james m. ebeling, ph.d. research engineer aquaculture systems technologies, llc michael b. timmons,...

James M. Ebeling, Ph.D. Research Engineer Aquaculture Systems Technologies, LLC Michael B. Timmons, Ph.D. Professor Dept. of Bio. & Environ. Eng. Cornell University

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality H YDROPONICS R AFT NFT R ECIPROCATING

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course H YDROPONICS F LOATING R AFT NFT M EDIA B ED D RIP

Fish Culture Tank Anything that holds water 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Anything that holds water Fish Culture Tank

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Fish Culture Tank Tank

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course ! Fish Culture Tank Tank

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Fish Culture Tank Tank

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Cornell type Dual-Drain Culture Tanks Fish Culture Tank "R ULE OF T HUMB " Dual-Drain Design Dia:Depth = 3:1 to 6:1 15 to 25% through center drain 75 to 85% through sidewall discharge

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality HRT = Hydraulic Retention Time Drain lines vs. Pumped Return Lines Fish Culture Tank "R ULE OF T HUMB " Circulation Fry/Fingerlings 15 to 30 Min HRT Growout 30 to 45 min HRT Broodstock 60 min HRT Purging 1 to 2 Tank exhanges per day Maximum Flow (gpm) Pipe DiaDrain LinePumped Return (inches)(1 to 2 fps)(< 5 fps) 1/215 3/4210 1515 1.51030 22050 345125 475200 6150500

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Weight = function (length) 3 Fish Culture Tank "R ULE OF T HUMB " Weight vs Length CF trout = 400 CF tilapia = 760 CF perch = 490 CF striped bass = 720 TroutTilapiaPerch T base 326550 TU base 281525 T max 728575 Growth = function (Temperature)

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Fish Culture Density Fish Culture Tank "RULE OF THUMB" Fish Culture Density (at harvest) D density Density in kg/m 3 (lbs/ft 3 ) LLength of fish in cm (inches) C density tilapia: 0.24 for L in cm (1.5 for L in inches) trout: 0.32 (2.0) perch: 0.40 (2.5) hybrid striped bass: 0.45 (2.8)

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Swirl separators/ Swirl separators/ Radial Flow Clarifers "R ULE OF T HUMB " Radial FlowDesign Surface-loading rate for the radial-flow settler 4.6 gpm/ft 2 of settling area

Suspended Solids Sludge 75-90% Screen filtration rotating microscreens horizontal screen vertical screen Pressurized bead filters Pressurized sand filters 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Bag filters

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Screen filtration Pressurized bead filters Bubble Washed Bead Filter "R ULE OF T HUMB " Suspended Solids Capture Design Bead Filter 5 to 6 lbs of feed per flush per ft 3 of media Screen Filters see manufacturer recommendations Propeller Washed Bead Filter

Fine & Dissolved Solids Removal Sludge Foam Fractionation Foam Fractionation Protein Skimmers Protein Skimmers 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course "R ULE OF T HUMB " Foam Fractionation Tank Volume treated every 2 to 4 hours

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Suspended Solids Sludge 75-90%

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Solids Disposal Land application Composting GeoTextile Bags By-Product NOT a Waste Stream Aquaponics

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Suspended Solids Sludge 75-90% "R ULE OF T HUMB " Suspended Solids Capture Design Bead Filter 5 to 6 lbs of feed per ft 3 of media

Sludge Land application Composting Aquaponics GeoTextile Bags 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course By-Product NOT a Waste Stream

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Biofiltration / Nitrification Ammonia Oxidizing Bacteria Nitrite Oxidizing Bacteria 2 NH 4 + + OH - + 3 O 2 2 H + + 2 NO 2 - + 4 H 2 O 2 NO 2 + 1 O 2 2 NO 3 - Ammonia Nitrite Nitrite Nitrate 1 KG FEED ABOUT 0.03 KG AMMONIA "R ULE OF T HUMB " Nitrification of 1 g of ammonia-nitrogen Yields 5.93 g of carbon dixoide Consumes 4.57 g of oxygen and 7.14 g alkalinity

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Moving Bed Biofilter Bead Bioclarifiers "R ULE OF T HUMB " MBBR Design 17.14 g TAN/ft 3 /day curler media @ 25 to 30 Deg C 13.26 g TAN/ft 3 /day @ 15 to 20 Deg C 10.14 g TAN/ft 3 /day @ 5 to 10 Deg C 3 to 5 min HRT 50% fill factor max 65% Air flow: 0.125 scfm/ft 3 of reactor About 1 g TAN / m 2 of media per day or ~ 500 to 1000 g per cubic meter per day

