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ISSN 1528-2017VOLUME 11/NO. 1 MARCH 2009

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FEATURES

IUVANEWS

ARTICLESUV Disinfection in MoscowMetro Public TransportSystems

UV/H2O2 Treatment ofDrinking Water: Impacts onNOM Characteristics

http://www.nictec.com

MARCH 2009 | 3

CONTENTS INDEX OFADVERTISERS

UV Industry News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

New IUVA Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

News From IUVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Hot UV News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Application Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

ARTICLES

UV Disinfection in Moscow Metro Public Transport Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Sergey Kostyuchenko, Anna Khan, Sergey Volkov, Henk Giller

UV/H2O2 Treatment of Drinking Water:Impacts on NOM Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Siva R. Sarathy, Madjid Mohseni

EDITORIAL BOARDJames P. Malley, Jr., Ph.D., Univ. of New Hampshire

Keith E. Carns, Ph.D., P.E., EPRI, CEC

Christine Cotton, P.E., Malcolm Pirnie

Thomas Hargy, P.E., Clancy Environmental Consultants

Marc LeChevallier, American Water

Karl G. Linden, Ph.D., University of Colorado at Boulder

Sam Jeyanayagam, P.E., Ph.D., DEE, Malcolm Pirnie

Bruce A. Macler, Ph.D., U.S. EPA

Rip Rice, Ph.D., Rice International Consulting Enterprises

G. Elliott Whitby, Ph.D., Calgon Carbon Corporation

Harold Wright, Carollo Engineers

Printed by RR Donnelley

Editor in Chief:Mr. Paul OverbeckIUVA News (print version) (ISSN 1528-2017) ispublished quarterly by the International UltravioletAssociation, Inc. (IUVA) An electronic version isprovided free to all IUVA Members.

Editorial Office: International Ultraviolet AssociationPO Box 28154, Scottsdale, AZ 85255Tel: (480) 544-0105 Fax: (480) 473-9068www.iuva.org

For IUVA membership information, go tothe IUVA Web Site (www.iuva.org)or contact Paul Overbeck (see below)

For advertising in IUVA News,contact Diana Schoenberg (dianas@iuva.org)Tel: (480) 544-0105

For other IUVA matters, contact:Paul Overbeck, Executive Director(paul.overbeck@iuva.org) or Diana Schoenberg (dianas@iuva.org)

American Air and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Camp, Dresser & McKee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Carollo Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Eta plus electronic gmbh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Gap EnviroMicrobial Services . . . . . . . . . . .22

Heraeus Noblelight GmbH . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

HF Scientific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

ITT Wedeco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Light-Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

LIT Europe b.v. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Malcolm Pirnie, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Nicollet Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC

Philips Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC

Real Tech Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

S.I.T.A. s.r.l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Trojan Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC

Cover PhotoDam Square and Royal Palace, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 5th UV World Congress

4 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

We are well into 2009 and while theglobal economy has tightened, we areseeing signs of governmental spending ininfrastructure areas important to the UVindustry.

Under the U.S. stimulus plan, theAmerican Recovery and Reinvestment Act(ARRA) of 2009 specifically includes$7.22B for drinking water and wastewaterinfrastructure programs administered bythe EPA.

These ARRA funds will aid municipalitieslarge and small whose funding, tied to municipal borrowing, hadtightened dramatically in 2008. Top-rated municipal borrowers of10-year maturities paid interest rates of 3.65% at the end of March2009, up from 3.28% on 12 February according to MunicipalMarket Advisors data and down from a one-year high of 4.71% on16 October 2008.

Internationally, governments are signaling increased spending oninfrastructure. China has a $500+B total infrastructure plan inplace, while EU countries individually and collectively finalizepending action. The amounts set aside for water andwastewater/reuse are yet to be identified.

Reuse will continue to grow as a response to decreasing wateravailability in areas with normally low annual rain fall and thoseimpacted by unexpected draught conditions such as thesoutheastern and southwestern United States, the Mediterranean,Africa, Australia and the Middle East.

One shining example of how UV technology will thrive in reuse is the Orange County Water District’s Reclamation andReplenishment facility. It recently won the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency 2008 Clean Water State Revolving Fund“Pisces” award, recognizing projects that advance clean and safewater through exceptional planning, management and financing.

This is one of many awards the OCWD has recently been awarded,including the 2008 Stockholm Industry Water Award from theStockholm International Water Institute, the 2008 U.S. EPA WaterEfficiency Leader Award, Water Agency of the Year from theInternational Desalination Association, and Water Agency of theYear from WateReuse Association. We were pleased that MehulPatel from OCWD was able to present, “UV Advanced Oxidation forGroundwater Injection-OCWD Case Study” at our March workshopin Long Beach, California.

And let’s not forget the commercial and industrial (C-I) sector. 70people attended our C-I workshop during the WQA-Aquatechconference in Chicago. Industry is looking for green alternativesthat deliver a payback. A return on investment coupled with thepotential for “good corporate citizenship” in the public eye candrive investment in UV technology.

IUVA and its members will continue to spread the word at manymore events in 2009, including the upcoming North AmericanConference on Ultraviolet and Ozone Technologies, AWWA,SIWW, the 5th Ultraviolet World Congress, WEFTEC and the WaterQuality Technology Conference.

Drs. Regina Sommer, James Malley, Joop Kruithof and AndreasKolch are putting together an excellent UV World CongressTechnical program. Please check www.iuva.org often for updates.

As always, we welcome your participation and support at ourmany workshops and conferences. It is through your feedback,Application Notes and articles/papers right here in UV News thatwe advance together as an industry.

Paul

EDITORIALPaul OverbeckEditor-in-Chief

Paul Overbeck

Dear Water Industry Colleagues

In my last president's message theinternational financial markets had justcollapsed and I brought you a message ofencouragement to continue doing what wedo- spreading the word about UV and how itis right for our time.

In that regard, many of our members havebeen very busy. Dr. Jamal Awad helped IUVAby organizing an excellent workshop inCalifornia on March 12, 2009, bringingfurther education and communication to

those interested in UV. On June 22, 2009, IUVA will be holding a one-day workshop on UV as part of the Singapore International Water Week,a direct result of the tireless effort of member Dr. Rongjing Xie.

Of course, our next large conference and our next board meeting is inBoston, USA, May 3-6, 2009, and I hope to see many of you there aspart of the joint IOA/IUVA conference.

Our 10th Anniversary will be celebrated at our 5th UV World Congressin Amsterdam, Netherlands, September 21-23, 2009. We have had avery good submission of abstracts, and Dr. Regina Sommer, Dr. JoopKruithof, Dr. Jim Malley, and Dr. Andreas Kolch on the technicalselection committee have done an outstanding job of diligently readingand assessing the submissions and organizing the agenda. Thank youto them.

It may be the case that attendance will be down a bit, but what I havewitnessed in response is an unparalleled effort from many within theIUVA to work together and make our offerings and attendance asexcellent as possible in spite of the challenges. That can only bode wellfor us as an organization and as an industry. Indeed, I am particularlybuoyed by the story of a delegate who is coming to our Bostonconference. This individual, unable to come due to budgetaryconstraints imposed by a government agency, is taking vacation time toattend personally. That is dedication to professionalism and to anindustry. I take encouragement from that and pass it on to you- as weall seek to provide the best possible offerings to this delegate and allothers. Let's stay the course.

AMESSAGEfrom the IUVA President

Linda Gowman

Linda Gowman

MARCH 2009 | 5

UVINDUSTRYNEWS

The following are some of the more interesting items fromthe IUVA Member Announcements:25 March 2009: World’s first medium pressure, closed Vessel UVsystems gains California Title 22 validation for wastewater reuse.

www.bersonuv.com, www.aquionics.com

Berson's InLine+ medium pressure, closed vessel UV systems are the firstin the world to gain formal approval for wastewater reuse applications.The Berson UV system underwent extensive third party testing byCarollo Engineers in the USA. They have been formally approved forpost-filtration and reverse osmosis applications by the CaliforniaDepartment of Public Health (Title-22 validation) and are now validatedfor wastewater reuse applications in accordance with AwwaRF/NWRI*guidelines. Berson's UV systems are sold in North America by its sistercompany Aquionics, Inc.

Wastewater reuse has been practiced in various forms for decades, withthe USA leading the way in reuse research. It is now a major issueworldwide, with large areas of western and southern USA experiencingchronic water shortages. Large-scale reuse projects are now also beingconsidered in other water-poor regions of the world such as Australia,Singapore, China and southern Europe.

The most common method of wastewater disinfection for reuse haslong been chlorination. Despite chlorine’s impressive track record,concerns regarding disinfection by-products (DBPs) and, more recently,disinfection performance with respect to pathogen inactivation, aredriving the conversion from chlorine disinfection to other disinfectionmethods such as UV, which does not produce any significant DBPs.

Potential applications for wastewater reuse are extremely wide-rangingand include any instance where water is needed for non-potable use.The most popular and widespread use is for agricultural irrigation andfor other irrigation applications such as golf courses, parks, fountainsand lawns. Reclaimed wastewater is also used for groundwater rechargeapplications such as aquifer storage and recovery or preventingsaltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers. Other uses include toilet andurinal flushing, fire fighting, foundation stabilization in the constructionindustry and artificial snow generation. In all these applications, reusedwastewater relieves the burden on existing potable supplies.

16 March 2009: Trojan Technologies announced residential watertreatment business unit name change to VIQUATM – a TrojanTechnologies Company. www.viqua.com

Key product lines Sterilight® and Trojan UVMAXTM will lead the VIQUAbusiness toward a strict focus on residential water treatment solutions,advanced research and development and only the highest qualitycustomer support. Trojan Technologies acquired R-Can EnvironmentalInc in August 2008. The residential business will continue to operate outof Guelph, Ontario with approximately 90 employees.

“This will allow us to better position the company's market-facingbusiness,” says Ron Braun, managing director. “As the residential centrefor water treatment excellence, we provide a broad spectrum ofsolutions to our customers who are facing water quality issues. This newbrand will allow us more flexibility as we grow and expand that market”.

12 March 2009: Ultraviolet Sciences Inc. Acquires Certifications for ItsUV Water Purification Product Line

www.wateronline.com

Ultraviolet Sciences Inc., manufacturer of a new generation ofinnovative UV water treatment solutions, has received certification fromTUV certifying the UVS series product line to worldwide safety and EMIstandards. Additionally Ultraviolet Sciences Inc. (UVSI) has completedNSF (National Sanitation Foundation) testing of this new generation ofwater treatment solutions. UVSI designs, manufactures and sells UVsystems for commercial and industrial industries with emphasis in thebeverage, semiconductor, pharmaceutical, waste water, and waterreclamation sectors.

