ndash11
Chapter3
See1Thess11ndash5
Chapter4
1 Aservantisnotgreaterthanhismaster2 Thiswomanisyoungerthanhersister3 TheweaknessofGodisstrongerthanpeople4 Thesonsofthisagearewiserthanthesonsoflight5 MyFatherisgreaterthanall6 Therearetwelvemonthsinayear7 IamthetruevineandmyFatheristhevinegrower8 Thesewordsarefaithfulandtrue9 Greatisyourfaith10 ThetwelvewerewithJesusinacertaincity11 Acertainmanhadtwosons12 Thebodywithoutthespiritisdead13 GreatistheloveofGod14 Faithfulisthesaying15 Hewillbecalledgreatinthekingdomofheaven16 Manyarethevesselsofthetemple17 Faithwithoutworksisdead18 Manyblindpeopleareintheroad19 ForthisreasonthesonsofGodaremoreblessed
Chapter5
1 Thesemenweredyinginthewilderness2 ThereforethismanwasadiscipleofJohn3 Thesewomenwereremainingintheboat4 Forthiswashiscommandment5 InthatdaytheapostleswerepraisingthewisdomoftheLord
6 Forhehimselfwillsavethepeople7 Hewassendingherfromthetemple8 Theseareherhouses9 Acertainmanissayingthis10 Theonewhoisnotwithmeisagainstme11 Whichofthetwodidthefatherrsquoswill12 Thenacertainwomancametohim13 Lordifyouwanttoordermetocometoyou14 YouareaslavebutIamfree15 TheywerewantingtohearthewordsthatJesuswas
speaking16 Iorderyoutocomeoutofthehouse17 Thesameangelswillpreparethemselvestogo18 Youwillhavelifeinyourselves19 ShouldIcometothesamehouse20 WhyareyoubaptizingifyouarenottheChrist21 JesussaidtoherldquoIamtheresurrectionandtheliferdquo22 Thiswomanwasfullofgoodworks23 Thiscupisthenewcovenant24 Howcananyoneenter25 TowhatshouldIcomparethisgeneration26 ThisismybelovedSoninwhomIamwellpleased27 Wehavefellowshipwithoneanother28 NowevenourfellowshipiswiththeFatherandwiththe
SonJesusChrist29 Allthewomengavetheirfatherthesamegift30 TheSpirithimselfbearswitnesswithourspirit
31 ThemantowhomIsentgiftsiscoming32 YoudidnotchoosemebutIchoseyou33 Ihavelovedyou34 Whosinnedthismanorhisparents35 Amongyouisstandingonewhomyoudonotknow36 IappealtoyouonbehalfofmychildwhomIborein
chains37 YouarecutofffromChristyouwhowouldbejustifiedby
thelaw38 Bywhatauthorityareyoudoingthesethings39 Howmanyloavesdoyouhave40 IfyouaretheSonofGodthrowyourselfdown41 Prayforoneanother42 MyjudgmentisjustbecauseIdonotseekmyownwill
Chapter6
1 Buttherearesomeofyouwhodonotbelieve2 NowMarthawasdistractedbymuchservice3 Butperfectlovecastsoutfear4 Everyonewhobelievesinhimwillnotbeashamed5 Blessedarethemercifulfortheythemselveswillreceivemercy
6 Fortomorrowwillworryaboutitself7 Forthewordthatisofthecrossisfoolishnesstothosewhoareperishing
8 ConsidertheApostleandHighPriestofourconfession9 ButyoudeniedtheHolyandRighteousOne10 Blessedistheonewhokeepsalertandpreserveshis