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality R ULE OF T HUMB 1 KG FEED ABOUT 1 KG O XYGEN

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Aeration Air/Oxygen Aeration Systems 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course "R ULE OF T HUMB " 1 KG FEED 0.65 TO 1.00 KG OF O 2 Air Stones, Packed Towers Oxygenation Systems Micro-Diffusers, Speece Cones

Disinfection Ultraviolet radiation Ultraviolet radiation 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Ozone Ozone "R ULE OF T HUMB " UV 30 mW-sec/cm 2 10-30 second contact times

Continuous DO DO Level Level Flow Flow Temperature Temperature Air pressure Air pressure Periodically pH pH NH 3 NH 3 NO 2 NO 2 NO 3 NO 3 CO 2 CO 2 Alkalinity Alkalinity Phone Dialer Monitoring & System Control It takes only one mistake to KILL EVERYTHING IN YOU FACILITY!!!! 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course The most sophisticated monitoring and alarm system is an attentive human operator!

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Alarm Low Water Level Low Water Level High Water Level Local audible alarms for Low and High Water Level M ONITORING & S YSTEM C ONTROL Water Level

Loss of Oxygen More fish are probably lost in recirculation systems due to lack of oxygen than to any other single cause! (actually, draining the tank unintentionally is the number one reason) A three tier emergency oxygen supply is not an extravagance (Just ask NASA!) 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality normally open, electrically operated solenoid valve

Sensaphone WEB600 Based Monitoring System Sensor Inputs: 6 Universal Inputs Normally Closed/Normally Open Dry Contacts 2.8 and 10K Thermistors for Temperature 4-20 mA Current Loop for external sensors, pH, EC, DO Alarm Notification Methods: E-mail, text messages Web page Eight alarm levels, 8 programmable user profiles Data Logging: 32,000 samples (date and time stamped) from every second to monthly Monitoring & System Control

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Monitoring & System Control

BioSecurity 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course

Water Quality Lab Water Quality Lab Storage - Feed, Chemicals, Product Storage - Feed, Chemicals, Product Equipment Storage Equipment Storage Staff Support Staff Support Back-up Generator Back-up Generator Quarantine Area Quarantine Area Waste Disposal Waste Disposal 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Unless Youre a Fish, You Cant Tell By Sticking Your Fin in the Water! You Cant Tell By Sticking Your Fin in the Water! Critical Parameters dissolved oxygen dissolved oxygen temperature temperature pH pH un-ionized ammonia un-ionized ammonia nitrite nitrite nitrate nitrate carbon dioxide carbon dioxide alkalinity alkalinity solids solids 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

CO 2 and dissolved oxygen concentrations CO 2 and dissolved oxygen concentrations pH versus ammonia-nitrogen concentration pH versus ammonia-nitrogen concentration Temperature and growth rate and health Temperature and growth rate and health 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Too much is definitely better than too little! Amount of water needed will depend on: species species density density management practices management practices production technology production technology degree of risk one is willing to accept degree of risk one is willing to accept Rule of Thumb 100% water exchange of total system volume per day (good operators will do 3 to 20% per day) 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Groundwater Groundwater Surface Water Surface Water Municipal Water Supplies Municipal Water Supplies 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Advantages: Constant Temperature Constant Temperature Disadvantages: Dissolved H 2 S and CO 2 Dissolved H 2 S and CO 2 Low Dissolved Oxygen Low Dissolved Oxygen Supersaturation Supersaturation High Iron Concentration High Iron Concentration

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Advantages: Available?? Available?? None None Disadvantages: High / Low Temperatures High / Low Temperatures Disease!!!! Disease!!!! Pollution! Pollution! Too Many! Too Many!

