Stara Planina

A brief introduction

Sergej Ivanov & Florian Knaus 2015

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Table of content

1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION ....................................................................................................2

1.1 Geographical characteristics .......................................................................................2

1.2 Natural conditions and resources on Stara Planina ..................................................3

1.3 Nature Park and international status listings .............................................................4

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE AGRICULTURAL SITUATION ......................................................4

2.1 The history of agriculture in the area of West Stara Planina Mountain ...................4

2.2 Current farming characteristics ...................................................................................6

2.3 Description of current negative agricultural trends ..................................................6

3 BIODIVERSITY VALUE OF STARA PLANINA .....................................................................7

3.1 Biodiversity overview ...................................................................................................7

3.2 Grassland biodiversity ..................................................................................................8

3.3 Biodiversity of agricultural resources ........................................................................8

3.4 Negative impacts associated with the decline of traditional farming ................... 10

4. OUTLOOK ........................................................................................................................... 10

4.1 Restoration of grasslands ......................................................................................... 11

4.2 General principles and desirable measures ............................................................ 11

5. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 11

6. ANNEX: BIODIVERSITY CHARACTERISTICS OF STARA PLANINA ............................ 12

Mammal species ............................................................................................................... 12

Bird species ...................................................................................................................... 12

Plant associations, plants species and their value for agriculture ............................. 13

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1. General description 1.1 Geographical characteristics Stara Planina (in English „Old Mountain“), in other parts also called Balkan Mountain or simply Balkan, is a tertiary mountain 600km inlength that is situated in Serbia and Bulgaria, with the larger extent being in Bulgaria. The Serbian part of Stara Planina is positioned on the Eastern border with the Republic of Bulgaria, see Figure 1.1. On the Serbian side, it forms a belt that is approximately 100 km long and between 4 and 30 km wide. The Stara Planina region is situated at an altitude of 200 to 2.169 m, the highest peak is called Midzor. The northeast border, which follows the state border, goes by the main reef of Stara Planina, while the Southwest border follows the municipality borders at its utmost part. Stara Planina has a favourable geographic position with regards to the main development centers and traffic corridors of Serbia (E-75 and E-80). It is directly connected to the largest towns of the region, Niš and Sofia, and is within the range of some main border crossing posts “Vrška čuka“ in Zaječar Municipality, and “Gradina” in Dimitrovgrad municipality. The total territory of Stara Planina is about 1,250 km2 of which 1,143km2 are covered by a Nature Park. Forests cover 40% of the territory and agricultural land covers 55% of which 45% are pastures, 28%, arable land and gardens, 24% grasslands, 2% orchards and 1% vineyards. 44% of the overall agricultural land is privately owned. Respectively, 75% of pastures, 22% of grasslands, 15% of arable land and 16% of orchards and vineyards are privately owned. Administratively, Stara Planina belongs to 4 municipalities of Southeast Serbia. From North to South: Zajecar, Knjazevac, Pirot and Dimitrovgrad (see Table 1). Table 1.1: Basic data on the municipalities of Stara Planina teritorry

The biggest town in vicinity is Sofia, the Bulgarian capital, which is 60km away. In Serbia, Niš is the nearest city center, around 50km away. It is unofficially the center of Southeastern Serbia and the third biggest town in terms of population size after Belgrade and Novi Sad in Serbia. Settlements in the territory of Stara Planina are rather small with the following categorisation: up to 50 inhabitants: 22 settlements; from 50 to

Municipality Total

surface in km2

Agricultural land (% of total surface)

Number of villages

Zajecar 1,070 63.7 42 Knjazevac 1,202 58.4 86 Pirot 1,235 56.7 72 Dimitrovgrad 483 60.4 43 Total 3,990 59.5 243

Figure 1.1: Geographical situation of the Stara Planina region

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100 inhabitants: 8 settlements; from 100 to 200 inhabitants: 8 settlements; from 200 to 500 inhabitants: 7 settlements; and more than 500 inhabitants: 1 settlement. The network of regional and local roads connecting municipalities and villages of Stara Planina is mostly of poor quality and is incomplete for the function of connecting settlements, pasture grounds or tourist spots in the area. Limits concerning the road network development are topographical because the terrain is cut by valleys. Other limits include economics due to high expenses for building, reconstructing and maintaining the roads. The road network in the Nature Park mostly has a valley direction, and it is made of 2nd class roads, about 60 km long, and local roads about 150 km long. 60% have asphalt cover, 40% have gravel or soil cover. Road conditions are unsatisfying and generally the roads are in need of reconstruction. 1.2 Natural conditions and resources on Stara Planina The area of Stara Planina Nature Park has characteristics of hill-mountain reliefs, dissected by the rivers Trgoviški Timok, Temštica and Visočica and their tributaries. The climate of the Stara Planina mountain is characterized as a transitional zone between the moderately continental and the mountain climates, influenced from the west by the Vlasina plateau, the Carpathian mountains and the Black sea, from the south by the Mediterranean sea and from the Balkan mountains as a whole. The coldest month is January (maximal average temperatures range from -1.5°C to -7.5°C), while the hottest is July (maximal average temperatures range from 10.4°C to 21.6°C), which is typical for the continental climate of Serbia. The total number of freezing days per year (when the maximal daily temperature does not exceed 0oC) is 100. During the vegetation season, annual precipitation ranges from 300 to 360 mm, comprising 54% to 58% of the total annual precipitation. The snow period is from November to March. Main winds are northwest and southeast. The geological structure of the mountain is is relatively simple, made of two main rock types: the Permian-Triassic red sandstone, the Triassic limestones and dolomites, yet this mountain is a treasury of geological heritage due to the variety of sediments of different age. Soil types differ on the two main geological series, the first one derives from red sandstone and the other from limestones and dolomites. The first soil types are developed on acid siliceous rocks, whereas the second ones develop on alkaline, carbonate rocks. Pedology cover is varying, but dominating are acid brown soils. Dominating soil is of low quality, with complete unsuitableness or very serious use limitations for purposes other than meadows, pastures and forests. Water resources of the Nature Park Stara Planina are mostly preserved and represent water sources which are of national and regional importance for Serbia. Water streams offer a high ecological quality. Specific average flows of Stara Planina rivers are considerably higher than the average for Serbia. Water accumulation “Zavoj” is the most important water object which represents a strategic reserve of highest water quality. Stara Planina is rich in springs and other sources of water. Strong karst springs are: Jelovičko, Dojkinačko i Suvo vrelo, Bigar, Toplik, Suvodolsko, Korenatačko vrelo, the one in Aldinačka River Gorge, etc. A large number of springs are used for water supply for the local population. The hydrological characteristic of the streams is highly unstable, they show extreme differences between average, low and high water levels. Underground water systems are poor, and they appear as springs in different places. Springs on Stara Planina are known for their cold water whose temperature is in summer between 4.6-6.0 °C. From 500 springs with total capacity of 350 l/s, only about 20 of them have bigger flows (1 l/s-10 l/s), and about 10 are powerful carst springs. The quality of the mountain river water is mostly good, because of relatively low effluent load from very dispersed villages with low population density, and because of high capability of self purification of rivers. Stara Planina Natural Park is characterized as a variety of forest, grass and peat communities and relicts of many of them. Five basic forest zone and forest communities can be distinguished: oak, beech and red fir forest, sub alpine belt vegetation and belt of locus. Forests differ in degree of preservation, depending on owner, naturalness, forest area and locality. According to the area and the quality of wood, beech forest (about 75%) and evergreen species (about 11%) dominate. At present the forest ecosystems in the Natural

