jansson. k. nord 2000:13. in weidema, i.r. (ed ... bullitin/envis bulletin (vol. 24... · have any...

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author thanks Dr. P.P. Dhyani, Director

GBPNIHESD and Dr. L.M.S. Palni, Former Director

for facilities and encouragement. We also thank Dr.

R.S. Rawal, Head, BCM/ES/CC Thematic groups for

the support and help. Financial support from

Department of Science and Technology (DST-

INSPIRE IF131069) , India is grateful ly

acknowledged.

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Introduced Species in the Nordic Countries.

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Sharma RK, Dhyani PP. 2012. Impact of

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Himalaya, Bishan Singh & Mahendra Pal Singh

Publication, Dehradun, India, 39.

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North-Western Catchmem of river Gola, Ph.D.

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Flora of India. An Introduction, BSI

Publication, Kolkata, India, 411.

Singh SP, Singh Vishal, Skutsch Margaret. 2010.

Rapid warming in the Himalayas: Ecosystem

responses and development options. Climate

and development, 2: 221-232.

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biology. Biological Conservation, 78: 3-9.

Williamson M. 1996. Biological invasions.

Chapman and Hall, London.

PDF processed with CutePDF evaluation editionPDF processed with CutePDF evaluation edition

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, THEIR IMPACT ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND IMPLICATIONS ON HIMALAYAN MOUNTAIN SOCIETY

J. C. Kuniyal*

Scientist-E & Theme Head: Environmental Assessment and Management (EAM), G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Himachal Unit, Mohal-Kullu, India

*For Correspondence: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

Any of the commodities after use, when considered

valueless, are defined as ‘solid wastes’. It is a common

ABSTRACT

The present study on environmental pollutions, their impact on climate change and overall implications on a

society include the study carried out on visible as well as invisible pollutions, their combined impact on climate

change and their overall implications on a society. In a common individual’s language, the visible pollutions

include- solid waste pollution, while invisible includes ambient air pollution (in terms of particulate as well as

gaseous pollutants) and columnar aerosol. Aerosol includes mainly columnar which is observed in terms of

Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD). AOD is unit less, dimensionless and hence is mostly remains within 0 to 1 value

from 2006 to 2013 over Mohal (31.9°N, 77.12°E, 1154 m amsl). These all forms of pollutions, directly or

indirectly, affect positively temperature rise. After carrying out the thirteen case studies, it is found that the

biodegradable waste (BW) dominates in the hill towns as well as hill spots. While the non-biodegradable waste

(NBW) dominates on the trekking and expedition locations. Under the waste to energy initiatives, the majority

of the wastes belong to the areas of the majority of living populations. There is much possibility to go for

biocomposting as ‘recycling’ is one of the four ‘R’s principles’ of waste management. While other categories

and compositions of waste could be possible to manage after applying different sustainable options such as

‘refuse’, ‘reduce’ and ‘reuse’. Similarly, the daily average (mean ± standard deviation) AOD at 500 nm at

Mohal-Kullu, Himachal Pradesh, Ångström exponent and turbidity coefficient show 0.28 ± 0.1, 1.02 ± 0.4 and

0.16 ± 0.1, respectively. AOD from 2006-2013 at 500 nm has been found to be increasing at the rate of 0.02 per

annum due to increase in the anthropogenic activities and resultant environmental pollutions. Quoting an

example from an extreme condition of 22 March 2012 in the present study region, there was found a signi?cant

reduction in surface-reaching solar irradiance as high as 95 Wm-2 translating an atmosphere heating rate by 2.01

K day–1. Such temperature rise incidents disturb the radiative balance as well as radiative forcing and affect

positively the temperature rise and its associated farming and other activities. For example, one of the best

example of implications of such event over a society due to temperature rise may be quoted from the farmers of

the Kullu valley where these have now developed resilience and adopted vegetable cash farming in place of

apple orchard as its farming is continuously shifting to higher altitudes and latitudes due to rise in minimum and

maximum temperature rise. Keywords: Environmental pollutions, Solid waste, Ambient air quality, Aerosol optical depth, Radiative

forcing, Temperature rise, Biocomposting, Resilience and adaptation, North-Western Himalaya.