garments11 Blessedarethosewhohungerandthirstafter
righteousness12 AndthisisthetestimonyofJohn13 AndElizabethwasfilledwiththeHolySpirit14 AbrahamfatheredIsaacandIsaacfatheredJacob15 BythegraceofGodIamwhatIam16 YouaretoworshiptheLordyourGod17 Letyourlightsoshinebeforepeople18 Thethiefdoesnotcomeexcepttostealmurderand
destroy19 IamthekingoftheJews20 AreyouthentheSonofGod21 IPaulwrotethiswithmyownhand22 ForGodismywitness23 Nowbeforefaithcamewewereheldasprisonersunderthe
law24 Theyweremarvelingthathewasstayingsolonginthe
temple25 AndascribecameforwardandsaidtohimldquoTeacherIwill
followyourdquo
Chapter7
1 Nowwhilewalkingbesidetheseahesawtwobrothers2 Gointhroughthenarrowgate3 Forsincebymanthereisdeaththereisalsobymantheresurrectionofthedead
4 AndbeingwarnedinadreamnottoreturntoHerodtheydepartedfortheirowncountrybyanotherroad
5 NowIamnotaskingonbehalfoftheseonly6 ThenafterthreeyearsIwentuptoJerusalem7 Iwasremainingdailywithyouteachinginthetemple8 IfGodisforuswhocanbeagainstus9 Donotjudgeaccordingtoappearancebutjudgewithrighteousjudgment
10 Andtakinghimasidefromthecrowdbyhimselfheputhisfingersintohisears
11 Andtheonewhofallsonthisrockwillbebrokentopieces12 Thecrowdswereamazedathisteaching13 Ifanyonepreachestoyoubeyondwhatyoureceivedlet
himbeanathema14 ForItooamamanunderauthorityhavingsoldiersunder
me15 Thereforehavingbeenjustifiedbyfaithwehavepeace
withGodthroughtheLordJesusChrist
Chapter9
1 TheLordjudgesthesoulsofpeople2 Thechurchisfaithful3 WearebelovedchildrenofGod4 Thefirstislastandthelastfirst5 YouareholyLord6 Wearecallingtheotheryoungmen7 Wewerepreachingthegospeltothepeople8 Godwassendinghisangelsintotheworld9 Jesushimselfwasnotbaptizingbuthisdiscipleswere10 Youarebeingsentbytheteacherstoanothercrowd11 Afterthesethingsthetaxcollectorswerebeingtaughtby
eldersinthechurch12 Weweregoingwiththedisciplestothesea13 Theelderswillhavethesheepthatarebeingsavedfrom
theenemies14 Youwillprophesytothispeopleandtheywillobeyyou15 Shouldwehidethechildinthehouse16 SanctifyyourselvesforthedayoftheLordisnear17 Letpeaceinhabityourhearts18 Yousentthetaxcollectorstobuythegarments19 Hesaidthathesawtheboats20 BythisweknowtheloveofGodbecausehesenthis
belovedSonintotheworld21 Weknewthatthediscipleslearnedmanythingsfromthe
apostles22 Butwhenthesoldierscameintothehousetheyannounced
thatPeterhadsentthem23 ButJesussaidtotheparalyticldquoGetuppickupyourbed
andgointoyourhouserdquoAndwhenheheardthesethingshepickedupthebedanddeparted
24 TheprophetsaidthatallmiraclesarefromGod25 JesuswasledbytheSpiritintothemountainstobe
temptedbythedevil