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Park are exposed to minor anthropogenic influence from indigenous communities, because of the small number of people remaining in the villages. However economical activities in state and private forests are still intensive, and illegal logging represents a problem. The least damaged nature / environment is the one on the high mountain belt of Stara Planina with no settlements and no traffic. In this area disturbance is dominantly caused by natural occurrences and processes, that can potentially be increased by anthropogenic destruction (erosions, landslides, torrents, etc.). However, recently a boom of illigal and later legalized ski infrastrucutre buildings have been realized in former areas of highest Serbian protection status. Together with the natural diversity and its richness on Stara Planina, a precious traditional way of life has been established and is still partly preserved, although lower in intensity than ever in history at this time. Historic agricultural practices in the region have always been based on extensive livestock grazing, fruit growing and and collecting practices in highghlands and crop production in lowlands. Despite the decreasing number of people, agriculture is still a basic activity of local inhabitants and fundamental aspect of their rural economies, which shapes most of specific protected natural values on Stara Planina or is linked to its landscape and species diversity. 1.3 Nature Park and international status listings The area of Stara Planina is protected by the Decree of the Government of the Republic of Serbia after the proposal of the Institute for Nature Protection of Serbia, in 1997. The international IUCN category is V (protected landscape), while in Serbia, the status is “Natural value of exceptional importance”. The region obtained the status for its exceptional geological diversity, morpho-hydrological dissection, as well as the developed and preserved specific diversity of flora and fauna. In international listings, Stara Planina appears in the following, highlighting its international conservation importance:

• Internationally Important Bird species, • Internationally Important Plant Areas, • Prime Butterfly Areas in Europe, • Ramsar Sites, • Emerald list (sites significant for conserving the European ecological network), • Cross-border protected region placed in the European programme Green Belt (IUCN), • Peace Park between Serbia and Bulgaria • ProGEO geological heritage sites under The European Association for the Conservation of the

Geological Heritage.

2. Description of the agricultural situation 2.1 The history of agriculture in the area of West Stara Planina Mountain Stara Planina is characterized by interlaced Bulgarian and Serbian rural culture. The strong influence of the environment and the past times when Balkan nomadic tribes were frequenting this region, made the “Shops” communities more similar to each other than to the communities of their nation outside of the region. People have lived there for ages more or less peaceful; in good ethnic relations and building a specific territory-related way of life. Formerly prosperous, this region was famous for good pastures, sheep cheese and meat, wool carpets / “kilim” (“Pirot” and “Chiprovtzy” carpeting) and pottery. The survival of the people has been dependent on traders taking their products to Dubrovnik Republic (Dalmatian coast) and further overseas and across oceans to remote markets of Egypt, America, and Canada. Perfectly organized systems of primary production, processing and trading, long and high quality experience in organizing co-operatives has provided welfare to the rural population for ages.

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The most critical period for the region came with communism after World War II. Strongly discouraged to hold on with private property-based agriculture, the people were taken out of the rural environment into the local and national industry centers. The state-owned sector subsequently destroyed historic production organization by imposing first a communist model of cooperatives and later large state-owned industrialized farms with the aim of transforming farmers into industrial workers. Most of the state cooperative production models were imported from different environments – geographical, ecological and social. Centralized markets were offering no chance for small private farmers to survive and the region became more and more abandoned. However, the subsidized state agriculture made the agricultural sector work fine: in the sixties, animal products, especially cheese, were exported to the markets of USA, Middle East and Italy. Change in the sowing structure (mainly by an increase of cereal and maize production, introduction of some new crops such as fodder crops, vegetables and to a lesser extent the industrial crops), production of good wheat and maize cultivars, delivery of agricultural machinery, improvement of animal breeds, establishment of farms, cooperatives and dairies, and development of infrastructure, made the whole agricultural sector stable. In the fifties and the sixties of the last century, almost every large village had its own primary school! After the end of the communistic era, and with the final collapse of the heavily-subsidized large state farms, there was no option left for the remaining rural population, depopulation consequently peaked. Although private ownership of the land never disappeared in the villages, most of the productive land is abandoned today. At the beginning of the 21st century, facing the economic hardships during war, the local industry collapsed. Part-time farming and gray market activities became the only way to survive for a part of the village citizens. Absence of any other option in the abandoned villages induced the phenomenon of daily migration from the city back to villages. Afternoon and weekend farming are, nowadays, an important part of the local economy and livelihood, although low in output. The municipality of Dimitrovgrad is on the bottom of the list of average income in Serbia, people earn up to ten times less than the average Serbian. This, in turn, causes rapid depopulation: After a first strong depopulation phase during communism, where rural communities have moved to the city, the city has started to depopulate starting from the 1990ies, with an increasing trend in the last decade (Figure 2.1). These processes lead to the disappearance of traditional agricultural knowledge and stop the effective and efficient management of the natural resources. But, they also influence the ethnic and cultural identity. Maintainance of the traditional wisdom slowly vanishes and it is giving way to the lowland model formerly promoted by the communistic economy. This process was and still is substantially changing the agriculture and therewith the landscape of Stara Planina.