practice that after using any of the commodities,

individuals never pay any attention whether it might

133ENVIS Bulletin Himalayan Ecology, Vol 24, 2016ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology

have any further potential to reuse or to recycle. It is,

however, rare on the part of the users who think in an

eco-friendly way in their routine. The discarding

habits in our daily routine life cause godowns of

garbage in any of the area where human habitation

exists. Every year we individuals are creating

equivalent to a volume of Mt. Everest of garbage on

our Earth whose base is considered to be 2 km in

diameter. This human induced pollution from low to

high altitude in context to the Indian Himalayan

Region (IHR) is again a special case where this

alarming environmental problem might prevail either

in urban towns, hill spots, or trekking regions

(Kuniyal and Jain 1998; Kuniyal and Jain 1999;

Kuniyal and Jain 2000-2001; Kuniyal et al. 2003 ) or

in expedition tops (Kuniyal, 2002). Today, no region

is escaped from this continuously growing hazardous

pollution (Kuniyal 2005 a & b). When this waste

problem reaches beyond its carrying capacity in a

particular geographic area, solid wastes cause

degeneration of forests, deterioration of land,

pollution of water and air, etc. (Kuniyal et al. 2004).

As a result, as a combined impact of all these reasons,

our crop productivity, by both quantitatively and

qualitatively, declines continuously (Kuniyal 1996;

Kuniyal 2003; Kuniyal et al. 2004; Rawat et al. 2004;

Singh et al. 2004; Oinam et al. 2005). One of the most

peculiar adverse impacts of indiscriminately

throwing and dumped solid waste in any of the area

results in relatively higher emissions into the

atmosphere. There are several hazardous gases

including green house gases (GHGs) mainly methane

(CH4) which are emitted from the dumps of the

unattended heap of wastes of the towns, hill spots, and

trekking cum expedition locations. During strong

sunshine, this emission problem from open dumps of

wastes aggravates in a locality. This process helps a

rise in local temperature and affects adversely the

growth of delicate crops like vegetables and others

under the hill farming system. Further, horticultural

plants or any other vegetation type may also shift

towards higher altitudes. It’s one of the best examples

is the apple crop in the Kullu valley in Himachal

Pradesh which is continuously shifting to higher

locations. ‘Ambient air quality’ refers to any of the

forms of particulate or gaseous pollution surrounding

the immediate habitation of living organisms

representing or at the most up to the lower

troposphere. The particulate pollutants could be total

suspended particulate (TSP) matter (< 100 µ),

particulate matter below 10 µ (PM10) or particulate

matter below 2.5 µ (PM2.5) or below than ultrafine

(0.1 to 0.001 µ) or nano-particles (<100 nm). While

the gaseous pollutants might be trace gases such as

sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) or

secondarily produced gases such as surface ozone

(O3, also one of the green house gases (GHGs)) or

other GHGs in the atmosphere. ‘Aerosol’ or

‘Columnar Aerosol’, representing the earth’s surface

from troposphere up to the upper limit of the

exosphere in atmosphere, is a colloidal system of

particulate (Kuniyal et al. 2005), gaseous (Kuniyal et

al. 2007) and liquid pollutants which remain under

suspension in the atmosphere (Gajananda et al. 2005;