26 ForbygraceweweresavedthroughthewillofGod27 Andwhenthedemonwascastoutthecrowdbeganto
marvelbutmanyweresayingthatthesemiracleswerenotofGod
28 Youwerecalledfoolsbythewiseofthisage29 YouhavefilledJerusalemwithyourteaching30 Godhasspokenthisthroughthemouthofalltheprophets31 Hecameinorderthathemighttestifyaboutthelight32 WhoeverbelievesinthenameoftheLordwillbesaved33 Thereforeshouldwesaythatweshoulddobadsothat
goodmightcome34 Youhaveafinewayofsettingasidethecommandmentof
Godinorderthatyoumightkeepyourtradition35 Donotjudgeinorderthatyoumightnotbejudged36 Donotbeafraidbutspeakanddonotbesilent
Chapter10
1 Theapostlecametoseethepeopleandtospeaktheword2 Ihaveneedtobebaptizedbyyoubutyouareaskingtobebaptizedbyme
3 Inthekingdomyoumustbecomespiritualchildren4 Iamnotworthytoteachthedisciplewhomyousent5 Wewillmakedisciplesofallthenations6 ThisisthehourofrepentanceThereforeitistimetorepent
7 Jesuscameintotheworldtosavesinners8 BecauseJesushadhealedtheireyestheblindbelievedinhim
9 Nottoknowthetruthisevil10 BeforetheapostlebegantopreachthegospelJesushad
alreadygoneuptoheaven11 BecauseJesushadcomeintothehousehisdisciplesbegan
preaching12 AftertheslavepreacheswewillleadthecrowdstoJesus13 Toloveisgood14 Jesuswenttoseethedisciples15 Theyledhimawaytocrucifyhim16 PutonthewholearmorofGodsothatyoucanstandfirm17 YourFatherknowswhatyouhaveneedofbeforeyouask
him18 Comedownbeforemychilddies19 YoucannotserveGodandMammon20 ButIdonotpermitawomantoteachortoexercise
authorityoveramanbut[Iwanther]tobesilent21 IthasbeengrantedtoyouonbehalfofChristnotonlyto
believeinhimbutalsotosufferforhim22 Sheisfreetomarrywhomshewishes23 Leteverymanbequicktolistenslowtospeak24 Forhewasabouttodie25 Itisnotlawfulforyoutopickupyourmattress
26 Youthinkthatyouhaveeternallifeinthem27 Havethemensitdown28 Theyheardthathehaddonethissign29 Hemustrisefromthedead30 FromthattimeJesusbegantoshowhisdisciplesthathe
wouldhavetogotoJerusalemsuffermanythingsfromtheeldershighpriestsandscribesdieandonthethirddayberaised
Chapter11
1 Thereforelistentotheparableofthesower2 Andhecamepreachingintheirsynagoguesandcastingoutdemons
3 BeholdIseetheheavensopened4 ThewordofGodisliving5 Thosewhohadeatentheloaveswerefivethousandmen6 Butthisisthewillofhimwhosentme7 Whenthewholecrowdsawhimtheywerecompletelyamazed
8 Hewentawaygrieving9 Letuslaborworkingwithourownhands10 Heemptiedhimselfbytakingtheformofaservant11 Wewillreapifwedonotloseheart12 AlthoughtheyknewGodtheydidnotglorifyhimasGod13 Hewassayingthistosignifybywhatkindofdeathhewas
abouttodie14 Goandshowyourselftothepriest15 WhenhesawthatthiswaspleasingtotheJewshe