Figure 2.1: Development of number of inhabitants in the municipality of Dimitrovgrad over the last 60 years

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

1948 1953 1961 1971 1981 1991 2002 2011

Urban area

Rural area

Total

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2.2 Current farming characteristics The rotation of cutting meadows with a mosaic of crops is typical for the farming landscape of the valleys of Stara Planina. Although it is partly threatened, farmers will keep for the moment a minimum of land cropped with cereals, maize (for pig feeding) and vegetables. It has always been a tradition in the area of Stara Planina to produce diverse crops even within very small agricultural households. However, the situation is changing so that nowadays only 31% of households continue this practice (only 2.4% of the overall population is engaged in agriculture, whilst only 1.9% generate incomes through agricultural activities). The shared amount of crops and grasslands within a typical agricultural household in the area of Stara Planina mountain is shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Percentages of land use types within the typical agricultural household of Stara Planina mountain

Land-use type Area in ha % Arable land 0.18 15 Gardens 0.02 2 Orchards 0.06 5 Vineyards 0.09 8 Grasslands used for mowing 0.25 21 Pastures 0.48 41 Total 1.18 100

2.3 Description of current negative agricultural trends Migration trends The number of inhabitants living on Stara Planina Mountain has declined dramatically over the last 50 years, from over 30,000 inhabitats in 1948, to merely 1/6, i.e. approximately 5,000 inhabitants in 2002. The population decline brought considerable change in the structure and human potential of households, there is a lack of reproduction combined with excessive emigration of younger people and aging of the remaining population. Decline in livestock numbers The statistical data on the evolution of the number of animals reflects a gradual decrease in the region of Stara Planina in the last few decades with high fluctuations during the second world war and after in the communist state-directed economy; Figure 2.2 shows the trend for one exemplary sub-region. Comparing the year 1975 and 1990, the number of sheep, cattle, poultry and pigs decreased by more than 90%, 86%, 65% and 7%, respectively. Current stock numbers are indicated in Table 2.2.

Figure 2.2. Change in animal numbers for the period 1921-1995 in the region of Gornji Visok

02000400060008000

1000012000140001600018000

1921 1951 1960 1965 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Cattle

Sheep

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Table 2.2: Total number of sheep, goat, cattle and pigs in the part of the Nature Park included in the four municipalities of Dimitrovgrad, Pirot, Knjazevac and Zajecar in 2005 Municipality sheep goat cattle pigs Pirot 6 923 445 1 597 266 Dimitrovgrad 569 170 205 128 Knjaževac 3 178 118 907 674 Zajechar 920 73 309 433 Total Nature Park 11 590 806 3 018 1 501

Changes in livestock breeds In the 1950’s, most of the domestic animals of sheep, goat and cattle were rustic local breeds adapted to the difficult conditions of climate and feeding and adapted to walking great distances. Nowadays, most flocks and herds are including animals from productive foreign breeds or mixed breeds: Wurtemberg breed for sheep and Simmental for cattle. The pure traditional breeds are endangered because of gene introgression. Lack of infrastructure and investments In general, most constraints and limiting factors for the Serbian agricultural sector also concern the target area of Stara Planina. However, some evolution trends were, and still are, even more pronounced, as the South and Southeast part of the country is considered to be the most underdeveloped and the poorest of Serbia. Migration trends, ageing of households, general poverty, abandonment of agricultural land, collapse of agro-enterprises and cooperatives, decline in animal production and related products, insufficient and/or degraded infrastructure, and some other factors including the lack of education and training, jeopardize the agricultural sector of Stara Planina and make any private or foreign investment unprofitable and therefore unlikely. 3 Biodiversity value of Stara Planina

3.1 Biodiversity overview Stara Planina is one of the richest areas in terms of plant diversity in Serbia, with 1,190 plant and 51 moss species, or 34% of the respective nationally identified plant species. Stara Planina is one of the major centres of Tertiary endemic relict plant species that remain in ravines; glacial relics and on the mountain heights. The vegetation of Stara Planina consists of 52 plant communities whose spatial distribution depends on environmental influences, mainly altitude, relief, soil and the climate. The main vegetation formations are forests, shrub vegetation, grasslands (cutting meadows and grazing pastures) and bog plant associations, see details in Annex. The vertical distribution of the vegetation includes the belts of oak forests, beech forests, spruce forests, followed by sub-alpine shrub vegetation of Juniperus nana, bilberry and subalpine spruce and mountain pine communities. Some bog habitats are located in the belts of beech and fir forests. Forests include various species, including elm, European Turkey oak, English oak, beech, aspen, fir, spruce, and some introduced species such as black pine, larch, and false acacia. Forested areas in the Park are divided into areas of natural and planted trees (about 43%), and degraded and devastated areas of secondary forests, bushes and woody shrubs (about 57%). Diversity of fauna determined within the region of Stara Planina includes 116 species of butterflies, 18 species of herpetofauna, 6 amphibian species, 12 species of reptiles, 203 bird species, out of which 154 species are nesting birds, and more than 30 mammal species. Grassland habitats and herbaceous habitats in general host an important part of the reptile, birds and mammals. They are also a strategic habitat for many insect groups like Orthoptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. The assessment of the Stara Planina Mountains biodiversity carried out by different biological