"Completing this series of certification and testing clearly demonstratesthat UVSI has designed and produced a truly innovative UV waterdisinfection system", says Dr. J.R. Cooper, President of UVSI. "Ourproducts have exceeded our expectations in both disinfection capabilityand TOC and Urea removal. Our unique, patented flow chamber designis fundamental to this performance."

24 February 2009: Ocean Optics’ New Remora Delivers SpectrometerRemote Access Capabilities

www.oceanoptics.com

OceanOptics, an industry leader in miniature photonics, has used theemergence of powerful yet inexpensive microprocessors to turn itsspectrometers into web servers that can wirelessly exchange data andoperation parameters. The new Remora is a plug and play adapter thatmakes connecting to an Ocean Optics Spectrometer as easy as puttinga URL into a browser. Users can access Remora over a Wi-Fi or Ethernetnetwork to capture real-time data and control their spectrometer’sparameters.

2 February 2009: Ken Sturgess joins Nedap Light Controls as U.S.Sales and Marketing Manager and introduces specialty electronicballasts to North America.

www.nedaplightcontrls.com

Nedap Light Controls, a division of Nedap N.V., announced the theyhave named Ken Sturgess to head their sales and marketing efforts inthe United States and Canada. Mr. Sturgess has a long history inmarketing power electronics with special emphasis on applicationsinvolving the use of ultraviolet light in curing and germicidalapplications

Nedap Light Controls designs and manufactures high-quality, easy-to-use, energy saving intelligent electronic ballasts, ranging 15W to 48kW,used to control UV light for various curing and disinfection applications.

30 January 2009: Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer CenterImplements New Lab Disinfection System using UV.http://www.vigilairsystems.com/applications/rss.html

The gene therapy research community is turning to a novel technologyto keep their lab free from contamination. Gene therapy research labsrequire extremely high standards for cleanliness. Traditionallyresearchers at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC) reliedon manual surface cleaning using caustic chemicals to meet thosestandards. Managers at the Gene Transfer and Somatic Cell EngineeringFacility were looking for an alternative because the existing cleaningprocedure is labor intensive, costly and yields mixed results.

Continued on page 7

6 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

The International Ultraviolet Association takes great pleasure in welcoming these new members… Thank you for joining us in 2008!

NEW IUVA MEMBERS

AustraliaIain Johnson Cardinia Puraflo Technologies Pty Ltd. Emerald, Australia

Andrei Gareev SVAROGWollongong, Australia

Peter James Ultra Violet Products (AUST) PTY. LTD. Keswick, Australia

Austria Martin Wesian Wien, Austria

BrazilRogerio AlvesSibrapeRibeiraio Preto, Brazil

CanadaJohn Gruber Westridge Utilities, Inc. Calgary, Canada

Hector Larrazabal Novachem Calgary, Canada

Erin Devries UVDynamics Inc. London, Canada

Pieter Devries UVDynamics Inc. London, Canada

Martin Arsenault Drummondville, Canada

ChinaEthan HungCNlight Co. Ltd. Foshan, China

Blue Shou Fujian Newland EnTech Co. Ltd.Fuzhou, China

Minyi Han Fujian Newland EnTech Co. Ltd.Fuzhou, China

Yu WangFujian Newland EnTech Co. Ltd.Fuzhou, China

Peter WuFujian Newland EnTech Co. Ltd.Fuzhou, China

Meiting GuoFujian Newland EnTech Co. Ltd.Fuzhou, China

FranceFrederick CousinDegremont TechnologiesRueil Malmaison, France

Germany Klaus Andre Siemens - Wallace & Tiernan GmbH Günzburg, Germany

Sandra Kerth eta plus electronic gmbh Nuertingen,Germany

Andreas Kolch Hytecon GmbhHerford, Germany

Uwe Hofer Dipl Ing Uwe HoferLohne, Germany

ItalyAldo SantiLight ProcessAnghiari, Italy

NorwayBjornar EikebrokkSINTEFTrondheim, Norway

South AfricaGuy KebbleSurepureCape Town, South Africa

South KoreaJoon-Wun KangWonju, South Korea

Yoon HahnSeoul, South Korea

SpainJose Gomez CivicosSociedad Espanola de Microfilracion S.A.Madrid, Spain

SwitzerlandChristoph DicksAQUAFIDES GMBHZug, Switzerland

Stephen RobinsonSurepureZug, Switzerland

The NetherlandsTon Van RemmenVan Remmen UV TechniekWijhe, The Netherlands

Jacco van MidwoudLIT-UV EuropeDen Bosch, The Netherlands

Latif AksuRotterdam, The Netherlands

Erwin BeerendonkKWR Watercycle Research InstituteWadenoijen, The Netherlands

United KingdomClive Dean Siemens Kent, United Kingdom

Clayton Sampson Cyan UV Limited Oxford, United Kingdom

Terence Crocker South West Water Exeter, United Kingdom

Jeff Hayes South East Water Frimley, United Kingdom

Barrie Holden Anglian Water Group Peterborough, United Kingdom

Andrew Wetherill Yorkshire Water Bradford, United Kingdom

Ian Helmore Helmore Water Baldock, United Kingdom

Dennis Downie Severn Trent Services Sutton, United Kingdom

Azael Capetillo Leeds University Bradford, United Kingdom

Catherine Noakes Leeds University Old Malton, United Kingdom

MARCH 2009 | 7

UVINDUSTRYNEWS

A VIGILAIR® Room Surface Sterilization System (RSS) was installed inthe lab to determine its efficacy in reducing microorganisms that couldcontaminate the work area. Separate tests by MSKCC and VIGILAIR®showed the RSS system provided a 5-log or greater reduction on targetpathogens.

RSS uses Ultraviolet energy (UV-C) to deactivate microorganisms thatcontaminate surfaces. UV-C emitters are strategically placed to bathethe entire lab with germicidal UV-C energy. RSS features sophisticatedcontrols that turn off the emitters when a predetermined UV dose isachieved. The system also prevents lab workers from being accidentallyexposed to UV.

“The testing results are very encouraging, “ says VIGILAIR Systems Inc.President Peter Bjorkman. “The results clearly demonstrate that our UVtechnology is a safe and cost effective alternative to manual cleaning.”

9 January 2009: TrojanUV Rated China's Top Disinfection Equipment Again

www.trojanuv.com

Trojan Technologies has once again been rated number one in thecategory of “Outstanding Water Disinfection Equipment Brand" in theannual independent Outstanding Equipment Survey conducted byChina Water Net, the most influential online resource for China's waterindustry.

Based on a sample of more than 220 water treatment equipmentcustomers, manufacturers or brands were listed in order of number ofvotes received and evaluated in the categories of: 1) most recognizedbrand that a customer knows; 2) most used brand by a customer; 3)customer satisfaction on the quality of the equipment; 4) customersatisfaction on after sales service; and, 5) good value for price. Of the21 measuring indexes for the survey, Trojan scored in the top threespots for each category.

"Receiving this recognition for the second year in a row is a reflection ofour talented and focused group in China. The Trojan team has workeddiligently to bring reliable and cost-effective UV-based disinfectionsolutions to our global community,” says Marvin DeVries, Trojanpresident. “We are honoured to have received this prestigiousrecognition.”

18 December 2008: WEDECO announces TMO-IV UV TransmittanceMonitor

http://www.wateronline.com/product.mvc/WEDECO-TMO-IV-UV-Transmittance-Monitor-0002

ITT-Wedeco announced that the TMO-IV is specifically designed forcontinuous on-line monitoring of UV transmittance (254 nm) indrinking water applications.

Continued from page 5

John Christmas Crux Easton, United Kingdom

United States of AmericaThomas Mooney Siemens Allendale, NJ

Andrew Reid AECOM Concord, MA

Ken Munoz Radiant Source Technology San Jose, CA

Mehul PatelOrange County Water District Fountain Valley, CA

Bruce Jacobs Cedar Rapids Water Dept. - Water Div.Cedar Rapids, IA

Patricia Drummey Hazen and Sawyer, P.C. Raleigh, NC

Melanie Mann Hazen and Sawyer, P.C. Raleigh, NC

Mike Dimitriou Jacobs Carter Burgess Denver, CO

Carlene Marchaland First Light Technologies, Inc. Poultney, VT

Bill Decker Aquionics Incorporated Erlanger, KY

Marc Scanlon Aquionics Incorporated Erlanger, KY

Kevin Shannon Aquionics Incorporated Erlanger, KY

Mark Jackson Lennox Industries Carrollton, TX

Chuck Dunn Lumalier Memphis, TN

Karl Platzer Light Sources, Inc. Orange, CT

Michael Santelli Light Sources, Inc. Orange, CT

Laura Rose Centers for Disease Control Decatur, GA

Andrew Lux WaterHealth International, Inc. Irvine, CA

Tim Bettles Crystal IS Green Island, NY

Mark Bertler Pentair Water Hanover Park, IL

Jeffrey Mosher National Water Research Institute Fountain Valley, CA

Bryan McCarty MM Consulting LLC Evergreen, CO

Joe Giannone Degremont Technologies - Infilco Richmond, VA

Robert Kelly Degremont Technologies - Infilco Richmond ,VA

Wei Yang Degremont Technologies - Infilco Richmond, VA

David Murray Brown & Caldwell Portland, OR

Victoria Georgakas Milwaukee School of Engineering Greenfield, WI

8 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

NEWS FROM IUVALONG BEACH WORKSHOP On 12 March the IUVA held a one day workshop titled, “UVAdvanced Oxidation and UV New Applications.” Theworkshop was organized by Dr. Jamal Awad of MWH andwas graciously hosted by the City of Long Beach, Californiaat its Ground Water Treatment plant. The 51 attendeeslistened intently to technical presentations on:

• Advanced Oxidation Principles -- Karl Linden, Universityof Colorado at Boulder

• Regulatory Framework -- Brian Bernados, CaliforniaDepartment of Public Health

• Exploring design of UV AOP - More than just a really bigdisinfection reactor -- Erik Rosenfeldt, University ofMassachusetts - Amherst

• UV Advanced Oxidation for Emerging Contaminants --Joan Oppenheimer, MWH

• Use Of UV for Membrane Bio-Fouling Reduction -- TaiTseng, Long Beach Water Department

• Use Of Bench Testing and Modeling for the Effect OfPeroxide, Hydroxyl Scavenging, UV Path Length, andHydrodynamics (CFD) to Size a Full Scale System -- BrianAltland, Calgon Carbon

• Implementing an Effective UV Advanced OxidationProcess - Lessons Learned From 3 Full-Scale Projects --Paul Swaim, CH2M HILL

• UV Advanced Oxidation for Groundwater Injection-OCWD Case Study -- Mehul Patel/Orange County WaterDistrict

MARCH 2009 | 9

• Comparison of UV And Ozone Advance Oxidation – ChristineCotton, Malcolm Pirnie

• Advanced Oxidation for Taste and Odor Control – Brian Petri,Trojan Technologies

Erik Rosenfeldt commented, “I thought the audience was a greatblend of manufacturers, consultants, regulators, and utilitypeople, so the conversations during the breaks and at lunch werevery interesting. I came away from the conference with a wholenew set of questions to think about in my research. Even as apresenter, I feel like I gained a lot of useful information andinsights from the other talks.”