intendedtoarrestPeteralso16 ThenPaulstretchedforthhishandandbegantogivehis
defense17 ButwhenAnaniasheardthesewordshefelldownand
breathedhislastAndgreatfearcameuponallthosewhoheard
18 AlthoughhewasaSonhelearnedobediencefromwhathesuffered
19 ForJohncameneithereatingnordrinkingandyousayldquoHehasademonrdquo
20 NoteveryonewhosaystomeldquoLordLordrdquoisgoodbuttheonewhodoesthewillofmyFatherinheaven[is]
21 Forhewasteachingthemashavingauthorityandnotastheirscribes
22 NowwhilePeterwasstillsayingthesewordstheHolySpiritfellonallthosewhoheardtheword
23 NowwhenhesawthecrowdshewentuponthemountainAfterhesatdownhisdisciplescametohimThenheopenedhismouthandbeganteachingthemsayingldquoBlessedarethosewhoarepoorinspiritfortheirsisthekingdomofheavenrdquo
Chapter12
SeeJohn2115ndash19
Chapter13
SeeActs11ndash5
Appendix1
GreekVerbConjugations
RegularOmegaVerbs
Usingλύω(Iloosestemλυ-)asanexamplehereistheconjugationpatternforomegaverbs
FirstPrincipalPart
PresAct PresMP ImperfAct
ImperfMP
Indic Sg1 λύω λύομαι ἔλυον ἐλυόμην2 λύεις λύῃ ἔλυες ἐλύου3 λύει λύεται ἔλυε(ν) ἐλύετοPl1 λύομεν λυόμεθα ἐλύομεν ἐλυόμεθα2 λύετε λύεσθε ἐλύετε ἐλύεσθε3 λύουσι(ν) λύονται ἔλυον ἐλύοντο
Subj Sg1 λύω λύωμαι
2 λύῃς λύῃ3 λύῃ λύηταιPl1 λύωμεν λυώμεθα2 λύητε λύησθε3 λύωσι(ν) λύωνται
Opt Sg1 λύοιμι λυοίμην
2 λύοις λύοιο3 λύοι λύοιτοPl1 λύοιμεν λυοίμεθα2 λύοιτε λύοισθε3 λύοιεν λύοιντο
Impv Sg2 λῦε λύου
3 λυέτω λυέσθωPl2 λύετε λύεσθε3 λυόντωνor
λυέτωσανλυέσθωνorλυέσθωσαν
Infin λύειν λύεσθαιPart Masc λύων λυόμενος
Fem λύουσα λυομένηNeut λῦον λυόμενον
SecondandThirdPrincipalParts
FutAct FutMid AorAct AorMidIndic Sg1 λύσω λύσομαι ἔλυσα ἐλυσάμην
2 λύσεις λύσῃ ἔλυσας ἐλύσω3 λύσει λύσεται ἔλυσε(ν) ἐλύσατοPl1 λύσομεν λυσόμεθα ἐλύσαμεν ἐλυσάμεθα2 λύσετε λύσεσθε ἐλύσατε ἐλύσασθε3 λύσουσι(ν) λύσονται ἔλυσαν ἐλύσαντο
Subj Sg1 λύσω λύσωμαι
2 λύσῃς λύσῃ3 λύσῃ λύσηταιPl1 λύσωμεν λυσώμεθα2 λύσητε λύσησθε3 λύσωσι(ν) λύσωνται
Opt Sg1 λύσοιμι λυσοίμην λύσαιμι λυσαίμην
2 λύσοις λύσοιο λύσαις λύσαιο3 λύσοι λύσοιτο λύσαι λύσαιτοPl1 λύσοιμεν λυσοίμεθα λύσαιμεν λυσαίμεθα2 λύσοιτε λύσοισθε λύσαιτε λύσαισθε3 λύσοιεν λύσοιντο λύσαιεν λύσαιντο
Impv Sg2 λῦσον λῦσαι
3 λυσάτω λυσάσθωPl2 λύσατε λύσασθε3 λυσάντων
orλυσάτωσαν
λυσάσθωνorλυσάσθωσαν
Infin λύσειν λύσεσθαι λῦσαι λύσασθαιPart Masc λύσων λυσόμενος λύσας λυσάμενος
Fem λύσουσα λυσομένη λύσασα λυσαμένηNeut λῦσον λυσόμενον λῦσαν λυσάμενον
Sinceλύωdoesnothaveasecondaoristformλείπω(Ileave)isusedtoillustratethisconjugationpatternfortheregularomegaverb
2dAorAct
2dAorMid
Indic Sg1 ἔλιπον ἐλιπόμην2 ἔλιπες ἐλίπου3 ἔλιπε(ν) ἐλίπετοPl1 ἐλίπομεν ἐλιπόμεθα