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groups has shown that over 1,500 species, some 210 species are threatened and needed urgent conservation measures. Shooting, poaching, shrinking of the trophic base, construction, destruction, change of habitats, and agricultural practices among others have been identified as causes of the depletion of animal species. As a result, reptiles, mammals, birds and mosses are endangered. 3.2 Grassland biodiversity According to the detailed former study on plant communities and habitats of Stara Planina mountain published by the Serbian Academy of Science, the grassland vegetation is divided into the 5 distinct groups: 1) hilly cutting meadows and grazing pastures, 2) thermophyllous cutting meadows and grazing pastures, 3) mountainous grazing pastures and cutting meadows, 4) sub-alpine grazing pastures and cutting meadows, 5) alpine grazing pastures, and 6) bog vegetation. This classification was primarily made on the basis of grassland position in the vegetation belts. In addition, from the aspect of their forage utilization, all grasslands of Serbia can be grouped in cutting meadows, grasslands used both for hay production and afterwards for grazing, and pastures which are used for grazing only. Within the group of hilly grasslands, two sub-groups were identified, the swamps and mesophyllous cutting meadows on the one hand, and the thermophyllous cutting meadows and grazing pastures on the other hand. Detailed information about the biodiversity value of five distinct groups of grasslands located within the case study region is included for persons interested in plant sociology in Annex. 3.3 Biodiversity of agricultural resources Typical features of the agricultural land structure on Stara Planina are large proportions of pastures (45.2%), and low proportions of other categories of cultivated soil land: special crops and gardens 27.8%, orchards 2%, vineyards 1.5% and meadows 23.5%. See Figure 3.1 for an overview and a comparison with adjacent areas. The most valuable agricultural resources are large, natural swards, which are formed by mountain climate and anthropogenic factors. By spreading in the homogeneous belt of mountain prairie, from Orlov Kamen to Vidliča area, which is 70 km long and 8.5-19 km wide, the pasture zone of Stara Planina is so wide that in the past it has accommodated local nomad animal husbandry during summertime.

Figure 3.1: Structure of Agricultural land within areas of Stara Planina mountain

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As for the agrobiodiversity of domestic animals, it is typical that flock and herd size are very small, which complicates the maintainance of genetically diverse and stable populations. Thus the average size of present flocks is rather modest even if it adds up to a reasonable livestock in total. Flock size ranges typically from 30 to 150 ewes per farm. Cattle are mainly dairy cows (mostly Simmenthal) that have to stay close to the village for providing milk every day to the villagers. The same is true for goats. Typical family herds are two dairy cows and about ten dairy goats, but people usually do not have both types of animals; poorest people raise goats. The trend of sheep keeping is currently to graze them in the surroundings of the farms in the valleys. This is different compared to using them as grazers at the high elevation grasslands in the past. High concentration of flocks close to the rural settlements can sometimes induce overgrazing and soil erosion because of the overstocking on limited available pastures. Animal numbers on Stara Planina are relatively small compared to the total number of animals in the municipality. The data for the municipality of Dimitrovgrad are shown as an example in Table 3.1. Table 3.21: Total numbers of animals in the municipality of Dimitrovgrad and proportion of animals in mountain villages in 2005. LU are livestock units.

cattle sheep goat LU

Total numbers in the 41 villages of the municipality 1 893 3 898 1 824 2 465

Total numbers in the 8 mountain villages of the Park area 205 569 215 283

% in mountain villages 11 15 12 11 Sheep: Several varieties of sheep breeds are being reared on Stara Planina. Pirot improved sheep breed and indigenous Pirot Pramenka are main breeds but these varieties represent just around 10% of the total sheep population in Stara Planina Nature Park. The biggest share in sheep population is going back on a variety of non-controlled crossings, however, the area still holds valuable pool of pure genes. A number of local varieties of Zackel (Pramenka) are also present as Svrljiska Pramenka, Bulgarian Pleven Black Head Sheep, Bardoka Sheep and Karakachan Sheep. The most common sheep breed for the whole region was the autochtonous ‘Pirot pramenka’, a small and movable sheep reaching up to 35 kg of live weight. The annual milk yield of a ‘Pirot pramenka’ sheep was 60-70 litres. Cattle: In cattle breeding, the predominant breed is Simmental and crosses of the Simmental with other breeds. The milk production during lactation is approximately 3,000-3,500 litres with a share of 3.8-4.2% milk fat. A few farmers keep the traditional Busha cattle, which is one of the smallest cattle breeds of Europe. Goats: The three main genotypes of goats that are present in the area are Balkan, Alpes and different non-controled crossings. The average body mass of Balkan goat is 30-40 kg; average milk yield is 100-140 litres; reproduction rate is 1 goat kid per season. Today, the Balkan goat is present only in small numbers, but has value as genetic resource. For the other goat breeds, especially the crossings, the average body mass varies between 30-50 kg; milk yield is at 100-200 litres, while reproduction rate is going up to 1.8. Pig: Until recently, the large white porcine breed and its crosses have been predominantly present in the hilly and mountain regions of the territory of Stara Planina NP. Recent trends in pig breeding have shifted to breeding with local and indigenous breeds such as Mangulitza, Moravka and Resavka breeds, which were created by improving Sumadinka breed with Berkshire and Yorkshire breed. There are even unwanted crosses between wild boars and domestic pig breeds in Stara Planina because of the free range animal keeping. Horse: Horse breeding is quite underdeveloped in the region of Stara Planina, because the tradition was always more inclined to using oxen or donkeys as a working or draught animals. After the wars in the Balkans, population migrations have brought the fresh blood of the Bosnian ponies. This breed is one of the two local horse breeds. The domestic Bosnian pony was often crossed with Arabian breed in Serbia, although this was less obvious in the horse population of Stara Planina.

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3.4 Negative impacts associated with the decline of traditional farming The decline of traditional agricultural practices has resulted in a number of negative ecological impacts:

• Loss of grassland biodiversity: The combination of over- and under-grazing and early mowing has resulted in invasion of many mountain grasslands by junipers and other shrubs and in the loss or decline of a number of economically important species,

• Eutrophicaton in vegetation: There are early signs of eutrophication in peat bogs and bigger water bodies as a result of intensive livestock production and lacking waste water treatment in certain specific places,

• Loss of autochthonous animal breeds: Most of the locally adapted livestock breeds typical for the Stara Planina region are now rare, endangered or threatened by extinction.