WQA-AQUATECH WORKSHOP The 70 people attendingthe IUVA Workshop onResidential andCommerc ia l - Indust r ia lApplications on Tuesday,

17 March chose learning about UV technology over enjoying theunusually balmy 70+ °F temperatures in Chicago by strollingNavy Peer, the Magnificent Mile or the Lake Michigan shoreline.

Topics and speakers included:

• Introduction to Ultraviolet Treatment - Bruce Laing, VIQUATM –a Trojan Technologies Company

• Residential - Bruce Laing, VIQUATM – a Trojan TechnologiesCompany

• Swimming Pools – Robert Kappel, Siemens Water Technologies

• Food and Beverage - Marc Scanlon, Aquionics Incorporated.

• Remediation and Air Treatment - Steve Schmidt, The OzoneMan, Inc.

• Small Municipal - Marc Scanlon, Aquionics Incorporated

The Water Quality Association (WQA) is a not-for-profitinternational trade association representing the residential,commercial, industrial, and small community water treatmentindustry. WQA maintains a close dialogue with otherorganizations representing different aspects of the water industryin order to best serve consumers, government officials, andindustry members. WQA is a resource and information source, avoice for the industry, an educator for professionals, a laboratoryfor product testing, and a communicator to the public.

This was the first IUVA workshop co-located with Water QualityAssociation-Aquatech and based on the response may wellbecome an annual event.

IUVA thanks those who volunteered their time and energy toput on these excellent technology transfer workshops.Copies of the speaker presentations are available from the IUVAon CD ROM’S for each workshop ($35 each). Contact Diana atDianaS@iuva.org for details.

IUVA’s upcoming workshops will be on 03 May in Boston prior tothe North American Conference on UV and Ozone Technologiesand on 22 June as part of Singapore International Water Week.

Please visit www.iuva.org for workshop and World Congressdetails and registration information.

10 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

HOT UVNEWS

The following are interesting media items that may affect theUV Industry

19 March 2009: U.S. House Panel to Discuss Urban Storm WaterRunoff

The U.S. House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee started toexamine efforts to address urban storm water runoff after the criticalNational Research Council report last year.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is looking atoverhauling its storm water program after a critical report by theNational Research Council in October. The report, which EPA requestedin order to improve its Clean Water Act regulations for storm waterpollution, says the agency must make radical changes to its storm waterprogram in order to reverse degradation of freshwater resources, andrecommended that EPA base discharge permits on watershedboundaries rather than political boundaries. The study also suggestsintegrating storm water management and land management practices.

An amendment to H.R. 1262 would require states using state revolvingfund cash to give priority to projects that construct natural, vegetation-based systems to filter and store storm water runoff and floodwaters forrecharging of natural aquifers, and would also provide technicalassistance and funding to communities that include green infrastructurein their water management plans and infrastructure improvements.

Another amendment would require states to set aside 20% of theircombined sewer and sanitary sewer grants for communities thatimplement green infrastructure or other water- and energy-efficientimprovements.

Committee Chairman James Oberstar (D-Minn.) also promised that hiscommittee will closely monitor how states use the $6 billion in cash forthe state revolving funds contained in the recent economic stimuluspackage.

The National Research Council report is available athttp://dels.nas.edu/dels/rpt_briefs/stormwater_discharge_final.pdf.

13 March 2009: Top 100 Infrastructure Projects of The AmericasReleased, Representing $64.6B And 2.8 Million New Jobs

www.cg-la.com

CG/LA Infrastructure LLC, the world leader in strategic infrastructureproject identification and development, released the list of the Top 100Infrastructure Projects in Latin America. The total estimated value of theprojects is $64.6B, equivalent to almost 2% of Latin American GDP, andtotal job creation is projected at 2.8 million

Strategic Infrastructure Projects: World class projects are drawn fromeight infrastructure sectors, including top 5 projects in ports & logistics,oil & gas, water & wastewater, electricity generation, urban masstransit, digital infrastructure, new energy and highways. Projects aredrawn from 12 countries, including the Panama Canal Expansion ($5.2B); The Eastern Aqueduct in the Dominican Republic ($1 B); theMetropolitan Electric Train in Costa Rica ($520 MM); Sao Paulo's‘Metropolis' project (US$1.2 B); and the transformative MultimodalCorridor Mazatlan-Matamoros in Mexico ($1.4 B).

According to Norman F. Anderson, President & CEO of CG/LA, theseprojects are critical to Latin America's future: "Investing in infrastructure

is central to protecting the region's real economies from the financialcrisis, seizing the ‘opportunity in the crisis' to build productivity andcompetitiveness." According to Anderson, these countercyclical projectswill double the region's investment in infrastructure, immediatelycreating needed new jobs throughout the region.

13 March 2009: Polyurethane Coating Self-Heals In UV Light

The Discovery Channel reported on "a new polyurethane filmdeveloped by scientists from the University of Southern Mississippi" thatuses "a new macromolecule" to create a polymer that "is capable ofrepairing itself" when exposed to ultraviolet light. "The new coating is99.99 percent standard polyurethane," and "the remaining 0.01percent is either a four-molecule oxetane ring or a long rod of chitosan,"which "is closely related to chitin." While scientists say "that it should beable to repair most scratches indefinitely," they added that "since thematerial is so new, they haven't been able to conduct long-term tests."The relative cheapness and availability of chitosan, as well as its low costand environmental friendliness, are also pointed out.

BBC News explains, "Scratches or damage to the polyurethane coat splitthe oxetane rings, revealing loose ends that are highly likely tochemically react. In the ultraviolet light provided by the sun, thechitosan molecules split in two, joining to the oxetane's reactive ends."The researchers described the chemistry involved as "not verycomplicated," and according to the article "the well-established natureof polyurethane in such a wide range of manufacturing could see anumber of benefits, not least the self-healing car paint job." The UK'sPress Association, New Scientist and the Wired (3/12) Science blog alsoreport the story.

12 March 2009: Most Companies Don’t Assess Comprehensive WaterFootprint

www.pacinst.org

According to a recent report from the Pacific Institute, a majority ofcompanies do a poor job of assessing their water footprints across theentire business supply chain, leading to risks associated with waterscarcity.

Researchers at the Oakland, Calif.-based think tank surveyed 110companies in 11 sectors and found that only 15% had approachedwater scarcity issues in a comprehensive manner. Sectors studiedinclude the beverage, mining, food product, pharmaceutical andforestry industries.

The United Nations' CEO Water Mandate commissioned the report. TheWater Mandate is a program established by the U.N. secretary generalto help the private sector address the water resources management.The program is meant to prepare the business community for futurewater supply shortages. The report found that most of the companiesdid not examine how water use affects them outside of their directoperations, ignoring overall supply-chain performance and regional orlocal effects of water use.

5 March 2009: Chandler, Arizona will add UV to 6 Pools even as CityGrapples with Plummeting Tax Revenues.

"Our first priority is to maintain existing facilities and service levels," saidManagement Services Director Dennis Strachota after weeks ofdelivering increasingly grim financial news to the City Council. At the

top of the to-do list is installation of ultraviolet water purificationsystems in six pools to prevent Cryptosporidium parasite outbreaks likethose that forced cities around the Valley to close public pools lastsummer

That project is covered by $2.8 million set aside for "aquatic facilitysafety requirement" expenses.

The Maricopa County Assessor's recent property valuation notices werethe latest evidence that the recession will take a serious bite out ofrevenues. Since property taxes paid to cities and other jurisdictions twoyears from now are based on these recent valuations, Chandler mustchange long-term capital improvement plans to avoid shortfalls,Strachota said.

5 March 2009: U.S. Stimulus Plan to increase Funding for Protectionof Public Health

The $787 billion economic recovery plan signed by President Obamatargeted to create 3 to 4 million quality, sustainable jobs with manyprotecting public health and the environment.

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA)specifically includes $7.22B for drinking water and wastewaterinfrastructure programs administered by EPA. These programs willprotect and promote both green jobs and a healthier environment.

Following a number of revisions, the final $787 billion package of taxcuts and government spending includes significant emergency fundingfor public works infrastructure, including over $7 billion for drinkingwater and wastewater projects. The U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency’s (EPA) clean water and drinking water state revolving fund(SRF) programs will receive $6 billion, including $4 billion for the cleanwater SRF and $2 billion for the drinking water SRF. In addition, theUSDA Rural Water and Waste Disposal program will receive $1.38 billionfor loans and grants.

According to recent analysis from the McIlvaine Company, the ARRAcould fast track 400 wastewater projects valued at $6 billion whichotherwise would have remained on hold due to lack of funding.

Additionally, following passage of HR 1, the American Recovery andReinvestment Act (ARRA) by the House and Senate, the WaterEnvironment Federation (WEF) started advising local and stategovernment officials on next steps for securing and distributing thenewly awarded stimulus funds for wastewater projects.

“Although this investment is just a small portion of the estimated $500billion funding shortfall for water infrastructure over the next 20 years,WEF believes this package will help bridge the funding gap andgenerate thousands of construction, manufacturing, and engineeringjobs across the country,” said Tim Williams, WEF’s Director ofGovernment Affairs.

As next steps, WEF is encouraging local government officials to contacttheir state clean water or drinking water program or the state revolvingfund program managers to make sure that any projects they would liketo have funded are on the state’s priority list. Many states have alreadysent letters to municipalities outlining the process or contingency plansthey are developing for awarding stimulus monies.

The stimulus funding will be distributed through the State RevolvingLoan programs. States are required to give priority in funding toprojects that are ready to proceed to construction within 12 months.The stimulus bill will penalize states that don't put the federal money towork -- monies that are not under contract or construction within 12months will be reallocated to other states.