2 ἐλίπετε ἐλίπεσθε3 ἔλιπον ἐλίποντο
Subj Sg1 λίπω λίπωμαι
2 λίπῃς λίπῃ3 λίπῃ λίπηταιPl1 λίπωμεν λιπώμεθα2 λίπητε λίπησθε3 λίπωσι(ν) λίπωνται
Opt Sg1 λίποιμι λιποίμην
2 λίποις λίποιο3 λίποι λίποιτοPl1 λίποιμεν λιποίμεθα2 λίποιτε λίποισθε3 λίποιεν λίποιντο
Impv Sg2 λίπε λιποῦ
3 λιπέτω λιπέσθωPl2 λίπετε λίπεσθε3 λιπόντωνor
λιπέτωσανλιπέσθωνorλιπέσθωσαν
Infin λιπεῖν λιπέσθαιPart Masc λιπών λιπόμενος
Fem λιποῦσα λιπομένηNeut λιπόν λιπόμενον
FourthPrincipalPartBetweentheperfectandpluperfectactiveformsofλύωtheverbλείπωisusedtoillustratethesecondperfectactiveconjugationpatternfortheregularomegaverb
PerfAct 2dPerfAct
PlupAct
Indic Sg1 λέλυκα λέλοιπα ἐλελύκειν2 λέλυκας λέλοιπας ἐλελύκεις3 λέλυκε(ν) λέλοιπε(ν) ἐλελύκειPl1 λελύκαμεν λελοίπαμεν ἐλελύκειμεν2 λελύκατε λελοίπατε ἐλελύκειτε3 λελύκασι(ν)
orλέλυκανλελοίπασι(ν) ἐλελύκεισαν
Subj Sg1 λελύκω λελοίπω
2 λελύκῃς λελοίπῃς3 λελύκῃ λελοίπῃPl1 λελύκωμεν λελοίπωμεν2 λελύκητε λελοίπητε3 λελύκωσι(ν) λελοίπωσι(ν)
Opt Sg1 λελύκοιμι λελοίποιμι
2 λελύκοις λελοίποις3 λελύκοι λελοίποιPl1 λελύκοιμεν λελοίποιμεν2 λελύκοιτε λελοίποιτε3 λελύκοιεν λελοίποιεν
Infin λελυκέναι λελοιπέναιPart Masc λελυκώς λελοιπώς
Fem λελυκυῖα λελοιπυῖα
Neut λελυκός λελοιπός
FifthPrincipalPart
PerfMP PlupMP FutPerfPassIndic Sg1 λέλυμαι ἐλελύμην λελύσομαι
2 λέλυσαι ἐλέλυσο λελύσῃ3 λέλυται ἐλέλυτο λελύσεταιPl1 λελύμεθα ἐλελύμεθα λελυσόμεθα2 λέλυσθε ἐλέλυσθε λελύσεσθε3 λέλυνται ἐλέλυντο λελύσονται
Subj Sg1 λελυμένοςὦ
2 λελυμένοςᾖς3 λελυμένοςᾖPl1 λελυμένοι
ὦμεν2 λελυμένοιἦτε3 λελυμένοι
ὦσι(ν)Opt Sg1 λελυμένοςεἴην λελυσοίμην
2 λελυμένοςεἴης λελύσοιο3 λελυμένοςεἴη λελύσοιτοPl1 λελυμένοι
εἴημενλελυσοίμεθα
2 λελυμένοιεἴητε
λελύσοισθε
3 λελυμένοιεἴησαν
λελύσοιντο
Infin λελύσθαι λελύσεσθαιPart Masc λελυμένος λελυσόμενος
Fem λελυμένη λελυσομένηNeut λελυμένον λελυσόμενον
SixthPrincipalPartAlongsidethepassiveformsofλύωtheverbγράϕωisusedtoillustratethesecondaoristpassiveconjugationpatternfortheregularomegaverb
FutPass AorPass 2dAorPassIndic Sg1 λυθήσομαι ἐλύθην ἐγράϕην
2 λυθήσῃ ἐλύθης ἐγράϕης3 λυθήσεται ἐλύθη ἐγράϕηPl1 λυθησόμεθα ἐλύθημεν ἐγράϕημεν2 λυθήσεσθε ἐλύθητε ἐγράϕητε3 λυθήσονται ἐλύθησαν ἐγράϕησαν
Subj Sg1 λυθῶ γραϕῶ
2 λυθῇς γραϕῇς3 λυθῇ γραϕῇPl1 λυθῶμεν γραϕῶμεν2 λυθῆτε γραϕῆτε3 λυθῶσι(ν) γραϕῶσι(ν)
Opt Sg1 λυθησοίμην λυθείην γραϕείην
2 λυθήσοιο λυθείης γραϕείης
3 λυθήσοιτο λυθείη γραϕείηPl1 λυθησοίμεθα λυθείημεν γραϕείημεν2 λυθήσοισθε λυθείητε γραϕείητε3 λυθήσοιντο λυθείησαν γραϕείησαν
Impv Sg2 λύθητι γράϕηθι
3 λυθήτω γραϕήτωPl2 λύθητε γράϕητε3 λυθέντων
orλυθήτωσαν
γραϕέντωνorγραϕήτωσαν
Infin λυθήσεσθαι λυθῆναι γραϕῆναιPart Masc λυθησόμενος λυθείς γραϕείς