In addition to loss of genetic diversity among domestic species, wild species are also negatively affected by over- and under-utilization of grasslands and meadows. This includes wild relatives of crop, forage and medicinal plants and fruits. The diversity of wild fauna is also strongly affected because of the decline of meadows and pastures. Meadow birds and insects (including numerous butterfly species) are being threatened due to the decline of the communities of wild flowering plants which provide nectar and seeds. In addition, many birds of prey (e.g. imperial and golden eagles, vultures) rely heavily on the presence of domestic livestock in high elevation pastures which are mostly inexistant nowadays. Increasing extensive livestock production has been identified as a key tool for reversing biodiversity loss and ecological degradation in mountain meadows in the Stara Planina Nature Park. Maintaining the traditional animal husbandry is viable only by ensuring the economic viability through financial incentives. The Stara Planina region, just as some similar parts of Serbia, is generally not well suited to conventional intensive agriculture but it has a comparative advantage in relation to tourism, niche products and provision of environmental services such as nature conservation and watershed protection. Rural tourism could make an important contribution to the economic viability of rural households, and provide an economic foundation for protecting natural landscapes and biodiversity. 4. Outlook The maintenance and restoration of intact grasslands and the small structured landscape are the overall priority for future agro-environmental measures that aim at linking biodiversity, landscape, and socio-economic factors. Figure 5.1 illustrates the coarse main interrelations.

Figure 5.1: The main interrelations of the agro-environmental system of Stara Planina

Grassland management

Employment

Landscape Biodiversity

Agro-Tourism

High-quality products

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4.1 Restoration of grasslands The restoration of grasslands at high altitudes must be thought of from the beginning because it takes time for the vegetation to recover after management and restoration (e.g. after burning). When the number of animals will increase in future, grazing area will be necessary and it will be important to restore all surfaces. In the near future, the restoration of medium altitude grasslands will be needed. There is a clear lack of grazing areas in June and the beginning of July. If no measures are taken, this shortage of grazing area will become a limiting factor. It is thus necessary to identify new grazing areas in order to complete the grazing circuit at the beginning of the season. 4.2 General principles and desirable measures Stock rearing, high mountain grasslands, traditions and high quality products have no future on Stara Planina unless measures are taken. Grassland abandonment leads to unemployment in mountain villages, biodiversity loss and afforestation. Social life in villages decreases, traditions are lost with the last old farmers, ancient traditional buildings disappear. Hence, agro-environmental measures are need to be congruent with one or both of these objectives: reducing environmental risks associated with modern farming and preserving nature and cultural landscapes. A successful implementation of measures will require an integrative procedure that both considers conservation and development aspects. Without any development, the special values of this region will undoubtedly be lost. 5. References This brief overview is an excerpt from various unpublished works from S. Ivanov supplemented with data from F. Knaus. Given the incoherent use of references in the former works, references have been deliberately forgone.

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6. Annex: Biodiversity characteristics of Stara Planina Mammal species Mole rat (Nannospalax leucodon), dormouse (Mus musculus), wildcat (Felis silvestris), wolf (Canis lupus), jackal (Canis aureus), lynx (Lynx lynx), stone marten (Martes foina), pine marten (Martes zibelina), skunk (Mustela putorius), weasel (Mustela nivalis), badger (Meles meles), ground squirrel (Spermophillus citellus), bear (Usrus arctos), red deer (Cervus elaphus), doe (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa). Bird species 154 nesting species, including some rare or spectacular species: Alpine Swift (Apus melba), Crag Martin (Ptyonoprogne rupestris), Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica), Wallcreeper (Tichodroma muraria), Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes), Eagles (Aquila heliaca, A. chrysaetos, Hieraaetus pennatus and Circaetus gallicus), Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo rufinus), Vultures (Neophron percnopterus and Gyps fulvus, it is to add the latter species is now include in a project of reintroduction), Black Stork (Ciconia nigra), Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo), Scops Owl (Otus scops), Rock Thrush (Monticola saxatilis), Balkan Shore Lark (Eremorphila alpestris balcanica), Black-eared Wheatear (Oenanthe hispanica), Ring Ouzel (Turdus torquatus), Sombre Tit (Parus lugubris), Shrikes (Lanius minor, L. senator and L. collurio), Common Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), Buntings (Emberiza cirlus, E. cia, E. melanocephala and E. hortulana), Warblers (Sylvia nisoria, S. cantillans and Phylloscopus bonelli), Water Pipit (Anthus spinoletta), Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes), Alpine Chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus), Alpine Accentor (Prunella collaris) and Snow Finch (Montifringila nivalis). Among those, about the half (80 species) is strongly dependent on high mountain grassland management, including the following species: Eagles (Aquila heliaca, A. chrysaetos, Hieraaetus pennatus and Circaetus gallicus), Vultures (Neophron percnopterus and Gyps fulvus), Rock Thrush (Monticola saxatilis), Balkan Shore Lark (Eremophila alpestris balcanica), Black-eared Wheatear (Oenanthe hispanica), Shrikes (Lesser Grey Lanius minor, Woodchat L. senator and Red-backed L. collurio), Buntings (Cirl Emberiza cirlus, Rock E. cia, Black-headed E. melanocephala and Ortolan E. hortulana), Water Pipit (Anthus spinoletta), Alpine Chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus), Alpine Accentor (Prunella collaris) and Snow Finch (Montifringila nivalis). Some species are related with grasslands because they need open spaces that they can find in alpine grasslands that cover a very small part of the Stara Planina mountains or in the subalpine belt if a part of this belt is not covered by forest, but by communities managed by grazing activities (Examples: Prunella collaris and Montifringila nivalis). Other species are more closely linked to grasslands and livestock production, they disappear if grasslands are abandoned for a long period (Examples: Neophron percnopterus, Gyps fulvus and Lanius spp.). Aquila heliaca is (about to be) extinct; the campaigns of wolves being poisoned have contributed to depletion of the last individuals. Neophron percnopterus and Gyps fulvus are extremely rare but their populations are expected to grow if the densities of sheep are increasing again in high altitude grasslands. The densities of the populations of Lanius collurio and Streptopelia turtur are particularly impressive in the Arrhenatherion communities of the valleys. Buteo buteo, Falco tinnunculus and Coturnix coturnix are abundant in the valley grasslands. The mosaic of small plots of cereals, mixtures of maïs-beans-Cucurbitaceae and lucerne has a positive effect on many passerine species like Carduelis carduelis, C. cannabina, Emberiza spp. and Fringilla coelebs. They are finding many seeds of arable weeds in this mosaic area of crops and forage plants. Lucerne is certainly also a source of nutritious leaves and arthropods for species like Coturnix coturnix that are nesting in cereals and feeding on lucerne and on other crops of the arable land mosaic. Motacilla spp. are widespread; Motacilla alba is one of the most common species in the villages with Passer domesticus, Sturnus vulgaris and Hirundo rustica; Motacilla flava and M. cinerea are found at distance from human habitats. Lanius collurio and Saxicola rubetra are also abundant in abandoned medium altitude grasslands (Example: Kovacevo) if these grasslands are colonized by shrubs and tall herbaceous plants. Coturnix coturnix can be present in these grasslands if the sward is tall enough to ensure a protection against predators. Buteo buteo, Falco tinnunculus, Corvus corax and Anthus spinoletta are found in all high altitude

