Atoms, Radiation, andRadiation Protection

James E. Turner

Third, Completely Revised and Enlarged Edition

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James E. TurnerAtoms, Radiation, andRadiation Protection

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Atoms, Radiation, andRadiation Protection

James E. Turner

Third, Completely Revised and Enlarged Edition

The Author

J.E. Turner127 Windham RoadOak Ridge, TN 37830USA

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To Renate

VII

Contents

Preface to the First Edition XVPreface to the Second Edition XVIIPreface to the Third Edition XIX

1 About Atomic Physics and Radiation 11.1 Classical Physics 11.2 Discovery of X Rays 11.3 Some Important Dates in Atomic and Radiation Physics 31.4 Important Dates in Radiation Protection 81.5 Sources and Levels of Radiation Exposure 111.6 Suggested Reading 12

2 Atomic Structure and Atomic Radiation 152.1 The Atomic Nature of Matter (ca. 1900) 152.2 The Rutherford Nuclear Atom 182.3 Bohrs Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 192.4 Semiclassical Mechanics, 19131925 252.5 Quantum Mechanics 282.6 The Pauli Exclusion Principle 332.7 Atomic Theory of the Periodic System 342.8 Molecules 362.9 Solids and Energy Bands 392.10 Continuous and Characteristic X Rays 402.11 Auger Electrons 452.12 Suggested Reading 472.13 Problems 482.14 Answers 53

3 The Nucleus and Nuclear Radiation 553.1 Nuclear Structure 55

VIII Contents

3.2 Nuclear Binding Energies 583.3 Alpha Decay 623.4 Beta Decay () 653.5 Gamma-Ray Emission 683.6 Internal Conversion 723.7 Orbital Electron Capture 723.8 Positron Decay (+) 753.9 Suggested Reading 793.10 Problems 803.11 Answers 82

4 Radioactive Decay 834.1 Activity 834.2 Exponential Decay 834.3 Specific Activity 884.4 Serial Radioactive Decay 89

Secular Equilibrium (T1 T2) 89General Case 91Transient Equilibrium (T1 T2) 91No Equilibrium (T1 < T2) 93

4.5 Natural Radioactivity 964.6 Radon and Radon Daughters 974.7 Suggested Reading 1024.8 Problems 1034.9 Answers 108

5 Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles with Matter 1095.1 Energy-Loss Mechanisms 1095.2 Maximum Energy Transfer in a Single Collision 1115.3 Single-Collision Energy-Loss Spectra 1135.4 Stopping Power 1155.5 Semiclassical Calculation of Stopping Power 1165.6 The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power 1205.7 Mean Excitation Energies 1215.8 Table for Computation of Stopping Powers 1235.9 Stopping Power of Water for Protons 1255.10 Range 1265.11 Slowing-Down Time 1315.12 Limitations of Bethes Stopping-Power Formula 1325.13 Suggested Reading 1335.14 Problems 1345.15 Answers 137

Contents IX

6 Interaction of Electrons with Matter 1396.1 Energy-Loss Mechanisms 1396.2 Collisional Stopping Power 1396.3 Radiative Stopping Power 1446.4 Radiation Yield 1456.5 Range 1476.6 Slowing-Down Time 1486.7 Examples of Electron Tracks in Water 1506.8 Suggested Reading 1556.9 Problems 1556.10 answers 158

7 Phenomena Associated with Charged-Particle Tracks 1597.1 Delta Rays 1597.2 Restricted Stopping Power 1597.3 Linear Energy Transfer (LET) 1627.4 Specific Ionization 1637.5 Energy Straggling 1647.6 Range Straggling 1677.7 Multiple Coulomb Scattering 1697.8 Suggested Reading 1707.9 Problems 1717.10 Answers 172

8 Interaction of Photons with Matter 1738.1 Interaction Mechanisms 1738.2 Photoelectric Effect 1748.3 EnergyMomentum Requirements for Photon Absorption by an