Fem λυθησομένη λυθεῖσα γραϕεῖσαNeut λυθησόμενον λυθέν γραϕέν
ContractVerbs
ContractverbscomeinthreeflavorsthosewithstemsendinginαεorοThesefinalvowelscontractwiththestandardsuffixesoftheomegaverbandcreatesomeinteresting-lookingendingsTheverbsτιμάω(Ihonorstemτιμα-)ϕιλέω(Ilovestemϕιλε-)andδηλόω(Ishowstemδηλο-)areusedasexamplesInthefutureaoristandperfecttensestheseverbsareformedlikeregularomegaverbsbecausetheinterveningconsonantpreventscontraction(ieσinthefutureandaoristκintheperfect)ThereforeonlythepresentandimperfecttensesaregivenbelowTheformsinparenthesesshowthetwovowelspriortocontractionnexttothemarethecontractedformsshowinghowthewordswouldactuallylookinaGreektext
Τιμάω
PresAct PresMidPassIndic Sg1 (τιμάω) τιμῶ (τιμάομαι) τιμῶμαι
2 (τιμάεις) τιμᾷς (τιμάῃ) τιμᾷ3 (τιμάει) τιμᾷ (τιμάεται) τιμᾶταιPl1 (τιμάομεν) τιμῶμεν (τιμαόμεθα) τιμώμεθα2 (τιμάετε) τιμᾶτε (τιμάεσθε) τιμᾶσθε3 (τιμάουσι[ν]) τιμῶσι(ν) (τιμάονται) τιμῶνται
Subj Sg1 (τιμάω) τιμῶ (τιμάωμαι) τιμῶμαι
2 (τιμάῃς) τιμᾷς (τιμάῃ) τιμᾷ3 (τιμάῃ) τιμᾷ (τιμάηται) τιμᾶταιPl1 (τιμάωμεν) τιμῶμεν (τιμαώμεθα) τιμώμεθα2 (τιμάητε) τιμᾶτε (τιμάησθε) τιμᾶσθε3 (τιμάωσι[ν]) τιμῶσι(ν) (τιμάωνται) τιμῶνται
Impv Sg2 (τίμαε) τίμα (τιμάου) τιμῶ
3 (τιμαέτω) τιμάτω (τιμαέσθω) τιμάσθωPl2 (τιμάετε) τιμᾶτε (τιμάεσθε) τιμᾶσθε3 (τιμαόντων)
or(τιμαέτωσαν)
τιμώντωνorτιμάτωσαν
(τιμαέσθων)or(τιμαέσθωσαν)
τιμάσθωνorτιμάσθωσαν
Infin (τιμάειν) τιμᾶν (τιμάεσθαι) τιμᾶσθαιPart Masc (τιμάων) τιμῶν (τιμαόμενος) τιμώμενος
Fem (τιμάουσα) τιμῶσα (τιμαομένη) τιμωμένηNeut (τιμάον) τιμῶν (τιμαόμενον) τιμώμενον
ImperfAct Imperf
MidPassIndic Sg1 (ἐτίμαον) ἐτίμων (ἐτιμαόμην) ἐτιμώμην
2 (ἐτίμαες) ἐτίμας (ἐτιμάου) ἐτιμῶ3 (ἐτίμαε) ἐτίμα (ἐτιμάετο) ἐτιμᾶτοPl1 (ἐτιμάομεν) ἐτιμῶμεν (ἐτιμαόμεθα) ἐτιμώμεθα2 (ἐτιμάετε) ἐτιμᾶτε (ἐτιμάεσθε) ἐτιμᾶσθε3 (ἐτίμαον) ἐτίμων (ἐτιμάοντο) ἐτιμῶντο
Φιλέω
PresAct PresMidPassIndic Sg1 (ϕιλέω) ϕιλῶ (ϕιλέομαι) ϕιλοῦμαι
2 (ϕιλέεις) ϕιλωεῖς (ϕιλέῃ) ϕιλῇ3 (ϕιλέει) ϕιλεῖ (ϕιλέεται) ϕιλεῖταιPl1 (ϕιλέομεν) ϕιλοῦμεν (ϕιλεόμεθα) ϕιλούμεθα2 (ϕιλέετε) ϕιλεῖτε (ϕιλέεσθε) ϕιλεῖσθε3 (ϕιλέουσι[ν]) ϕιλοῦσι(ν) (ϕιλέονται) ϕιλοῦνται
Subj Sg1 (ϕιλέω) ϕιλῶ (ϕιλέωμαι) ϕιλῶμαι
2 (ϕιλέῃς) ϕιλῇς (ϕιλέῃ) ϕιλῇ3 (ϕιλέῃ) ϕιλῇ (ϕιλέηται) ϕιλῆταιPl1 (ϕιλέωμεν) ϕιλῶμεν (ϕιλεώμεθα) ϕιλώμεθα2 (ϕιλέητε) ϕιλῆτε (ϕιλέησθε) ϕιλῆσθε
3 (ϕιλέωσι[ν]) ϕιλῶσι(ν) (ϕιλέωνται) ϕιλῶνταιImpv Sg2 (ϕίλεε) ϕίλει (ϕιλέου) ϕιλοῦ
3
(ϕιλεέτω) ϕιλείτω (ϕιλεέσθω) ϕιλείσθω
Pl2 (ϕιλέετε) ϕιλεῖτε (ϕιλέεσθε) ϕιλεῖσθε3 (ϕιλεόντων)
or(ϕιλεέτωσαν)
ϕιλούντωνorϕιλείτωσαν
(ϕιλεέσθων)or(ϕιλεέσθωσαν)
ϕιλείσθωνorϕιλείσθωσαν