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grasslands. Saxicola rubetra is present when tall herbaceous plants are emerging from the short swards of high altitude grasslands. Plant associations, plants species and their value for agriculture The following plant communities are determined within these two sub-groups: in the first sub-group, ass. Phragmitetum communis, ass. Equisetetum palustris, ass. Junco-Caricetum vulpinae and Cynosuro-Agrostidetum albae, in the second sub-group, ass. Andropogono-Danthonietum calycinae, ass. Bromo-Festucetum vallesiacae, ass. Festuco-Agrostidetum vulgaris and ass. Poetum alpinae. The association Phragmitetum communis is fragmentary spread in the hilly area of the Stara Planina mountain, mainly on flooded soils in valleys. The main species are hygrophytes, such as Pragmites communis, Caltha palustris, Iris pseudacorus, Butomus umbellatus, Lythrum salicaria (all belonging to the characteristic group of the community), followed by Mentha aquatica, Carex distans, Myosotis palustris, Scirpus silvaticus and Heleocharis palustris. This association has no forage value and the presence of its characteristics species in hay indicates a low feeding quality. The association Equisetetum palustris occurs in wet habitats near rivers or in depressions of the hilly region of the mountain. This community is poor in species and is dominated by the edificatory species, Equisetum palustre. This community has no forage value. The association Junco-Caricetum vulpinae is limited to relatively small areas, but spreads within wide areas along river courses, mostly on altitude between 400 and 700 m. The most frequent species are: Juncus articulatus, J. effusus, Carex vulpina and Heleocharis palustris. This community has forage value. The cutting meadow community Festuco-Brometum racemosi exhibits a mesophyllous feature and is distributed on alluvium soils near rivers. The characteristic group of the community is made of Festuca pratensis, Bromus racemosus, Apera spica venti, Agropyrum repens, Lotus corniculatus, Trifolium pratense and Moenchia manthica. This community is considered as very productive and its hay has a good feeding quality; it is of great importance for feeding animals during the winter period. The association Cynosuro-Agrostietum albae is spread in valleys. However, some fragments of this community, as a special variant, could be found at some higher altitudes, up to 700 m. It belongs to the group of semi-humid cutting meadows, developed on deeper soils. It is rich in species (about 70), with the greatest significance of Cynosurus cristatus and Agrostis alba, followed by Poa trivialis, Trifolium patens, T. pratense, Leucanthemum vulgare, Anthoxanthum odoratum and Rumex acetosa. The importance of this community is not very high for forage production, since it covers a limited area, but the hay is of a relatively good quality. It is also adapted to grazing. In the hilly region of the Stara Planina mountain, there are several thermophyllous communities of cutting meadows and grazing pastures. These vegetations are spread within the belt of oak and hornbeam forests, mostly on southeast and southwest expositions and on shallow soils. In the former period of overgrazing and/or hay production, human activities lead to the degradation of these communities. Nevertheless, due to migration of inhabitants of Stara Planina and some other negative factors (section 1.2.), many areas covered by thermophyllous grasslands are now either abandoned or insufficiently utilized. The community Andropogono-Danthonietum calycinae was described at altitudes between 450 and 800 m, mostly on south expositions and on shallow soils. The community is poor in species (about 40), with a great importance of Andropogon ischaemum, Danthonia calycina, Thymus serpyllum, Chrysopogon gryllus and Festuca pseudovina. The main quoted site of its distribution was the area around the monastery Sveta Bogorodica. The community was used either as a grazing pasture or as cutting meadow (for hay production). The quality of the community could be improved by some agricultural practices, mainly those preventing water erosion.