Electron 1768.4 Compton Effect 1778.5 Pair Production 1858.6 Photonuclear Reactions 1868.7 Attenuation Coefficients 1878.8 Energy-Transfer and Energy-Absorption Coefficients 1928.9 Calculation of Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer 1978.10 Suggested Reading 2018.11 Problems 2018.12 Answers 207

9 Neutrons, Fission, and Criticality 2099.1 Introduction 2099.2 Neutron Sources 209

X Contents

9.3 Classification of Neutrons 2149.4 Interactions with Matter 2159.5 Elastic Scattering 2169.6 NeutronProton Scattering Energy-Loss Spectrum 2199.7 Reactions 2239.8 Energetics of Threshold Reactions 2269.9 Neutron Activation 2289.10 Fission 2309.11 Criticality 2329.12 Suggested Reading 2359.13 Problems 2359.14 Answers 239

10 Methods of Radiation Detection 24110.1 Ionization in Gases 241

Ionization Current 241W Values 243Ionization Pulses 245Gas-Filled Detectors 247

10.2 Ionization in Semiconductors 252Band Theory of Solids 252Semiconductors 255Semiconductor Junctions 259Radiation Measuring Devices 262

10.3 Scintillation 266General 266Organic Scintillators 267Inorganic Scintillators 268

10.4 Photographic Film 27510.5 Thermoluminescence 27910.6 Other Methods 281

Particle Track Registration 281Optically Stimulated Luminescence 282Direct Ion Storage (DIS) 283Radiophotoluminescence 285Chemical Dosimeters 285Calorimetry 286Cerenkov Detectors 286

10.7 Neutron Detection 287Slow Neutrons 287Intermediate and Fast Neutrons 290

10.8 Suggested Reading 29610.9 Problems 29610.10 Answers 301

Contents XI

11 Statistics 30311.1 The Statistical World of Atoms and Radiation 30311.2 Radioactive DisintegrationExponential Decay 30311.3 Radioactive Disintegrationa Bernoulli Process 30411.4 The Binomial Distribution 30711.5 The Poisson Distribution 31111.6 The Normal Distribution 31511.7 Error and Error Propagation 32111.8 Counting Radioactive Samples 322

Gross Count Rates 322Net Count Rates 324Optimum Counting Times 325Counting Short-Lived Samples 326

11.9 Minimum Significant Measured ActivityType-I Errors 32711.10 Minimum Detectable True ActivityType-II Errors 33111.11 Criteria for Radiobioassay, HPS Nl3.30-1996 33511.12 Instrument Response 337

Energy Resolution 337Dead Time 339

11.13 Monte Carlo Simulation of Radiation Transport 34211.14 Suggested Reading 34811.15 Problems 34911.16 Answers 359

12 Radiation Dosimetry 36112.1 Introduction 36112.2 Quantities and Units 362

Exposure 362Absorbed Dose 362Dose Equivalent 363

12.3 Measurement of Exposure 365Free-Air Ionization Chamber 365The Air-Wall Chamber 367

12.4 Measurement of Absorbed Dose 36812.5 Measurement of X- and Gamma-Ray Dose 37012.6 Neutron Dosimetry 37112.7 Dose Measurements for Charged-Particle Beams 37612.8 Determination of LET 37712.9 Dose Calculations 379

Alpha and Low-Energy Beta Emitters Distributed in Tissue 379Charged-Particle Beams 380Point Source of Gamma Rays 381Neutrons 383

12.10 Other Dosimetric Concepts and Quantities 387

XII Contents

Kerma 387Microdosimetry 387Specific Energy 388Lineal Energy 388

12.11 Suggested Reading 38912.12 Problems 39012.13 Answers 398

13 Chemical and Biological Effects of Radiation 39913.1 Time Frame for Radiation Effects 39913.2 Physical and Prechemical Chances in Irradiated Water 39913.3 Chemical Stage 40113.4 Examples of Calculated Charged-Particle Tracks in Water 40213.5 Chemical Yields in Water 40413.6 Biological Effects 40813.7 Sources of Human Dat