Infin (ϕιλέειν) ϕιλεῖν (ϕιλέεσθαι) ϕιλεῖσθαιPart Masc (ϕιλέων) ϕιλῶν (ϕιλεόμενος) ϕιλούμενος
Fem (ϕιλέουσα) ϕιλοῦσα (ϕιλεομένη) ϕιλουμένηNeut (ϕιλέον) ϕιλοῦν (ϕιλεόμενον) ϕιλούμενον
ImperfAct ImperfMidPass
Indic Sg1 (ἐϕίλεον) ἐϕίλουν (ἐϕιλεόμην) ἐϕιλούμην2 (ἐϕίλεες) ἐϕίλεις (ἐϕιλέου) ἐϕιλοῦ3 (ἐϕίλεε) ἐϕίλει (ἐϕιλέετο) ἐϕιλεῖτοPl1 (ἐϕιλέομεν) ἐϕιλοῦμεν (ἐϕιλεόμεθα) ἐϕιλούμεθα2 (ἐϕιλέετε) ἐϕιλεῖτε (ἐϕιλέεσθε) ἐϕιλεῖσθε3 (ἐϕίλεον) ἐϕίλουν (ἐϕιλέοντο) ἐϕιλοῦντο
Δηλόω
PresAct PresMidPassIndic Sg1 (δηλόω) δηλῶ (δηλόομαι) δηλοῦμαι
2 (δηλόεις) δηλοῖς (δηλόῃ) δηλοῖ3 (δηλόει) δηλοῖ (δηλόεται) δηλοῦται
Pl1 (δηλόομεν) δηλοῦμεν (δηλοόμεθα) δηλούμεθα2 (δηλόετε) δηλοῦτε (δηλόεσθε) δηλοῦσθε3 (δηλόουσι[ν]) δηλοῦσι(ν) (δηλόονται) δηλοῦνται
Subj Sg1 (δηλόω) δηλῶ (δηλόωμαι) δηλῶμαι
2 (δηλόῃς) δηλοῖς (δηλόῃ) δηλοῖ3 (δηλόῃ) δηλοῖ (δηλόηται) δηλῶταιPl1 (δηλόωμεν) δηλῶμεν (δηλοώμεθα) δηλώμεθα2 (δηλόητε) δηλῶτε (δηλόησθε) δηλῶσθε3 (δηλόωσι[ν]) δηλῶσι(ν) (δηλόωνται) δηλῶνται
Impv Sg2 (δήλοε) δήλου (δηλόου) δηλοῦ
3 (δηλοέτω) δηλούτω (δηλοέσθω) δηλούσθωPl2 (δηλόετε) δηλοῦτε (δηλόεσθε) δηλοῦσθε3 (δηλοόντων)
or(δηλοέτωσαν)
δηλούντωνorδηλούτωσαν
(δηλοέσθων)or(δηλοέσθωσαν)
δηλούσθωνorδηλούσθωσαν
Infin (δηλόειν) δηλοῦν (δηλόεσθαι) δηλοῦσθαιPart Masc (δηλόων) δηλῶν (δηλοόμενος) δηλούμενος
Fem (δηλόουσα) δηλοῦσα (δηλοομένη) δηλουμένηNeut (δηλόον) δηλοῦν (δηλοόμενον) δηλούμενον
ImperfAct ImperfMidPass
Indic Sg1 (ἐδήλοον) ἐδήλουν (ἐδηλοόμην) ἐδηλούμην2 (ἐδήλοες) ἐδήλους (ἐδηλόου) ἐδηλοῦ3 (ἐδήλοε) ἐδήλου (ἐδηλόετο) ἐδηλοῦτοPl1 (ἐδηλόομεν) ἐδηλοῦμεν (ἐδηλοόμεθα) ἐδηλούμεθα2 (ἐδηλόετε) ἐδηλοῦτε (ἐδηλόεσθε) ἐδηλοῦσθε3 (ἐδήλοον) ἐδήλουν (ἐδηλόοντο) ἐδηλοῦντο
LiquidVerbs
Liquidverbs(verbswithstemsendinginλμνorρ)cannottakesigmawhenformingthefutureandaoristtenses(youtrypronouncingλσμσνσorρσ)ExceptfortheomissionofσtheseverbstakethestandardsuffixesoftheomegaverbandtheirconjugationpatternlookssimilartothatofepsiloncontractverbsTheverbκρίνω(Ijudge)isusedbelowasanexample
FutAct FutMid FutPassIndic Sg1 κρινῶ κρινοῦμαι κρινήσομαι
2 κρινεῖς κρινῇ κρινήσῃ3 κρινεῖ κρινεῖται κρινήσεταιPl1 κρινοῦμεν κρινούμεθα κρινησόμεθα2 κρινεῖτε κρινεῖσθε κρινήσεσθε3 κρινοῦσι(ν) κρινοῦνται κρινήσονται
Infin κρινεῖν κρινεῖσθαι κρινήσεσθαιPart Masc κρινῶν κρινούμενος κρινησόμενος
Fem κρινοῦσα κρινουμένη κρινησομένηNeut κρινοῦν κρινούμενον κρινησόμενον
AorAct AorMid AorPass
Indic Sg1 ἔκρινα ἐκρινάμην ἐκρίνην2 ἔκρινας ἐκρίνω ἐκρίνης3 ἔκρινε(ν) ἐκρίνατο ἐκρίνηPl1 ἐκρίναμεν ἐκρινάμεθα ἐκρίνημεν
2 ἐκρίνατε ἐκρίνασθε ἐκρίνητε3 ἔκριναν ἐκρίναντο ἐκρίνησαν
Subj Sg1 κρίνω κρίνωμαι κρινῶ