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Grazing pastures of the ass. Bromo-Festucetum vallesiacae occur in the range from 700 to 1,000 m altitude. It was considered that this community is one of the most spread in the hilly region of the mountain, mostly on calcareous shallow soils on west and southwest slopes. The main feature of the community is related to the presence of the following species: Festuca vallesiaca, Bromus squarrosus, Thymus balcanus, Filago arvensis, Medicago orbicularis. The total vegetation coverage varies between 50% and 80%, depending on erosion processes, presence of rocks, etc. In the former period of extensive livestock production, it was recommended that these grazing pastures should be managed to prevent impacts of erosion and their further degradation. The most spread community of the hilly region of the mountain is the Festuco-Agrostidetum vulgaris, occurring within the belt of forest communities, such as Querco-Carpinetum serbicum and Quercetum farnetto-cerris serbicum. The community is distributed within the altitude zone of 600 and 900 m. Among the total number of species comprising more than 70 plants, the most important species are: Festuca vallesiaca, Agrostis vulgaris, Sanguisorba officinalis, Filipendula hexapatala, Salvia nemorosa, Trifolium campestre, T. alpestre, Teucrium chamaedrys and Thymus pulegioides. Djordjevic-Milosevic (1996) showed that the floristic composition of the community varies according to local habitat conditions and management; she founded only 40 species, out of the following made the characteristic community group: Festuca vallesiaca subsp. pseudovina, Agrostis vulgaris, Achillea millefolium, Galium verum, Salvia nemorosa, Plantago media, Trifolium alpestre, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Cerastium manticum, Lotus corniculatus, Filipendula hexapetala, Teucrium chamaedrys, Koeleria gracilis, Thymus pulegioides, Knautia arvensis, Rhinanthus minor and Sanguisorba officinalis. It was stated that this cutting meadow community was primarily used for hay production, but due to the lack of management practices and improvement techniques applied during a long period, the community exhibits significant features of degradation and its yield is now not exceeding 20 t fresh matter per hectare, much below its potential value (Misic et al., 1978; Djordjevic-Milosevic, 1996). The association Poetum alpinae is distributed between 800 and 1,000 m altitude. It is used either as a cutting meadow (deep soils) or as a grazing pasture (shallow soils). It is a floristically poor community, made up of about 30 species adapted to dry environment. The characteristic group is formed by Poa alpina, Medicago minima, Achillea millefolium, Sedum atratum, Cirsium afrum, Thymus pulegioides and Micropus erectus, followed by typical xerophytes, such as Allysum campestre and Scleranthus perennis. It was mentioned that some areas covered by the community are degraded due to erosion, particularly on the more extreme slopes. The productivity of the community and its related forage value are considered to be low, despite the fact that Poa alpina is a good forage plant. The second group of grassland vegetation on Stara Planina are spread within the mountain belt of the beech forest. The change in the extension of such mountain grasslands depended on human impacts, especially deforestation. Mountain grasslands are distributed within the altitude of 900 and 1,600 m. The association Agrostidetum vulgaris, which occupies about 30% of all grasslands in Serbia, was used either as cutting meadow or as pasture in the region of Mt. Stara Planina (Djordjevic-Milosevic, 1996). It is mainly spread in a continuous belt between the Rakitska river and the Kaludjerski stream towards the site of Dugo Bilo. In a floristic sense, this community is one of the richest, according to the total number of plant species, exceeding 150. However, the number of species varied among the relevees, ranging from 30 to 80. The characteristic group of the community is made of 23 species, including: Festuca rubra subsp. fallax, Agrostis vulgaris, Genista sagittalis, Thymus glabrescens, Leontodon autumnalis, Achillea millefolium subsp. collina, Ranunculus montanus, Lotus corniculatus, Viscaria vulgaris, Leucanthemum vulgare, Euphrasia stricta, Veratrum album, Rumex acetosella, Trifolium repens, T. pratense, T. alpestre, Luzula campestris, Hieracium cymosum (Misic et al., 1978). The improvement of the quality of the community is related to fertilization and protection against overgrazing (by hay production, for instance). The association Agrostio-Asphodeletum albae has a restricted distribution, but it is a very important community for biodiversity conservation. It is developed in the basin of the Topodolska river. So far, this locality is found to be the only one for the whole territory of Serbia. The community is spread in the range of 1,200 and 1,400 m altitude, within the oak belt, and it occurs on soils varying in depth and moisture. The phytocoenose is primarily characterized by its edificatory species, Asphodelus albus, of typical

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Mediterranean origin. The floristic composition is made up of 115 plant species, of the most frequent, the following can be underlined: Asphodelus albus, Agrostis vulgaris, Festuca vellesiaca subsp. pseudovina, Leopoldia commosa, Geranium sanguineum, Plantago lanceolata, Potentilla argentea, Ferulago silvatica, Galium verum, Rhinanthus major, Centaurea frygia. It has a moderate forage value and should be used for hay production (as a cutting meadow) or for grazing with a controlled stocking rate in order to prevent overgrazing and degradation. It is very important to protect this community with Asphodelus albus because of its very special characteristics, limited distribution and biodiversity significance. The association Brometum erecti is fragmentary distributed mostly on limestone rocks, as a mosaic between areas under Agrostidetum vulgaris and Koelerietum montanae. It is limited to the site of Poljanski rt.. This community hosts about 120 plant species, out of the most abundant are: Bromus erectus, Polygala major, Carex verna, Rhinanthus major, R. minor, Teucrium chamaedrys, Pedicularis heterodonta, Helianthemum nummularium and several Trifolium species, including T. alpestre, T. pratense, T. repens and T. ochroleucum. The ass. Brometum erecti is considered as a typical cutting meadow (hay production) of a relatively good quality, but due to its limited distribution it is not important in terms of utilization. It can also be extensively grazed. Within the zone of the Agrostidetum vulgaris community, the ass. Koelerietum montanae occurs mostly on moderate south-facing slopes, and on shallow calcareous dry soils. The floristic composition of the community is made of about 80 species, more than 30 of which belong to the characteristic group, including Koeleria pyramidata subsp. montana, Festuca vallesiaca subsp. pseudovina, Thymus glabrescens, Rhinanthus major, R. minor, Trifolium repens, T. pratense, Hieracium hoppeanum, Carex verna and Scleranthus perennis. The final succession phase of degradation of the community is the ass. Poeto molinerii-Plantaginetum carinatae. Although this community was utilized as a cutting meadow, it has no significant forage value, because of its limited distribution and low to moderate hay quality. The association Poeto molinerii-Plantaginetum carinatae exhibits a wide vertical distribution, as it is developed from the zone of hilly grasslands (1,250 m altitude) to the sub-alpine belt (up to 1,700 m altitude). This community is linked to dry, hot habitats on shallow soils, occurring mostly on south, sunny slopes. This association was described as the poorest type of grassland, not only because of the total species number, but mainly because its low coverage and sward density characteristics. The typical association includes more than 90 species, whereas the degradation phase comprised about 50. The most abundant and frequent species are: Plantago carinata, Poa molinerii, Scleranthus perennis and Ornithogalum tenuifolium. Although this grassland community was used for grazing, mainly in the spring period, as it is considered as the driest type of grassland on Stara Planina, it has no forage value. Nevertheless, the community is ecologically important, since edificatory species may be treated as pioneer plants able to grow on the driest and poorest soil even on the ‘naked’, rocky places. Sub-alpine grazing pastures and cutting meadows do not make a single continuous complex within the spruce belt, as they alternate with shrubby and semi-shrubby vegetation. The extension of these grassland communities is depending on relief, soil depth and moisture. The ass. Allio-Caricetum laevis belongs to semi-arid grazing pastures. It has a limited distribution on steep slopes, mostly on southwestern expositions. This community includes about 50 species, where Carex laevis, Allium carinatum, Poa violacea, Thymus balcanus, Ornithogalum tenuifolium, Agrostis vulgaris, Plantago carinata, Festuca rubra subsp. fallax and some others have a high physiognomic importance. The community has a low forage importance, it is grazed in early spring. Within the areas occupied mainly by the ass. Nardetum strictae and Poetum violaceae, the ass. Festucetum spadicae (paniculatae) is spread, too, but it occurs on shallower soils and on steeper slopes on southern expositions. The community is found in the range of altitudes, from 1,350 m to 1,800 m. The main sites of the community distribution are Zenski Vrh, Strejnica, Ivankovica, Vrazja glava, and on southern slopes of Midzor. The ass. Festucetum spadiceae is located in dry, warm and sheltered habitats. The edificatory species, Festuca spadicea, is a real indicator of such environmental conditions (characterized by a low Landolt’s ecological index (Landolt, 1977; Kojic et al., 1994) for moisture -2, and high for light -4), providing the physiognomy of the whole community. Beside the edificatory species, the following species belong to