Kuniyal et al. 2009). It is a unit less, dimensionless

and measures solar irradiance on the Earth’s surface

coming out of scattering and absorption from the

atmosphere and therefore technically is termed as

aerosol optical depth (AOD). With the ever

increasing population and resultant activities for their

economic gains or any livelihood options in many

forms result in a lot of emissions within the Earth’s

atmosphere. This atmospheric phenomenon due to

anthropogenic interferences in particular and natural

interventions, in general, interrupt the radiation

budget (IPCC, 2007; Beegum et al. 2008) and cause

the Earth’s temperature cool but atmosphere’s

temperature warm. This phenomenon fluctuates day-

to-day temperature with great magnitudes from

winter to summer. Under these conditions, our

farming systems including vegetable crops also get

adversely affected largely and sometimes do not

follow the general classification of their own

agroclimatic zones. The climate change is such a

phenomenon that has been under burning topics

(Negi et al. 2012) in the IHR. The different economic

sectors including crop or horticulture farming system

are likely to be adversely affected in future. So the

prime challenge in the way of researchers and policy

makers is how to tackle this climate change

phenomenon. Before understanding all these issues,

the first problem is to understand the temperature rise,

how it is going to rise and what could be its solutions

to cope up with the present day farming system in the

mountain perspective. So keeping in mind the over-

mentioned issues, the two important forms of

pollutions; one visible (solid waste) and other

invisible (air pollution) are important to

understanding with their status and their combined

impact on local temperature rise and radiative forcing

and their implications on a mountain society mainly

in their farming system such as apple cultivation. Experimental sites

The Himalayan states, topographically and

ecologically, are important among other states of the

country. The study of the solid waste problem,

generation, and its management options were carried

out in fourteen case studies representing hill towns,

tourist spots and trekking region from Himachal

Pradesh, while one trekking and one expedition

location from Uttarakhand state. Out of fourteen case

studies representing the different Himalayan ranges

from Himachal Pradesh as well as Uttarakhand, five

hill towns by altitude were selected. These were

namely Bilaspur (556 m), Kangra (700 m), Mandi

(760 m), Hamirpur (769 m), Chamba (928 m) and a

village Panchayat- Keylong (3100 m). While there

were four hill spots such as Kullu (1219 m), Manali

(2050 m), Tabo (3050 m), Kibber (4205), and two

trekking regions such as Chandratal (4292 m), Valley

of Flowers and Hemkund Sahib (VoF; 1830-4330 m).

However, there was only one expedition summit such

as the Pindari Valley (2300-5500 m) taken into

account from Uttarakhand. On the other hand, the

experimental sites for ‘ambient air quality’ and

‘columnar aerosols’ were selected from the Kullu

valley where apple is receding to higher altitudes.

Mohal (1154 m), close to Kullu town, and Kothi

(2474 m), close to famous Manali resort, were the

experimental locations for an in-depth study of

‘ambient air pollution’ or ‘aerosol’. While the impact

of temperature on orchard mainly apple was

observed in the Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh.

Based on our meteorological observations, the

annual average lowest and highest temperature at

Mohal during 2004-2009 were found to be between

2.30 C to 36.60C (March 14 to June 24, 2005) and at

Kothi from -5.80C to 22.60C (December 11, 2011, to

June 20, 2005). Similarly, annual average rainfall

during observation period varied from 87.8 cm

(2008) at Mohal to 141.8 cm (2006) at Kothi. The low

altitude experimental site-Mohal comes under rain

shadow zone beginning from Aut to Katrain while the

high altitude site- Manali comes under the windward

zone from Katrain to Rohtang Pass (3978 m) within

the Kullu valley (Kuniyal et al. 2003; Kuniyal et al.

2004).

METHODOLOGY

After filling 1 foot3 tin box of the waste sample either

from households, municipal open dumps or other

community places of a town, a hill spot, trekking or

expedition location was considered here to be one

sample. These samples after manual segregation

were grouped broadly into different waste

compositions of readily biodegradable waste

(RBW), biodegradable waste (BW) and non-

biodegradable waste (NBW). By experiment, the

RBW is considered to be such waste that can

decompose under controlled temperature (25±50 C)

condition within a couple of weeks, while BW can

decompose within a couple of month. As against,

NBW cannot decompose under normal condition.