Designed and treated to safeguard the health of humans, not fish! Disadvantage Chlorine Chlorine Chloramines Chloramines Fluorine Fluorine Cost Cost Advantages Availability Availability Reliability Reliability 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Parameter Concentration (mg/L) Alkalinity (as CaCO 3 ) 50-300 50-300 Ammonia (NH 3 -N unionized) < 0.0125 (Salmonids) < 0.0125 (Salmonids) Ammonia (TAN) Cool-water fish < 1.0 < 1.0 Ammonia (TAN) Warm-water fish < 3.0 < 3.0 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) Tolerant Species (tilapia) Tolerant Species (tilapia) < 60 < 60 Sensitive Species (salmonids) Sensitive Species (salmonids) < 20 < 20 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Parameter Concentration (mg/L) Hardness, Total (as CaCO 3 ) > 100 > 100 Iron (Fe) < 0.15 < 0.15 Nitrogen (N 2 ) < 108% total gas pressure < 108% total gas pressure < 103 % as nitrogen gas < 103 % as nitrogen gas Nitrite (NO 2 -N) < 1 (0.1 in soft water ) < 1 (0.1 in soft water ) Nitrate (NO 3 -N) 0 - 400 or higher 0 - 400 or higher 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Parameter Concentration (mg/L) Oxygen Dissolved (DO) > 5 > 90 mm Hg partial pressure Ozone (O 3 ) < 0.005 pH 6.5 - 8.5 6.5 - 8.5 Salinity < 0.5 to 1 ppt (Osmotic Regulation) < 0.5 to 1 ppt (Osmotic Regulation) Total dissolved solids (TDS) < 400 < 400 Total suspended solids (TSS) < 40 < 40 Total Gas Pressure < 103 % (death at ~ 108%) 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved Oxygen Temperature Temperature Ammonia/Nitrite/Nitrate Ammonia/Nitrite/Nitrate pH pH Alkalinity/Hardness Alkalinity/Hardness Salinity Salinity Carbon Dioxide Carbon Dioxide Solids Solids Critical Parameters Important Parameters 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Equilibrium Reaction - Ammonia NH 4 + + OH - NH 3 + H 2 O Note: NH 4 + -N + NH 3 -N TAN NH 4 - -N Ammonia - nitrogen Increase in pH Increase in temperature 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Toxic! Non-Toxic!

Percent unionized Ammonia-nitrogen pH pH Temp.6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.0 10C -0.10.20.61.815.7 10C -0.10.20.61.815.7 15C -0.10.30.92.721.5 15C -0.10.30.92.721.5 20C -0.10.41.23.828.4 20C -0.10.41.23.828.4 25C0.10.20.61.85.436.3 25C0.10.20.61.85.436.3 30C0.10.30.82.57.544.6 30C0.10.30.82.57.544.6 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Equilibrium Reaction Nitrite NO 2 - + H 2 O HNO 2 + OH - Note: NO 2 - -N Nitrite - nitrogen (mitigated by adding salt (chlorides) Decrease in pH 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Equilibrium Reaction Nitrate NO 3 -N Note: NO 3 - -N Nitrate - nitrogen Non-toxic (freshwater systems) Can be Problem in saltwater systems 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

pH value expresses the intensity of the acidic or basic characteristic of water. Seawater: 8.0- 8.5 Seawater: 8.0- 8.5 Freshwater: 6.5 9.0 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality Hydroponic systems like pH ~ 5.8 a challenge for Aquaponics !

Alkalinity (50 -150 mg/l as Ca CO 3 ) FormulaCommon Name Equivalent Weight NaOHsodium hydroxide40 Na 2 CO 3 sodium carbonate53 NaHCO 3 sodium bicarbonate83 CaCO 3 Calcium Carbonate50 CaOslaked lime28 Ca(OH) 2 hydrated lime37 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

The relationship between pH, alkalinity, and CO 2 concentrations. Alkalinity 100 mg/L 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

soft (0-75 mg/L moderately hard (75 150 mg/L) hard (150-300 mg/L) very hard (> 300 mg/L) Classified as: Recommended range: 20 to 300 mg/L CaCO 3 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Exposure to high carbon dioxide concentrations reduces respiration efficiency reduces respiration efficiency and decreases the tolerance and decreases the tolerance to low dissolved oxygen concentrations. to low dissolved oxygen concentrations. Carbon dioxide is a highly soluble in water. Carbon dioxide is a highly soluble in water. Concentration in pure water: 0.54 mg/L at 20 C. Concentration in pure water: 0.54 mg/L at 20 C. Groundwater concentrations range from 0-100 mg/L. Groundwater concentrations range from 0-100 mg/L. 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Three categories: settleable settleable suspended suspended fine or dissolved solids fine or dissolved solids upper limit: 25 mg TSS/L upper limit: 25 mg TSS/L normal operation (species dependent) normal operation (species dependent) 10 mg/L for cold water species 10 mg/L for cold water species 20 30 mg/L for warm water species 20 30 mg/L for warm water species Rule of Thumb Solids produced by fish : 0.25 to 0.4 kg TSS for every 1 kg of feed fed 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Osmoregulation Rule of Thumb To reduce stress and reduce energy required for osmoregulation, freshwater aquaculture systems are maintained at 2-3 ppt salinity. Usually reported as parts per thousand, ppt. 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Winkler Titration DO Meters polarographic - galvanic - optical 2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality

Dr. James M. Ebeling 18 years Cornell University Short Course HBOI Short Course Dr. Michael B. Timmons Cornell University Professor

2015 Engineering Design & Water Quality For copy of presentation: [email protected]

THE FISH! Unit Operation (Treatment Process) INOUT Closed Environmental Life Support System for Fish and Plants Support System for Fish and Plants James M. Ebeling, Ph.D. Research Engineer Tucson. AZ Michael B. Timmons Ph.D. J.Thomas Clark Professor of Entrepreneurship & Personal Enterprise Cornell University

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course H YDROPONICS R AFT NFT R ECIPROCATING

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Advantages of Aquaponics with RAS systems Dissolved nutrients recovered by plants Minmizes water exchange rate Secondary crop improves profitability Disadvantages of Aquaponics with RAS systems Large ratio of plants area to fish rearing area New set of skills Green Thumb Limits treatment options for both plants and fish

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Water Based Culture: Floating Hydroponic TechniqueFloating Hydroponic Technique (Raft Culture, Deep water Culture) Nutrient Film Technique (NFT )Nutrient Film Technique (NFT ) Media Based Culture: Reciprocating SystemsReciprocating Systems (Ebb & Flow, Flood & Drain)(Ebb & Flow, Flood & Drain) Dutch BucketDutch Bucket Drip System Rockwool SlabsDrip System Rockwool Slabs Air Based Culture: AeroponicsAeroponics Vertical GardensVertical Gardens

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Hydroponics Raft System Nelson & Pade, Inc. Friendly Farm Hawaii. Lettuce Factory, Ithaca, NY Tanque Verde High School

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Raft System Deep water Advantages Significant buffering due to large volume of water Well adapted for the production of short stature crops pH and EC maintained at constant levels Temperature of root zone optimized Dissolved oxygen maintined with airstones Ease of handling/harvesting Maximized greenhouse floor space Disadvantages Limited to crops like lettuce/basal/herbs Plants low to ground

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course NFT System Advantages Low capital start-up costs Ease of handling/harvesting Maximized greenhouse floor space Plants are typically at waist level Disadvantages Limited buffering due to small volume of water Difficult to control root temperature Disruption in water flow leads quickly to dehydration and wilting

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Hydroponics NFT System Nelson & Pade, Inc. E&T Farms Aquaponics. Aquaculture Systems Tech., LLC Continental Organics

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Reciprocating System (flood and drain or just flood!) To ensure adequate aeration of plant roots, gravel beds are operated in a reciprocating (ebb and flow) mode, where the beds are alternately flooded and drained or just flooded.

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Reciprocating System (flood and drain) Advantages Lowest capital start-up costs Ease of handling/harvesting Grow a wide variety of crops Maximized greenhouse floor space Media beds at waist level!!!! Disadvantages Media is or can be very heavy & expensive Disruption in water flow leads to dehydration and wilting. although not a problem in flooded systems

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Dutch Bucket System (bato buckets) Dutch Bucket is basically a 2.5 to 3 gallon bucket with a special drain fitting that maintains a small reserve of nutrient at the bottom as a precautionary measure.

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Drip System Rockwool Slabs These cucumbers are being grown in a slab- drip-irrigation system. The nutrient solution is delivered via drip irrigation lines.

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Aeroponics In an aeroponics environment the plants grow with the roots suspended in a misted solution of nutrients.

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Vertical Gardens Tower Gardens In an aeroponics environment the plants grow with the roots suspended in a misted solution of nutrients.

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Perfect Medium Holds a even ratio of air to waterHolds a even ratio of air to water Helps to buffer pH changes with timeHelps to buffer pH changes with time Is easily flushed and re-wets easily after being dehydratedIs easily flushed and re-wets easily after being dehydrated Is reusable or biodegradableIs reusable or biodegradable Is inexpensive and easy to obtainIs inexpensive and easy to obtain Lightweight and easy to work with.Lightweight and easy to work with. Sometimes the Perfect Medium is NO medium

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Commonly Used Mediums: Coconut Coir Lightweight Expanded Clay Pellets Clay Pellets Rockwool Common Pea Gravel Perlite Coco Peat