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the characteristic group: Thymus balcanus, Luzula campestris, Luzula luzuloides, Hieracium hoppeanum, Achillea lingulata, Ornithogalum tenuifolium, Polygonum bistorta, Crocus veluchensis, Genista sagittalis, G. depressa, Carex verna, Hypericum maculatum and Silene roemeri subsp. sendtneri. This community has no significant pastoral value, as the edificatory species has a low feeding quality. Nevertheless, sheep graze the spikes of F. spadicea for collecting seeds. The community Nardetum strictae on the Mt. Stara Planina was described for the first time by Grebenscikov (1950). The grasslands of the ass. Nardetum strictae (sensu lato) occupy the largest areas on Stara Planina. In some sites, it is the only vegetation type, but it is often alternating with other grasslands, such as Festucetum spadicae or with shrubby Juniperus nana vegetation. The belt under the ass. Nardetum strictae is bordered with the ass. Agrostidetum vulgaris at lower altitudes and ass. Poetum violaceae at higher altitudes. It is thought that the origin of this community is related to the degradation of any grassland type, mainly due to impacts of overgrazing and lack of agricultural practices. The main sites under ass. Nardetum strictae on Stara Planina are Babin Zub, Zarkova Cuka, Tupanar, Dugo bilo, Popove livade, Belan towards Vrtibog, reaching Bratkova strana, Tri Cuke and Vrazja glava, whereas at Kopren it was replaced by Juniperus nana vegetation. The community is spread at various habitats, including ones of both dry, shallow soils and even on swamps around the bogs (the so called Hygronardetum). The soil is acid to very acid. The floristic composition is made of more than 70 species, the following are included in the characteristic group: Nardus stricta, Thymus balcanus, Luzula campestris, Hieracium hoppeanum, Potentilla ternata (all exhibiting high abundance and coverage), Festuca rubra subsp. fallax, Crocus veluchensis, Antennaria dioica, Luzula luzuloides, Campanula abietina, Ranunculus montanus, Genista depressa and Veratrum album. It is important to mention that this community is spreading by the influence of human activities, including cutting the spruce forests, burning juniper vegetation and bad grazing practices. The forage importance of the community is high because of its extension, but its quality is generally low. The yield is not exceeding 4.5 t of DM per ha (Djordjevic-Milosevic, 1996). The Nardetum pastures were mostly grazed in the early spring. The association Poetum violaceae is a widespread community, directly in contact and at the upper part of the Nardetum grazing pastures. It occupies the belt between 1,600 and 1,850 m altitude, sometimes even at lower (1,300 to 1,400 m) and higher altitudes (up to 2,000 m). The community is developed on moderate slopes, sheltered from the influence of strong winds, and in places characterized by a long period of snow cover. It equally occurs on both shallow and deeper soils. This grazing pasture exhibits a structural homogeneity of vegetation cover, mostly made of Poa violacea, Luzula campestris, L. luzuloides, Festuca duriuscula, Rumex acetosella, Campanula abietina, Verbascum longifolium, Anthoxanthum odoratum and Achillea lingulata. Among the clusters of the edificatory species, Thymus balcanus, Hieracium hoppeanum and Cytisus albus are important, too. This community was considered as very important and of moderately good quality for grazing, due to the features of Poa violacea. However, former overgrazing caused degradation and occurrence of the Nardetum community. Alpine grazing pastures on Stara Planina Mountain are limited to the highest peaks within the belt of Pinus mugho. Among typical grazing pastures, such as Seslerietum coerulantis and Festuco supinae-Agrostidetum rupestris, a community of short shrubs, the Vaccinietum uliginosi was described and added to the group of alpine grazing pastures. The latter community occupied relatively small areas, on sites such as Kopren, Bratkova strana, Zarkova Cuka, Tupanar and Vrazja glava. The community Seslerietum coerulantis is developed above the ass. Poetum violaceae, reaching altitudes higher than 2,000 m, mostly on south expositions on silicate rocks of red sandstones. The community is characterized by the presence of the following typical species: Sesleria coerulans, Hieracium hoppeanum, H. cymosum, Galium verum, Ornithogalum tenuifolium, Anthoxanthum odoratum and Viola dacica, all related to the sub-association typicum. The species characteristic for the other sub-association, the juncetosum trifidi, are Juncus trifidus, Campanula abietina, Luzula spicata, Cerastium alpinum and Agrostis rupestris. The vegetation cover is compact, homogenous and dense; this is mainly due to prevention of grazing, since it is not utilized because of its distribution near the border zone with Bulgaria where grazing and any kind of uses are forbidden. Beside that, the quality of this community is low.

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On the highest peaks of the mountain, the association Festuco supinae-Agrostidetum rupestris was determined. It is a community of a very limited area, located between 1,900 and 1,950 m altitude. In addition to the edificatory species (Festuca supina and Agrostis rupestris), the homogenous physiognomy of the community is related to several characteristic species, including Thymus balcanus, Potentilla ternata, Vaccinium uliginosum, Antennaria dioica, Achillea lingulata, and some other vascular plants and mosses adapted to extremely dry habitats, such as Polytrichum juniperum. The community is out of use for grazing and thus has no forage importance. The bog vegetation of the Stara Planina includes several communities, such as Cardamino-Rumici-Calthetum, Coccineo-Deschampsietum, Deschampsietum subalpinum, Caricetum goodenowii, Carici-Sphagno-Eriophoretum and Scirpetum silvatici. These communities are fragmentarily distributed, isolated and not utilized.

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