To help get things moving, the stimulus bill waives the 20 percent statematching requirement for SRF projects, and directs states to use not less

than 50 percent of their capitalization grants for “additionalsubsidization” assistance, such as principal forgiveness, negative interestloans, or grants.

The bill requires that up to 20 percent of SRF stimulus monies be usedfor projects to address green infrastructure, water and/or energyefficiency, innovative water quality improvements, decentralizedwastewater treatment, stormwater runoff mitigation, and waterconservation.

4 March 2009: Research on Emerging Contaminants continues withStatement that Levels of Trace Pharmaceuticals in Drinking Water TooLow to Impact Human Health According to Water Research FoundationStudy

http://www.waterresearchfoundation.org/theFoundation/ourPrograms/ResearchProgramSIEDCPPCP.aspx

The Water Research Foundation, a leading U.S. drinking water researchorganization stated, “The concentrations of pharmaceutical drugs andendocrine-disrupting compounds found in our public drinking waterare likely too low to impact human health”. Endocrine-disruptingcompounds (EDCs) encompass a variety of chemical classes, includinghormones, plant constituents (phytoestrogens), pesticides, compoundsused in the plastics industry and in consumer products, and otherindustrial by-products.

There is growing public attention and concern about the possibility ofhealth effects from trace amounts of EDCs and drugs that are flusheddown the toilet or enter the water supply through human and livestockwaste. The Water Research Foundation report examined not only thepresence of trace levels of EDCs and drugs in water, but explored ifthere is a potential link between the levels of these compounds foundin water and effects on human health.

The report, titled Toxicological Relevance of Endocrine Disruptors andPharmaceuticals in Drinking Water, concludes three years of research incollaboration with 17 water utilities. "Even the most advancedtreatment processes that we've studied won't achieve an absolute zerolevel of contaminants," said study researcher Shane Snyder, Ph.D.,research and development project manager for Southern Nevada WaterAuthority. "Therefore, it's vital that we look at the real risks before wespend a tremendous amount of resources on the issue."

The study's objective was to inform water utilities, regulators, scientists,and the public about the occurrence and potential human healthrelevance of pharmaceuticals and EDCs in drinking water.

3 February, 2009: California State Water Board Adopts RecycledWater Policy

http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/water_recycling_policy/.

California’s State Water Resources Control Board adopted a statewide“Recycled Water Policy” on February 3, 2009, to establish uniformrequirements for the use of recycled water.

The purpose of the Recycled Water Policy is to increase the use ofrecycled water from municipal wastewater sources. When used incompliance with the Recycled Water Policy, Title 22, and all applicablestate and federal water quality laws, recycled water is considered by theState Water Board as safe for approved uses and as a safe alternative topotable water for such approved uses.

The Policy is intended to provide direction to the Regional WaterQuality Control Boards, agencies with recycled water projects, and thepublic on the appropriate criteria to be used by the State Water Boardand Regional Water Boards in issuing permits for recycled waterprojects.

MARCH 2009 | 11

Continued on page 12

12 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

23 January 2009: More Cities Considering Wastewater Reclamation toTap Water during time of drought

http://www3.signonsandiego.com/stories/2009/jan/23/1m23reclaim23151-wastewater-tap-water/?zIndex=41716

Escondido, California is considering reclaiming wastewater for use asdrinking water to augment its water supply. In addition, the inland citystands to save hundreds of millions of dollars by avoiding upgrades to itssewage treatment plant and an ocean outfall pipe if the plan succeeds.

Escondido conducting a feasibility study at the Helix Water District, whichserves parts of East County, and the city of San Diego in considering thecontentious idea, sometimes derided as “toilet to tap.”

The Helix board has approved an $80 million project in hopes ofsupplying 12 to 15 percent of the district's drinking water. Anenvironmental review is being conducted.

The city of San Diego has temporarily increased water rates to help payfor an $11.8 million demonstration project at the North City ReclamationPlant at Eastgate Mall in University City. But San Diego's demonstrationproject has faced protests. Opponents cited national studies indicatingthat reclaimed water can contain minute traces of hormones, drugs andchemicals, some of which are carcinogenic.

“If it's made clean enough and safe enough to drink, I wouldn't beopposed to it,” Councilwoman Olga Diaz said.

Escondido's utilities director, Lori Vereker, said the reclamation projectwould be similar to Orange County's, which uses a three-step purifyingprocess to produce what she calls “ultra-pure” water.

“In Orange County, the water is first cleaned to a standard fit forirrigation, and then put through reverse osmosis to remove salt. Finally, itis treated with ultraviolet light and hydrogen peroxide to kill anyremaining bacteria, said Shivaji Deshmukh, program manager for theGroundwater Replenishment system of the Orange County Water District.Tests have shown that the product is cleaner than drinking water from theColorado River, which has treated wastewater dumped into it by citiesalong its path”, he said..

Escondido's project would be governed by state regulations now beingdrafted to ensure the safe use of reclaimed water for drinking, a stateDepartment of Public Health official said.

By reusing all of the city's wastewater, cash-strapped Escondido also couldavoid upgrading its aging wastewater treatment plant and spending$300 million to increase the size of an outfall pipe used to dischargetreated wastewater into the ocean, Vereker said. Both the plant and thepipe are nearing capacity.

21 January 2009: U.S. EPA honors Orange County for innovativegroundwater management / Water district receives “Pisces” award forwastewater and drinking water projects

http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/2dd7f669225439b78525735900400c31/4330f220f16a63378525754500662996!OpenDocument

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency honored the Orange CountyWater District with its 2008 Clean Water State Revolving Fund “Pisces”award, which recognizes projects that advance clean and safe waterthrough exceptional planning, management, and financing.

“The EPA recognizes the Orange County Water District for its foresightand dedication in providing a locally controlled, drought-resistant watersupply to serve over 500,000 residents,” said Alexis Strauss, director ofthe Water Division for the EPA’s Pacific Southwest region. “Projects such

as this provide clean safe water at a cost lower than imported supplieswithout sacrificing water quality.”

"The Orange County Water District deserves recognition for their superiorwork in demonstrating an innovative approach to project implementationwith groundwater replenishment," said Tam M. Doduc, Chair, State WaterResources Control Board.

The Orange County Water District supplies water to more than 20 citiesand water agencies, serving more than 2.3 million Orange Countyresidents.

Thanks to a partnership with the Orange County Sanitation District, andthe use of microfiltration, reverse osmosis and advanced oxidationprocesses, the award-winning project treats clarified secondary effluent –which would have been discharged into the Pacific Ocean – into waterexceeding all federal and state water regulations.

This processed water is pumped into injection wells and recharge basins,where the water naturally percolates into the ground and blends withOrange County’s other sources of groundwater.

Nationally, the EPA’s Clean Water State Revolving Fund program hasprovided more that $63 billion dollars funding projects for wastewatertreatment, nonpoint source pollution control, watershed and estuarymanagement, and energy and water sustainability projects.

12 January 2009: Research names top 11 compounds in tap waterhttp://www.newscientist .com/art ic le/dn16397-top-11-compounds-in-us-drinking-water.html

New research has identified the 11 most frequently detectedpharmaceutical and hormonally active chemical compounds in the drinkingwater of 19 US water utilities. Researchers Shane Snyder and colleagues atthe Southern Nevada Water Authority in Las Vegas screened tap water from19 US water utilities for 51 different compounds. The research, which isscheduled to appear in the next issue of the journal Environmental Science& Technology, indicates that all of the 11 most frequently detectedcompounds were found at extremely low concentrations.

According to the NewScientist.com article, the 11 most frequentlydetected compounds were:

• Atenolol, a beta-blocker used to treat cardiovascular disease

• Atrazine, an organic herbicide banned in the European Union but stillused in the United States, which has been implicated in the decline offish stocks and in changes in animal behavior

• Carbamazepine, a mood-stabilizing drug used to treat bipolar disorder,among other things

• Estrone, an oestrogen hormone secreted by the ovaries and blamed forcausing gender-bending changes in fish

• Gemfibrozil, an anti-cholesterol drug

•Meprobamate, a tranquilizer used in psychiatric treatment

• Naproxen, a painkiller and anti-inflammatory linked to increases inasthma incidence

• Phenytoin, an anticonvulsant that has been used to treat epilepsy

• Sulfamethoxazole, an antibiotic used against the Streptococcusbacteria, which is responsible for tonsillitis and other diseases

• TCEP, a reducing agent used in molecular biology

• Trimethoprim, an antibiotic.

Christian Daughton, Ph.D., of the US Environmental Protection Agency’s(EPA) National Exposure Research Laboratory, said in the report thatneither this nor other recent water assessments give cause for healthconcern. He added, “But several point to the potential for risk —especially for the fetus and those with severely compromised health.”

HOT UVNEWSContinued from page 11

MARCH 2009 | 13

Editor’s Note: UV companies are welcome to submit “Application Notes” for this column.

We also request comments on Applications Notes and Articles.

Send either to paul.overbeck@iuva.orgAPPLICATIONNOTE

Humans love to relax and soak the body and soul in warmwater and loose the cares of the day in the whirlpool. Now,imagine the happy sounds of children on the water slide andseeing the really small splash about gleefully in comfortablywarm baby pools. Today, modern public baths are oftenmuch more than pure sports facilities, they are places forrelaxation and well-being for big and small alike. The typicalswimming pool chlorine smell, which formerly used to stingour nose when we entered the swimming pool, along withthe red and irritated eyes of children, are no longer in tunewith the wellness concept of modern swimming centres.

CHLORAMINES AS TRIGGERSChlorine is routinely used for disinfection in public baths. Theclassic disinfection mechanism cannot be completelysubstituted, as with other solutions the high disinfectionpower and the necessary germ killing speed cannot beachieved. In the on-going operation of baths using chlorine,chloramines such as NH2Cl (Monochloramin) are producedas by-products of the disinfection process through freechlorine and reactions with substances such as skin sheddinginto the pool water. These chloramines, also known as

“combined chlorine”, are responsible for the typicalswimming bath smells and irritation of the eyes and themucous membranes under contact with the water. Theconcentration of the chloramines is dependent on severalfactors: water temperature, pool temperature, number ofbathers and their level of activity and the process of watertreatment. Theoretically, the greater the number of bathers,the greater their level of activity, the higher the watertemperature and the smaller the pool size created higherchloramine levels. The upper limit of combined chlorine isgiven in German DIN 19643 at 0.2 mg per litre (mg/L).

PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTION WITH UV RADIATIONOne good option for reducing the concentration ofdisinfection by-products in the water circuit is the so-calledChlorominator from the water treatment specialist Grünbeckin Höchstädt an der Donau. In this system, the combinedchlorine is broken down photochemically. With the help of“high energy” UV emitters, the molecular bonds of thechloramines are broken, resulting in harmless substancessuch as chloride and nitrogen. In practice, the systemconsists essentially of a pressure tube with two overlappingUV irradiation zones. In the influent zone, according to thecapacity of the system, there are up to six 400 Watt UVmedium pressure lamps from the specialist light sourcemanufacturer Heraeus Noblelight. Because of thepolychromatic lamp spectrum in the UV-C spectral rangefrom 200 to 280 nm, which is effective for the application,and because of a specific electrical emitter power of morethan 45 W/cm, the UV lamps break the chloraminesmolecular bonds and so destroy the combined chlorine inthe bath water (Add Fig. 3). As this process relies exclusivelyon the application of UV technology and requires noadditional substances, the chloramines destruction isextremely environmentally friendly. Virtually all of the heatgenerated is fed to the bath water and this makes the process

UV IN AQUATICS: WELLNESS FOR THE NOSE -BREAKDOWN OF CHLORAMINES IN PUBLIC BATHS

from Heraeus Noblelight, Hanau, Germany www.heraeus-noblelight.com

Fig. 1: The Chlorominator uses modern UV technology to breakdown chloramines photochemically and disinfect swimming poolwater. (Copyright: Grünbeck GmbH, Höchstädt/Donau, Germany)

Fig. 2: Example of a 400 Watt UV medium pressure lamp(Copyright: Heraeus Noblelight GmbH, Hanau, Germany)

energy-efficient and economical. The high radiation flux ofthe UV medium pressure lamps allows the construction ofcompact water treatment systems. Specifically, the 400 WattUV medium pressure lamps are only 140 mm in length witha diameter of around 16 mm.

UV TECHNOLOGY REDUCES THE USE OF CHLORINE.As well as destroying chloramines, the use of UV lamps alsoallows for a reduction in the amount of chlorine required.The treatment of water with UV radiation is a very effectivephysical process for the disinfection of water and thedestruction of pollutants. “High energy” UVC radiation in therange 200 to 280 nm is very effective at destroying thebonds of the DNA helix. This means that UV radiationinactivates in seconds the cells of pathogens such as viruses,bacteria and microbes which can be present in water. Thesesame pathogens are also unable to develop a resistanceagainst UV light at dechloramination dosage. Consequently,the germ count in the swimming bath water can be reliablyreduced and there is need for less chlorine.

To further increase this effect, the Chlorominator alsofeatures up to 12 Heraeus Noblelight low pressure Amalgamlamps as well as the UV medium pressure lamps and theseare located in the outlet of the irradiation chamber. Withtheir quasi- monochromatic spectrum of 254 nm and high

efficiency of around 35%, they are well suited to disinfectionof the water in swimming baths Compared withconventional mercury low pressure lamps of the samegeometry, Amalgam lamps offer significantly greater power.While mercury low pressure lamps typically have a specificelectrical power of 0.3 to 0.5 W/cm of illuminated length,Amalgam lamps approach 6 W/cm. The reason for this is thedifferent pressure/temperature ratio. Mercury low pressurelamps achieve their optimal mercury vapour pressure of 0.8Pa, and hence their maximum UVC output, at around 40°C.Increasing or reducing the temperature by increasing orreducing the electrical input power only leads to a reducedUVC output. The Amalgam lamp also reaches its optimumvapour pressure at 0.8 Pa, but this is at a correspondingtemperature of 90 - 130°C (dependent on model). Thishigher temperature level is responsible for the higher specificelectrical power of the Amalgam lamp and thus for its higherUVC output per centimetre of illuminated length. This meansthat Amalgam lamps are much more compact than mercurylamps of the same output. Consequently system builders canscale down their equipment, as they need fewer lamps andcasings and hence less space. A smaller number of powersupply units is also another area of potential saving.

CASE STUDYThe Chlorominator, with its advanced UV technology, isalready being used in a large number of swimming bathinstallations. Recently, the newly built spa centre at Bad Liebenstein in Thuringia, Germany received twoChlorominators. This new spa will be opened in Spring 2009.Amongst other things, it offers a swimming pool, specialtyshowers, a sauna suite with ice tubs and immersion pools andrelaxation baths using the local spa water. Here the oldest spaand curative bath in Thuringia, (the healing and curativeeffect of the water from the Casimir spring has beenacknowledged since 1601) is now using modern watertreatment with UV technology. Medium pressure andAmalgam low pressure lamps reduce the chloramines in thewater and help water disinfection, so that the users of thefacilities can safely and peacefully relax, from top to toe, andalready start to look forward to their next visit.

For further information contact Mr. Thomas Lödel, HeraeusNoblelight GmbH, E-Mail: thomas.loedel@heraeus.com

Fig. 3: Typical polychromatic lamp spectrum of UV mediumpressure lamps. (Copyright: Heraeus Noblelight GmbH,Hanau, Germany)

Fig. 5: 254nm spectrum of a UV Amalgam lamp and aneffective spectrum for killing bacteria (e-coli as in DIN 1031Part 10). (Copyright: Heraeus Noblelight GmbH, Hanau,Germany)

14 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

Fig. 4: Amalgam low pressure lamps are very effective inkilling viruses, bacteria and pathogens in swimming poolwater. (Copyright: Heraeus Noblelight GmbH, Hanau,Germany)

MARCH 2009 | 15

Come learn about Ultraviolet technological advancements and experiences in this unique forum - showcasing the world’s premier advanced treatment technology! UV is the key to a cleaner, safer future and is more important now than ever before.This World Congress will provide academics, regulators, utilities and industry professionals with current information and valuable perspectives on industrial processes, drinking water treatment, wastewater, water reuse and emerging contaminants.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L U L T R A V I O L E T A S S O C I A T I O N

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16 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

During the last fifteen years, UV disinfection has rapidlygained popularity for water and air treatment. Theadvantages are well illustrated in the mean time. Nochemicals are added, the reaction time is very short and themethod does not alter smell or taste. Ultraviolet radiation isvery effective to inactivate air or waterborne pathogens,viruses, but also pathogens like Cryptosporidium, due tothe high absorption of DNA for UV radiation. UV-Cradiation damages the DNA of micro-organisms,destroying their ability to replicate and thus renderingthem non-infectious.

The Moscow Metro is one of the oldest and, with up to 9million passengers per day, one of the most frequently usedunderground train systems in the world. Growing concernsover deteriorating indoor air quality and possible cross-infections via airborne micro-organisms or indirect contactsinduced Moscow authorities to introduce effective andpermanent solutions.

1.1 AIR AND SURFACE TREATMENTIndoor air in offices, factories, homes hospitals and otherpublic buildings is trapped, often re-circulated and alwaysfull of contaminants such as bacteria, viruses and moulds.Most people live and work in buildings which are sealed asmuch as possible to preserve energy. The indoorenvironment is controlled by automated heating, air-conditioning and ventilation. Microbial contaminationplays an important role in the health problems, related tothese environments.

This was reason for intensive investigations for the effect ofdisinfection of air and surfaces by UV radiation. The wealthof research reports which have been published over the last100 years provided the basis to show that ultravioletgermicidal irradiation decreases the concentration ofairborne organisms in buildings. Some infectious agentsthat affect human respiratory systems and that aresusceptible to UV radiation are tuberculosis, measles,adenovirus and smallpox.

LIT Technologies and the Russian Research Institute ofRailway Hygiene have teamed up to investigate thepossibilities of UVGI (Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiance) in afew distinct areas:

• Internal surfaces of train carriages

• Escalator hand rails

• Air in passage ways and platforms in railway stations

The adequate UV doses to inactivate micro-organisms andpathogens were determined for all three typical situations.

2. SURFACE TREATMENTAttempts to eliminate surface contaminates from railwaycarriages range from antiseptic swaps to fumigation. Suchmethods are time consuming, hazardous andenvironmentally unwise. The UVGI process would be muchsimpler. It was found however, that micro-organisms onsurfaces are always embedded in and shielded byprotective layers of proteins.

UV Disinfection in Moscow Metro Public Transport Systems

Authors: Sergey Kostyuchenko1, Anna Khan

1, Sergey Volkov

1, Henk Giller

2

11LIT Technology, Moscow, Russia (E-mail: lit@lit.ru) 2 LIT Europe, Valkenswaard, The Netherlands (E-mail: h.giller@lit-uv.eu)

ABSTRACTGrowing concerns about the hygienic situation and air contamination in the often heavily populated Moscow Metro undergroundrailway system were reason to investigate the effects of UV disinfection on the internal surfaces of train carriages, escalatorhandrails and the air in passage ways and platforms of railway stations. The adequate UV doses to inactivate micro-organismsand parasites were determined for all three situations.

The required UV doses to disinfect the surfaces of carriage interiors and handrails were much higher than expected, due to thefact that micro-organisms are embedded and protected against UV by layers mainly consisting of proteins. Devices, providinghigh UV irradiances, equipped with Low Pressure High Output (LPHO) mercury amalgam lamps were introduced to meet therequirements.

Key words: UV disinfection; Public transport; Air disinfection; Surface disinfection; Amalgam UV lamps.

INTRODUCTION

MARCH 2009 | 17

Aromatic amino acids are the main agents causing UVabsorption between 220 and 280 nm. Around 254 nm (theoptimum UVGI efficiency wavelength), the absorption isdetermined by sulfhydryl (–SH) and disulfate (–SS–) groupsof cysteine/cystine proteins.

Apart from the media in which the target micro-organismsare hidden, also the type and structure of typical interiorcomponents like imitation-leather seats, linoleum, rubberescalator hand rails, as well as glass and metal surfaces havea strong influence. As fig. 1 demonstrates the uneven reliefstructure of rubber (a) and linoleum (b) will create shadowsfor the UV radiation; the overall UVGI efficiency will drop.

a) b)

Figure 1. Microstructure of surface of rubber (a) andlinoleum (b)

In-vitro tests were carried out at the Russian ScientificResearch Institute of Railway Hygiene, to establish lethal UVdoses. Target micro-organisms were immersed in protein-containing media, modelled after real-life Moscow Metroconditions.

Figure 2 represents the medium UV transmittance factor at253.7 nm versus concentration levels in distilled water(Vpm/Vdw - ratio of protein content in the medium anddistilled water).

Figure 2. Experimental UVT (at 253,7 nm) of protectiveprotein medium vs. Distilled water concentration levels.