2 κρίνῃς κρίνῃ κρινῇς3 κρίνῃ κρίνηται κρινῇPl1 κρίνωμεν κρινώμεθα κρινῶμεν2 κρίνητε κρίνησθε κρινῆτε3 κρίνωσι(ν) κρίνωνται κρινῶσι(ν)
Impv Sg2 κρῖνον κρῖναι κρίνηθι
3 κρινάτω κρινάσθω κρινήτωPl2 κρίνατε κρίνασθε κρίνητε3 κρινάντων
orκρινάτωσαν
κρινάσθωνorκρινάσθωσαν
κρινέντωνorκρινήτωσαν
Infin κρῖναι κρίνασθαι κρινῆναιPart Masc κρίνας κρινάμενος κρινείς
Fem κρίνασα κριναμένη κρινεῖσαNeut κρῖναν κρινάμενον κρινέν
ΜιVerbs
Likecontractverbsthestemsofthesecommonμιverbsendinavowelwhichcontractswiththeverbalsuffixesandcreatessomeinteresting-lookingendingsHoweverunlikecontractverbswhichtakethestandardsuffixesoftheomegaverbμιverbsuseadifferentsetofverbalsuffixesThetablebelowshowstheconjugationpatternforstemsendinginαεorοTheverbsusedtoillustratethisconjugationpatternareἵστημι(IcausetostandIsetIestablishstemστα-)τίθημι(IputIplacestemθε-)andδίδωμι(Igivestemδο-)mdashpresented
belowinreverseorderSincetheseverbsformtheirfuturesandperfectsliketheomegaverbsonlythepresentimperfectandaoristtensesaregivenTheverbofbeingεἰμί(Iam)appearsattheendofthisseriesofconjugations
Δίδωμι
PresAct PresMP ImperfAct
ImperfMP
Indic Sg1 δίδωμι δίδομαι ἐδίδουν ἐδιδόμην
2 δίδως δίδοσαι ἐδίδους ἐδίδοσο3 δίδωσι(ν) δίδοται ἐδίδου ἐδίδοτοPl1 δίδομεν διδόμεθα ἐδίδομεν ἐδιδόμεθα2 δίδοτε δίδοσθε ἐδίδοτε ἐδίδοσθε3 διδόασι(ν) δίδονται ἐδίδοσαν ἐδίδοντο
Subj Sg1 διδῶ διδῶμαι
2 διδῷς διδῷ3 διδῷ διδῶταιPl1 διδῶμεν διδώμεθα2 διδῶτε διδῶσθε3 διδῶσι(ν) διδῶνται
Impv Sg2 δίδου δίδοσο
3 διδότω διδόσθωPl2 δίδοτε δίδοσθε3 διδόντωνor διδόσθωνor
διδότωσαν διδόσθωσανInfin διδόναι δίδοσθαιPart Masc διδούς διδόμενος
Fem διδοῦσα διδομένηNeut διδόν διδόμενον
AorAct AorMid AorPass
Indic Sg1 ἔδωκα ἐδόμην ἐδόθην2 ἔδωκας ἔδου ἐδόθης3 ἔδωκε(ν) ἔδοτο ἐδόθηPl1 ἐδώκαμεν ἐδόμεθα ἐδόθημεν2 ἐδώκατε ἐδοσθε ἐδόθητε3 ἔδωκαν ἔδοντο ἐδόθησαν
Subj Sg1 δῶ δῶμαι δοθῶ
2 δῷς δῷ δοθῇς3 δῷ δῶται δοθῇPl1 δῶμεν δώμεθα δοθῶμεν2 δῶτε δῶσθε δοθῆτε3 δῶσι(ν) δῶνται δοθῶσι(ν)
Impv Sg2 δός δοῦ δόθητι
3 δότω δόσθω δοθήτωPl2 δότε δόσθε δόθητε3 δόντωνor
δότωσανδόσθωνorδόσθωσαν
δοθέντωνorδοθήτωσαν
Infin δοῦναι δόσθαι δοθῆναι
Part Masc δούς δόμενος δοθείςFem δοῦσα δομένη δοθεῖσαNeut δόν δόμενον δοθέν
Τίθημι
PresAct PresMP ImperfAct
ImperfMP
Indic Sg1 τίθημι τίθεμαι ἐτίθην ἐτιθέμην
2 τίθης τίθεσαι ἐτίθεις ἐτίθεσο3 τίθησι(ν) τίθεται ἐτίθει ἐτίθετοPl1 τίθεμεν τιθέμεθα ἐτίθεμεν ἐτιθέμεθα2 τίθετε τίθεσθε ἐτίθετε ἐτίθεσθε3 τιθέασι(ν) τίθενται ἐτίθεσαν ἐτίθεντο
Subj Sg1 τιθῶ τιθῶμαι
2 τιθῇς τιθῇ3 τιθῇ τιθῆταιPl1 τιθῶμεν τιθώμεθα2 τιθῆτε τιθῆσθε3 τιθῶσι(ν) τιθῶνται
Impv Sg2 τίθει τίθεσο
3 τιθέτω τιθέσθωPl2 τίθετε τίθεσθε3 τιθέντωνor
τιθέτωσαντιθέσθωνorτιθέσθωσαν
Infin τιθέναι τίθεσθαι