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Hydroponics Raft System Raft System: channel (raceway) with a 1 ft depth, usually 4 to 8 ft wide covered by a floating sheet of polystyrene ( 4 ft x 8 ft x 1 to 1 inches) for plant support. Design Crieria: daily feed input/plant growing area (Hydroponics makes up 75% of the system water volume) "R ULE OF T HUMB ???" 30 to 60 g of fish feed/day m 2 of raft area 60 to 90 min water turnover rate Aeration airstones or diffusers

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Hydroponics NFT System NFT System: shallow flow of water, 1 lpm with 1% slope Design Crieria: daily feed input/plant growing area (Hydroponics makes up small fraction of the system water volume) "R ULE OF T HUMB " Waste Treatment 15-40 g of fish feed/day m 2 of trough area 1 lpm for rate per 10 ft tray x ~ 4 inch width 1% slope

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Hydroponics Reciprocating System (flood and drain) Volume ratio of 1 ft 3 of fish-rearing to 2 ft 3 of media Design Crieria: daily feed media volume (Hydroponics makes up small fraction of the system water volume) "R ULE OF T HUMB " Waste Treatment 1 ft 3 of fish fish rearing volume to 2 ft 3 of media (1/4 to inch in diameter)

Production = Consumption + Accumulation 2014 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Design Crieria: daily feed input / plant growing area? Golden Rule of Engineering Mass Balance Nutrients from Fish Plant Growth Excess or Deficit in Nutrients

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course

pH Control Calcium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide (Never Baking Soda) 2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Macro-nutrients (5 to 10% of dry matter) nitrogen (N): 22% phosphorus (P): 6% potassium (K): 29% calcium (Ca): 21% magnesium (Mg): 6% sulfur (S): 11% Micro-nutrients (less than 1% dry weight) chlorine (Cl) iron (Fe) manganese (Mn) boron (B) zinc (Zn) copper (Cu) molybdenum (Mo) Free Macronutrients (90 to 95% dry weight) carbon (C): 30 to 50% oxygen (O): 30 TO 48% hydrogen (H): 6%

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course High pH: Decreases the availability of Iron, Manganese, Boron, Copper, Zinc and Phosphorous Low pH: Decreases the availability of Potassium, Sulphur, Calcium, Magnesium and Phosphorous

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Compromise of Aquaculture and Hydroponics pH: 6.5 to 7.0 Raise pH Calcium Hydroxide or Potassium HydroxideRaise pH Calcium Hydroxide or Potassium Hydroxide Lower pH nitric, phosphoric or acetic acidLower pH nitric, phosphoric or acetic acid Temperature: 21 to 23 C ( 70 to 74 F) Tilapia usually: 25 to 28 C ( 78 to 84 F)Tilapia usually: 25 to 28 C ( 78 to 84 F) Plants over 23 C ( 75 F) slow growth & susceptible to funus and phthiumPlants over 23 C ( 75 F) slow growth & susceptible to funus and phthium

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Compromise of Aquaculture and Hydroponics Ammonia: < 3.0 Species dependentSpecies dependent High ammonia concentrations toxic to both plants and fishHigh ammonia concentrations toxic to both plants and fish Dissolved Oxygen: 80% saturation Tilapia: > 3.0 mg/LTilapia: > 3.0 mg/L Plants just as important!!Plants just as important!! Alkalinity: ~ 15 to 30 mg/L as (lowly buffered) CaCO 3 Low levels of CO2 compared to a fish systemLow levels of CO2 compared to a fish system Never use Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda), high sodium levelsNever use Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda), high sodium levels

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Compromise of Aquaculture and Hydroponics Electrical Conductivity: lower than hydroponics systems Hydroponics: 1500-1800Hydroponics: 1500-1800 (S m 1 ) Aquaponics: 300 to 800Aquaponics: 300 to 800 (S m 1 ) Continuous generation of nutrients Organic nature of nutrients results in a lower concentration of salts Common Deficiencies: Potassium potasium hydroxidePotassium potasium hydroxide Calcium calcium hydroxideCalcium calcium hydroxide Iron chelated ironIron chelated iron

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Construction Team: Alison Burton, Isaac Hung, Aaron Tirado Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering University of Arizona Greenhouse Design

2015 Greenhouse Crop Production & Engineering Design Short Course Dr. James M. Ebeling Dr. Michael B. Timmons Cornell University Professor 21 years Cornell University Short Course June 23-25, 2015. Newburgh, New York

james m. ebeling, ph.d. research engineer aquaculture systems technologies, llc michael b. timmons,...

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