The Staphylococcus aureus (strain 906) organism was usedfor the tests. Imitation leather, rubber and plastic were usedas test surfaces. Figure 3 shows the UVGI disinfectionefficiency for the test culture in a protective proteinenvironment on rubber. It also represents the reference

values of UVGI doses for Staphylococcus aureus in “ideallaboratory conditions”.

Relevant, frequently touched surfaces in the metro systemmay be contaminated up to 1000 CFU/cm

2. It required

300-450 J/m2to achieve a disinfection rate of more than

90%. This is 5 to 10 times higher than in ideal situations.

Figure 3. UV effectiveness vs. Initial seeding densities ofprotein-protected test-culture of St. aureus on rubbersurfaces.

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18 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

Yet higher UV doses are required to inactivate pathogenssuch as viable ascaride eggs (Ascaris suum), pinworms(Enterobius vermicularis) and lamblia cysts (Lamblia (Giardia)intestinalis). During the tests these microorganisms wereplaced on typical test surfaces such as imitation leather,plastic, wood, chrome plated metal, rubber, and glass.Various UV doses at 253.7 nm were used to disinfect themicroorganisms. The type of materials influences theeffectiveness of UVGI disinfection to a great extent. Figure4 shows the relative dependency of the UV dose versus thetype of surface.

Figure 4. Relative changes in UV doses providing 90%inactivation in test pathogens vs. type of surface.

Black rubber escalator handrail surface and window seals intrain carriages require a two times higher dose for the samedisinfection rate than required for glass and metals. Plastic,wood, and imitation leather score values in-between. Todefine the required UV doses in the Metro system, we willrefer to the UV doses for inactivation of microorganisms onblack rubber surfaces.

Figure 5 represents the inactivation efficiency of UVGI for 3pathogens on black rubber surfaces.

For 99% disinfection, the required UV dose was establishedto be 4500 J/m

2.

Figure 5. Germicidal UV effectiveness for three pathogens onblack rubber surfaces.

After the first stage of the research program it became clearthat it is possible to employ UVGI technology to effectivelydisinfect relevant surfaces of the metro interior. However,the required UV doses are very much higher than expectedon theoretical grounds. Practically, it is not possible to useconventional UV equipment low pressure mercury UVlamps. The energy efficiency of medium pressure lampswas considered to be too low. LIT Technology developed aseries of straight and U-shaped LPHO “Amalgam” UVlamps, coated on the inside to restrict UV depreciation,tailored especially for Metro disinfection applications.

2.1 AMALGAM UV LAMPSLow pressure mercury lamps are very attractive due to theirextremely good UV efficiency, but their output, specified asUV-watts per unit of length, is very low. Increasing thespecific UV output by increasing the lamp power willincrease the lamp temperature, hence the (saturated)mercury pressure in the lamp; the UV efficiency will dropprogressively.

It is a well-known fact that the mercury pressure can bedecreased spectacularly by applying certain alloys, whichcombine with mercury to form so-called amalgams. Inpractice, this means that higher bulb temperatures areallowed and that the lamps can be “overpowered”. Insteadof the standard low pressure mercury lamp currents of upto 800 mA, now typical currents up to 4000 mA arepossible. An additional advantage is that, in accidental casethat the lamp breaks, no liquid mercury is released. Thesaturated mercury pressure at room temperature above theamalgam is much lower than above metallic mercury.

It goes without saying that the relevant lamp componentshave to be adapted to the higher power setting. Especiallythe choice of electrodes and inert gas filling plays animportant role for the conservation of lamp efficiency andlamp life. Neon additions to the standard Argon filling gasdetermine the lamp power, judiciously keeping an eye onlamp life, typically between 10.000 and 15.000 hours.

Quite a few potential amalgams, each with their typicaltemperature requirements, are available. The tertiary typeInAgHg, applicable with bulb wall temperatures between115 and 140 ˚C is popular for lamps, ranging between 200and 400 W. Four- and five component amalgams broadenthe possible temperature area, allowing amalgam lamps tobe used in a wide variation of temperatures andapplications like UV air and surface treatment. Such lampscan be regulated in a wide variation of lamp powers.

2.2 SURFACE DISINFECTION OFCARRIAGE INTERIORS IN PRACTICEA special trolley was developed to disinfect the air andsurfaces in metro train carriages, incorporating two 170 WU-shaped amalgam lamps and equipped with a timer, toshut off the system after disinfection (Figure 6.).

MARCH 2009 | 19

Figure 6. UV system forinterior disinfection, withtwo U-shaped 170 W UVlamps.

A series of experimentswere carried out, aimed to reveal the impact of UVirradiation on materials used in the metro carriages. Fourdifferent materials were tested: imitation leather used for

seats in carriages, plastic used for carriage floors, imitation-wood plastic for the walls and coated tin plates used for thecarriage ceilings.

The samples were treated with a UV dose of 3.7 x 106 J/m2,which effectively corresponds to 514 UVGI cycles with amaximum calculated dose of 7200 J/m2.The tests revealedno physical or chemical changes in materials. It can beconcluded that the materials tested showed a highresistance to UV irradiation.

Another series of tests revealed that no harmful chemicalcompounds or odors were formed by UV irradiation (Table I).

Table I. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS RESULTS OF AIR IN METRO CARRIAGES PRIOR TO AND AFTER 25-MINUTE UVTREATMENT USING UOP VOZUF-170-P-2 (2 * 170W) LIT SYSTEM, WITHOUT VENTILATION.

No Chemical Chemical concentrations

1. Benzol 0,300 0,057 yes no yes 0,035 yes no yes

2. Xylol 0,200 1,680 no no yes 0,481 no no yes

3. Ethyl benzol 0,020 0,441 no 0,249 no 0,246 no no yes

4. Ethyl acetate 0,100 1,53 no 0,310 no 0,631 no no yes

5. Styrol 0,040 0,279 no no yes 0,121 no no yes

6. Toluol 0,600 1,11 no 0,653 no 0,320 yes no yes

7. Phenol 0,01 no yes no yes no yes no yes

8. Formaldehyde 0,035 0,001 yes 0,001 yes no yes no yes

9. Methyl-metacrylat 0,100 0,016 yes no yes 0,008 yes no yes

10. M-cresol 0,005 0,025 no 0,021 no 0,009 no no yes

11. Vinyl-chloride 0,01* 0,002 yes no yes 0,001 yes no yes

12. Acrolein 0,03 0,054 no 0,017 yes 0,015 yes 0,011 yes

13. Acetone 0,35 3,63 no 1,21 no 1,99 no no yes

14. Ammonia 0,20 0,045 yes 0,052 yes 0,120 yes 0,122 yes

15. Ozone 0,16 no yes 0,15 yes no yes 0,14 yes

* Average daily concentration was taken as peak concentration value was not available

The effect of UV irradiation on disinfection of train carriage surfaces was established by practical examples. Overallmicrobial contamination levels as well as concentrations of the test-culture S. aureus (strain 906) were measured beforeand after administering doses of UV radiation, by means of the imprint method. See table II

Max contaminant

level, (M

CL)

mg/m3

Carriage No.1

before UV

MCL compliance

Carriage No.1

after UV

MCL compliance

Carriage No.2

before UV

MCL compliance

Carriage No.2

after UV

MCL compliance

20 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

Table II# Sampling area Contamination, CFU/100 cm

2

Surface contamination After UV reductionprior to UV treatment (%)

Irradiation cycle - 21 min, UV dose -4025-4600 J/m

2for seats;

-5750-7475 J/m2for the backs of the seats

1 Left end of the carriage seat 1 x l03

30 99,7

2 back 8 x 102

20 97,5

3 Middle of the carriage seat 1 x 103

8 99,2

4 back 8 x 102

40 95

5 seat 1 x 102

8 92,0

6 back 5 x 102

4 92,8

7 Right end of the carriage seat 8 x 102

4 95,0

8 back 8 x 102

4 99,5

Irradiation cycle - 15 min

UV dose -2625-3000 J/m2for seats;

-5750-7475 J/m2for the backs of the seats

1 Left end of the carriage seat 1 x 102

4 96,0

2 back 8 x 102

16 98,0

3 Middle of the carriage seat 1 x 103

24 97,6

4 back 2 x 102

16 92

5 Right end of the carriage seat 8 x 102

32 96

6 back 8 x 101 - 8 x 102

0 100,0

Irradiation cycle –6 min

UV dose - 1 155-1320 J/m2 for seats;

- 1650-2145 J/m2 for the backs of the seats

1 Left end of the carriage seat –8 x 10

22 x 10

2Non disinfected

3 Middle of the carriage seat 5 x 102

2 x 102

Non disinfected

5 Right end of the carriage seat 8 x 102

1 x 103

Non disinfected

Irradiation cycle - 3 min

UV dose - 190-216 J/m2 for seats;

270-350 J/m2 for the backs of the seats

1 Left end of the carriage seat 1 x 102

1 x 102

Non disinfected

2 back 2 x 102

2 x 102

3 Middle of the carriage seat 1 x 102

1 x 102

4 back 2 x 102

2 x 102

5 Right end of the carriage seat 1 x 102

1 x 102

The results confirmed the germicidal effectiveness of the applied UV treatment.

MARCH 2009 | 21

Train interiors are at present regularly exposed to 25minute doses of UV-C. Key benefits of this operation are areduced amount of chemicals used, time and labor costssavings and an improved environment within the metrodepot. Figure 7 shows a few pictures of UV disinfectionsystems in operation at the “Kaluzhskoe” metro depot.

Figure 7. UV disinfection in operation

2.3 DISINFECTION OF ESCALATORHANDRAILSAnother UV system, with again two LIT U-shaped amalgam170W lamps, was developed to disinfect the surfaces ofescalator handrails automatically. (See Figure 8.)

It was established through a series of tests on thesehandrails that it takes an exposure time of only 10 secondsunder two lamps of 170 W to achieve 99 % disinfection.

Figure 8. UVsystem mountedon a handrailreturn stretchat the “Kitai-Gorod” metrostation.

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22 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

3. IMPROVEMENT OF AIR QUALITY Three different principles of UV air treatment have proventheir effect these days.

• Closed, stand-alone devices, recycling the air in occupiedspaces via well-selected types of UV germicidal lampsprovide a simple way to improve the indoor air quality.They dilute the microbial contaminant concentrationand act in principle similar to extra ventilation, in acontrolled and very efficient way. Such units, which mayrange in capacity from 150 till 20.000 m3 per hour, areeasy to install and do not harm people or affect furnitureand surroundings.

• UV segments, incorporated in air ducts, decrease theconcentration of airborne pathogens and protect againstmicrobial pollution via the incoming air inlets. These UVunits are available in the most popular geometrical ductsizes. Typical capacities are between 3.000 and 35.000m3 per hour.

• Air conditioning cooling coils are almost always wet anddusty and thus serve as ideal breeding grounds formoulds. Coil irradiation with UV drastically reduces orprohibits growth of these moulds. At the same time heatexchange efficiency is improved and the pressure dropsdecrease.

The air quality in often heavily populated undergroundrailway stations forms a constant source of concern. TheMoscow Metro is one of the oldest and, with up to 9million passengers per day, one of the most frequently usedunderground train systems in the world. Growing concernsover deteriorating indoor air quality and possible cross-infections via airborne micro-organisms or indirect contactsinduced Moscow authorities to introduce effective andpermanent solutions.

Powerful UV disinfection air re-circulators with a capacity of400 m3/h were developed to be mounted in theunderground premises. These systems allow for UVdisinfection to be carried out with people inside the facility,for a 24/7 operation. Figure 9 shows how a re-circulator oftype AR-UF-170P-2 (with two 170W lamps inside) ismounted in a passenger passage connecting two Moscow metro stations “Paveletskaya-Radial’naya” and“Paveletskaya-Koltsevaya”.

Figure 9. Recirculator AR-UF-170-2 mounted in the passagebetween “Paveletskaya-Radial’naya” and Paveletskaya-Koltsevaya”.

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One re-circulator of type AR-UF-170-2 with a capacity of400 m3/h is used for every 80 m2 of the passages andplatforms. The 1260 square meter passage of the“Paveletskaya” metro station was equipped with 16 ofthese UV re-circulators. The air contamination during peakpassenger hours was reduced on average by a factor 2,5.

4. CONCLUSIONSBy means of both laboratory and field tests, the feasibilityof UV disinfection for the Moscow Metro system wasproven. New generations of UV equipment, fitted witheffective LPHO amalgam lamps, were developed for theoccasion. The microbial air quality was improved.Replacing labor sensitive, hazardous and environmentallyunfriendly disinfection methods, Moscow Metro was gladto embrace the new technology. Introduction of LIT UVsystems will provide an extra and reliable barrier forinfectious diseases in Moscow’s congested public transportsystem.

Key words:UV disinfection; Public transport; Air disinfection; Surfacedisinfection; Amalgam UV lamps

5. REFERENCES1. Kostyuchenko, S.V., Krasnochub, A.V., Kudryavtsev,

N.N. “New Generation of Germicidal Sources for Airand Water Disinfection, based on High OutputAmalgam Lamps”, Svetotechnika 4:15-19 (2004).

2. Vasserman, A.L., Shandala, M.G., Yuzbashev, V.G. “UVIrradiation in Preventing Infectious Deseases”, Medicine208 (2003)

3. Vladimirov, Y.A. “UV Inactivation of Enzymes”, SorovskyObrazovatelny Zhurnal 7(2):20-27 (2001).

24 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

UV/H2O2 Treatment of Drinking Water: Impacts on NOM Characteristics

Siva R. Sarathy and Madjid Mohseni Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering,

2360 East Mall, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada

INTRODUCTION Ultraviolet (UV) based advanced oxidation processes(AOPs) are increasingly being considered as effectivealternatives for the removal of organic compounds in waterand wastewater. In drinking water, the ultraviolet/hydrogenperoxide (UV/H2O2) AOP has already been appliedcommercially for the removal of organic micro-pollutants(Sarathy and Mohseni, 2006) and the number of drinkingwater applications has been steadily increasing since thedawn of the 21st century. UV/H2O2 has been demonstratedto be an effective technology for treating organic micro-pollutants, such as pesticides and taste and odourcompounds, and carrying out primary disinfection.

One of the key parameters affecting the performance ofUV/H2O2 AOP is the presence of natural organic matter(NOM) in source water. NOM scavenges hydroxyl radicalsnecessary for contaminant degradation, absorbs UV thatwould otherwise be available for photolysis of H2O2, andmay undergo changes in structure that could possiblyaffect the water's biological regrowth potential (BRP) andNOM’s potential to form chlorination disinfection by-products (DBPs). Raw surface waters can containsubstantial NOM that serves as a precursor to the DBPs(Oliver and Lawrence, 1979). The main DBPs identified indrinking water have been trihalomethanes (THMs) andhaloacetic acids (HAAs), which are documented toadversely impact human health (Richardson, 1998).

While much research has focused on developingapplications for UV/H2O2, little attempt has been made toevaluate the impact of UV/H2O2 on NOM. Specifically, the

results of hydroxyl radical (•OH) reaction with NOM havenot garnered much attention. This is of particularimportance since NOM plays a critical role in the treatmentand distribution of drinking water, contributing to BRP andthe formation of DBPs. Past studies have demonstrated thatsubstantial reduction of DBP formation potential (DBP-FP)could be achieved using UV/H2O2 (Wang et al., 2000;Kleiser and Frimmel, 2000; Liu et al., 2002; Thomson et al.,2004b; Toor and Mohseni, 2007). But, all these studiesmainly focussed on strong advanced oxidation conditionsmade possible by very long UV exposures (i.e. fluence)and/or high H2O2 concentration. Under such conditionsNOM is mineralised leading to a reduction in theconcentration of NOM. Such operating parameters are noteconomically feasible when scaled up. Little attempt hasbeen made to evaluate the UV/H2O2 impact on NOM underconditions representing large-scale applications, which arenot likely to exceed an operating fluence of 2000 mJ/cm

2

and a H2O2 concentration of 20 mg/L.

EXPERIMENTALSource WaterWater used in all experiments was obtained from theCapilano Reservoir, serving the Greater Vancouver Region,British Columbia, Canada. The damming of the CapilanoRiver, which is fed by fall and winter rain runoff and thespring snowmelt, forms the reservoir. Given the low totalorganic carbon (TOC) and absorbance of 254 nm UV (A254)(Table I) Capilano water (CW) is a surface water of veryhigh quality and presently undergoes no coagulation/

ABSTRACTThe impact of ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2) advanced oxidation process (AOP) on natural organic matter (NOM) wasevaluated. Operating conditions were selected based on those feasible for commercial drinking water applications. Resultsshowed that at fluences less than or equal to 2000 mJ/cm2 and initial H2O2 concentrations less than or equal to 15 mg/L NOMwas not completely mineralized. Yet, UV/H2O2 partially oxidized NOM leading to the breakdown of aromatic structures. UV/H2O2

preferentially reacted with high molecular weight species leading the formation of lower molecular weight species. Formed lowmolecular compounds included aldehydes, which increased by up to 7 times from the concentration present in untreated water.

Key words: UV/H2O2; natural organic matter; advanced oxidation; drinking water treatment

MARCH 2009 | 25

flocculation or filtration prior to chlorine disinfection.However, high turbidity events do occur during which timethe reservoir’s supply is shutdown until turbidity levelsreturn to normal (Table I).

Table I. Physical and chemical parameters for wateroriginating from Capilano Reservoir during 2005. (source:the GreaterVvancouverWater District Quality ControlAnnual Report, 2005)

Parameter Average Range

Alkalinity as CaCO3 (mg/L) 2.7 2.1-3.6

Dissolved organic carbon (mg/L) 2.0 1.6-2.7

Total organic carbon (mg/L) 2.0 1.5-2.9

Hardness as CaCO3 (mg/L) 4.10 3.36-4.85

pH 6.5 6.2-6.9

Turbidity (NTU) 1 0.32-5.9

A254 (cm-1) 0.081 0.055-0.108

UV/H2O2 TreatmentA collimated beam apparatus, consisting of low pressureUV lamp (Trojan Technologies, London, ON) positioned 28cm above a circular stirred reactor chamber was employedfor the batch UV/ H2O2 studies. The reactor chamber was3.2 cm in diameter and the water pathlength was 4.66 cm.Samples were irradiated for calculated durations to achievefive different delivered fluences from 0 to 1400 mJ/cm2.H2O2 (30%, Fisher Scientific) was added initially to thereactor chamber at the concentrations of 0, 5, 10, 15, and20 mg/L. Each treatment condition was carried out induplicate. The entire water sample volume (200 mL) wasused for the various analyses described below. H2O2

containing samples were quenched of H2O2 using 0.2 mg/Lbovine liver catalase (Aldrich Canada) prior to A254, TOC,and high performance size exclusion chromatography(HPSEC) measurements and prior to chlorination.

Analytical MethodsIncident UV irradiance of 254 nm light, across the surfaceof the water (Esurface), was determined by iodide/iodateactinometry (Rahn, 1997) where potassium iodide(Reagent A.C.S., Fisher Scientific) irradiated by UV led tothe formation of triiodide. Potassium iodate (CertifiedA.C.S., Fisher Scientific) acted as an electron scavengerwhile sodium borate (Laboratory grade, Fisher Scientific)buffered the reaction at a pH of 9.25 (Rahn, 1997). Aradiometer (IL1700, sensor SED240 for 254 nm,International Light Inc.) served as a reference. The fluencerate (Eavg) was used to calculate the delivered fluence. Eavgwas defined as the product of Esurface, the reflection factor(RF) equal to 0.975 (Bolton and Linden, 2003), and thewater factor (WF) and the divergence factor (DF). WF andDF are based on the water absorbance, path length, andthe distance between the lamp and water surface

(equations given by Bolton and Linden, 2003).

[1] Eavg = Esurface . Esurface . WF . DF

H2O2 concentration was measured by reaction with iodidecatalyzed by molybdate (Klassen et al., 1994). TOC wasmeasured using a combustion catalytic oxidation/nondispersive infrared sensor TOC analyzer (ShimadzuTOC-VCPH). Absorbance measurements were determinedusing a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-Mini1240) with a cell pathlength of 1 cm.

HPSEC was employed to determine the apparent molecularweight (AMW) distribution of NOM in untreated andtreated waters. Following the method described byPelekani et al. (1999), a Waters 1535 Binary HPLC Pumpfitted with a Waters Protein-PakTM 125 Å column and aWaters 2487 Dual λ Absorbance Detector, set to detectionat 260 nm, served as the instrument for HPSEC analysis.The carrier solvent consisted of 0.02 M phosphate buffer(Laboratory grade, Fisher Scientific), at pH 6.8, adjustedwith sodium chloride (Certified A.C.S, Fisher Scientific) to0.1 M ionic strength and the column flowrate was 0.7mL/min. AMW was correlated to retention time bycalibration with polysulfonate standards (7 kDa PSS7K, 4kDa PSS4K, 2 kDa PSS2K, American Polymer StandardsCorporation) and acetone (Certified A.C.S., FisherScientific) at a concentration of 1 g/L. HPSEC data wereimported into PeakFit which was used for resolution of all

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26 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

HPSEC chromatograms. The resolved peaks were placedinto AMW fractions based on their retention times and thenquantified.

Results and DiscussionCW was treated by UV/ H2O2 at fluences of 0, 500, 1000,1500, and 2000 mJ/cm2 and initial H2O2 concentrationsclose to 0, 5, and 15 mg/L. In the absence of UV, that isonly H2O2, the concentration and structure of NOM wasnot significantly altered (data not shown). Thus, H2O2 itselfhas a minimal impact on the oxidation of NOM. Similarly,in the absence of H2O2, that is only UV irradiation, NOM didnot breakdown by direct photolysis, up to a fluence of2000 mJ/cm2 (data not shown). Research conclusivelyreports that any significant impact of 254 nm UV on NOMbegins to be observed at very high fluences (>4,000mJ/cm2), which are unfeasible for commercial applicationsdue to energy demand (Thomson et al., 2002a; Thomsonet al. 2002b; Parkinson et al., 2003; Buchanan et al., 2004;Thomson et al. 2004a; Thomson et al. 2004b; Buchanan etal., 2005; Buchanan et al., 2006).

Under advanced oxidation conditions, that is acombination of UV and H2O2, significant oxidation of NOMwas observed. However, this oxidation was not completesince there was no observed decrease in TOC, theconcentration of NOM (Figure 1). But, partial oxidation didoccur as a reduction in A254 was observed, indicatingdegradation of aromatic species (Figure 2). Aromaticspecies were further removed as both fluence and initialH2O2 concentration increased. As fluence is increased, •OHcontinue to be generated so aromatic species are degradedfurther as a result of increased exposure to •OH. As initialH2O2 concentration is increased, the steady-state •OHconcentration increases (Sharpless and Linden, 2003) soaromatic species are further degraded as a result ofincreased concentration of •OH.

Figure 1. The impact of fluence and initial H2O2

concentrations of 15 (ο) and 5 (o) mg/L on TOC. Pointsrepresent the average of two samples, each measured threetimes. Error bars represent the standard deviation betweenthe average measurements for two samples.

Figure 2. The impact of fluence and initial H2O2

concentrations of 15 (ο) and 5 (o) mg/L on A254. Pointsrepresent the average of two samples, each measured threetimes. Error bars represent the standard deviation betweenthe average measurements for two samples.

The lack of complete oxidation but clear fragmentation ofaromatic species suggests that larger NOM wasfragmented into smaller species during the UV/H2O2

conditions applied. HPSEC was employed to observe thechange in AMW distribution of aromatic species. Figure 3represents the change in AMW of CW treated over a rangeof fluences at an initial H2O2 concentration of 5 mg/L. Asthe fluence is increased, there is a significant reduction inthe highest AMW fraction, >1450 Da, up to a 57%reduction at a fluence of 2000 mJ/cm2. The next twolargest fractions, 1200-1450 Da and 950-1200, alsoundergo significant reductions but are lower than thereduction seen in the >1450 Da. Moreover, the 950-1200Da fraction is reduced less than the 1200-1450 a fraction.This suggests that, although •OH is reactively non-specific,the reaction rate constant between •OH and chromophoricNOM is dependent on molecular weight (i.e. size).Therefore, larger molecular weight species react morerapidly with •OH resulting in a greater reduction in thesespecies.

While the larger AMW fractions underwent significantreductions, this was accompanied by the formation ofsmaller AMW fractions (Figure 3). The 750-950 Da, 550-750 Da, and the <550 Da all increased in concentrationafter UV/H2O2 treatment. Furthermore, the reduction inhigher AMW fractions and concomitant formation ofsmaller AMW fractions led to a shift in molecular sizedistribution from one with a majority of large species to amore even molecular size distribution.

HPSEC provided the change in molecular weightdistribution of aromatic species since the UV detector onlydetects 254 nm absorbing species. To determine if theobserved increase in low AMW fractions was in fact

MARCH 2009 | 27

increasing the concentration of low molecular weightcompounds, the change in concentration of aldehydes,during UV/H2O2 treatment, was observed (Figure 4).Samples were analysed for 10 different aldehydes but onlythe 4 smallest aldehydes, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde,

butanal, and propanal, were detected. In CW, theconcentration of all four aldehydes is below 25 ppb.Exposure to H2O2 alone did not change the concentrationof aldehydes. In the absence of H2O2, that is only UVirradiation, there was an observed increase in the total

Figure 4. Change in concentration of aldehydes during theUV/H2O2 treatment of CW over a range of fluences and initialH2O2 concentrations. Bars represent the average of twosamples, each measured twice.

Figure 3. Change in AMW fractions during the UV/H2O2

treatment of CW over a range of fluences and an initial H2O2

concentration of 5 mg/L. Bars represent the average of twosamples, each measured once. Data labels indicate percentchange.

28 | IUVA News / Vol. 11 No. 1

concentration of aldehydes up to about 45 ppb at a fluenceof 1350 mJ/cm2. Under advanced oxidation conditions, theconcentration of aldehydes increased dramatically. At aninitial H2O2 concentration of 20 mg/L and a fluence of 1350mJ/cm2, the concentration of aldehydes reached close to175 ppb. Additionally, it was clearly observed that anincrease in either initial H2O2 concentration or fluence wasaccompanied by a greater formation of aldehydes. Notethat, the increase in aldehydes is mainly due to an increasein formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, with propanal andbutanal contributing less so.

CONCLUSIONSThis study investigated the impact of UV/H2O2 advancedoxidation on NOM present in untreated surface water. UVfluences and initial H2O2 concentrations applied were basedon those feasible for commercial drinking waterapplications. Under such conditions:

• Complete oxidation, or mineralisation, of NOM did nottake place as indicated by no observed change in TOC.

• NOM underwent significant partial oxidation asindicated by a reduction in aromatic species.

• •OH preferentially reacted with high AMW speciesleading to the formation of lower AMW species.

• The increase in low AMW species was supported by anobserved increase in aldehydes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors acknowledge Ted Mao, Mihaela Stefan, BillCairns, and Alan Royce for valuable input and discussions,and National Science and Research Council of Canada andTrojan Technologies for financial support.

REFERENCESBolton, J.R. and Linden, K.G. 2003. “Standardization of

methods for fluence (UV Dose) determination in bench-scale UV experiments”, Journal of EnvironmentalEngineering. 129: 209-215.

Buchanan, W., Roddick, F., Porter, N. and Drikas, M. 2004.“Enhanced biodegradability of UV

and VUV pre-treated natural organic matter”, WaterScience and Technology: Water Supply. 4(4): 103-111.

Buchanan, W., Roddick, F., Porter, N. and Drikas, M. 2005.“Fractionation of UV and VUV

pretreated natural organic matter from drinking water”,Environmental Science and Technology. 39(12): 4647-4654.

Buchanan, W., Roddick, F. and Porter, N. 2006. “Formationof hazardous by-products resulting

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from the irradiation of natural organic matter: Comparisonbetween UV and VUV irradiation”, Chemosphere.63(7): 1130-1141.

Kleiser, G. and Frimmel, F.H. 2000. “Removal of precursorsfor disinfection by-products (DBPs) - differencesbetween ozone- and OH-radical-induced oxidation”,Science of the Total Environment. 256: 1-9.

Liu, W., Andrews, S.A., Sharpless, C., Stefan, M., Linden,K.G. and Bolton, J.R. 2002. “Bench-scale investigationsinto comparative evaluation of DBP formation fromdifferent UV/H2O2 technologies”, Proceedings – 2002Water Quality Technology Conference. pages 860-869.

Oliver, B.G. and Lawrence, J. 1979. “Haloforms in drinkingwater: a study of precursors and precursor removal”,Journal of American Water Works Association. 71: 161-163.

Parkinson, A., Roddick, F.A. and Hobday, M.D. 2003. “UVphotooxidation of NOM: issues related to drinkingwater treatment”, Journal of Water Supply: Researchand Technology-AQUA. 52(8): 577-586.

Pelekani, C., Newcombe, G., Snoeyink, V.L., Hepplewhite,C., Assemi, S. and Beckett, R. 1999. “Characterizationof natural organic matter using high performance sizeexclusion chromatography”, Environmental Scienceand Technology. 33: 2807-2813.

Rahn, R.O. 1997. “Potassium iodide as a chemicalactinometer for 254 nm radiation: use of iodate as anelectron scavenger”, Photochemistry andPhotobiology. 66: 450-455.

Richardson, S.D. 1998. The Encyclopaedia ofEnvironmental Analysis and Remiediation Vol. 3 (NewYork, USA: John Wiley & Sons).

Sarathy, S.R. and Mohseni, M. 2006. “An overview of UV-based advanced oxidation processes for drinking watertreatment”, IUVA News. 8: 16-27.

Sharpless, C.M. and Linden, K.G. 2003. “Experimental andmodel comparisons of low- and

medium-pressure Hg lamps for the direct and H2O2assisted UV photodegradation of N-nitrosodimethylamine in simulated drinking water”,Environmental Science and Technology. 37(9): 1933-1940.

Thomson, J., Roddick, F.A. and Drikas, M. 2002a. “UVphotooxidation facilitating biological

treatment for the removal of NOM from drinking water”,Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-AQUA. 51(6): 297-306.

Thomson, J., Roddick, F.A. and Drikas, M. 2002b. “Naturalorganic matter removal by enhanced

photo-oxidation using low pressure mercury vapourlamps”, Water Science and Technology: Water Supply.2(5-6): 435-443.

Thomson, J., Parkinson, A. and Roddick, F.A. 2004a.“Depolymerization of chromophoric natural organicmatter”, Environmental Science and Technology.38(12): 3360-3369.

Thomson, J., Roddick, F.A. and Drikas, M. 2004b. “Vacuumultraviolet irradiation for natural organic matterremoval”, Journal of Water Supply: Research andTechnology-AQUA. 53(4): 193-206

Toor, R. and Mohseni, M. 2007. “UV-H2O2 based AOP andits integration with biological activated carbontreatment for DBP reduction in drinking water”,Chemosphere. 66: 2087-2095.

Wang G.S. and Hong, C. 2000. “Destruction of humic acidin water by UV light-catalyzed oxidation with hydrogenperoxide”, Water Research. 34: 3882-3887.

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32 | IUVA News / Vol. 10 No. 2