The number of samples, however, varied from one

location to other depending on a waste generation or

one season to other depending on food habits as well

as number of floating population visiting the place at

the time. Location wise, the number of samples

varied from 9 in Kibber to 236 in Mandi during the

whole of the observation period. The per capita waste

generation and total estimation were obtained based

on the number of population and consequent waste

generation consecutively for three days from a

concerned household, area or region. While some of

the ambient air quality parameters were also

have any further potential to reuse or to recycle. It is,

however, rare on the part of the users who think in an

eco-friendly way in their routine. The discarding

habits in our daily routine life cause godowns of

garbage in any of the area where human habitation

exists. Every year we individuals are creating

equivalent to a volume of Mt. Everest of garbage on

our Earth whose base is considered to be 2 km in

diameter. This human induced pollution from low to

high altitude in context to the Indian Himalayan

Region (IHR) is again a special case where this

alarming environmental problem might prevail either

in urban towns, hill spots, or trekking regions

(Kuniyal and Jain 1998; Kuniyal and Jain 1999;

Kuniyal and Jain 2000-2001; Kuniyal et al. 2003 ) or

in expedition tops (Kuniyal, 2002). Today, no region

is escaped from this continuously growing hazardous

pollution (Kuniyal 2005 a & b). When this waste

problem reaches beyond its carrying capacity in a

particular geographic area, solid wastes cause

degeneration of forests, deterioration of land,

pollution of water and air, etc. (Kuniyal et al. 2004).

As a result, as a combined impact of all these reasons,

our crop productivity, by both quantitatively and

qualitatively, declines continuously (Kuniyal 1996;

Kuniyal 2003; Kuniyal et al. 2004; Rawat et al. 2004;

Singh et al. 2004; Oinam et al. 2005). One of the most

peculiar adverse impacts of indiscriminately

throwing and dumped solid waste in any of the area

results in relatively higher emissions into the

atmosphere. There are several hazardous gases

including green house gases (GHGs) mainly methane

(CH4) which are emitted from the dumps of the

unattended heap of wastes of the towns, hill spots, and

trekking cum expedition locations. During strong

sunshine, this emission problem from open dumps of

wastes aggravates in a locality. This process helps a

rise in local temperature and affects adversely the

growth of delicate crops like vegetables and others

under the hill farming system. Further, horticultural

plants or any other vegetation type may also shift

towards higher altitudes. It’s one of the best examples

is the apple crop in the Kullu valley in Himachal

Pradesh which is continuously shifting to higher

locations. ‘Ambient air quality’ refers to any of the

forms of particulate or gaseous pollution surrounding

the immediate habitation of living organisms

representing or at the most up to the lower

troposphere. The particulate pollutants could be total

suspended particulate (TSP) matter (< 100 µ),

particulate matter below 10 µ (PM10) or particulate

matter below 2.5 µ (PM2.5) or below than ultrafine

(0.1 to 0.001 µ) or nano-particles (<100 nm). While

the gaseous pollutants might be trace gases such as

sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) or

secondarily produced gases such as surface ozone

(O3, also one of the green house gases (GHGs)) or

other GHGs in the atmosphere. ‘Aerosol’ or

‘Columnar Aerosol’, representing the earth’s surface

from troposphere up to the upper limit of the

exosphere in atmosphere, is a colloidal system of

particulate (Kuniyal et al. 2005), gaseous (Kuniyal et

al. 2007) and liquid pollutants which remain under

suspension in the atmosphere (Gajananda et al. 2005;

Kuniyal et al. 2009). It is a unit less, dimensionless

and measures solar irradiance on the Earth’s surface

coming out of scattering and absorption from the

atmosphere and therefore technically is termed as

aerosol optical depth (AOD). With the ever

increasing population and resultant activities for their

economic gains or any livelihood options in many

forms result in a lot of emissions within the Earth’s

atmosphere. This atmospheric phenomenon due to

anthropogenic interferences in particular and natural

interventions, in general, interrupt the radiation

budget (IPCC, 2007; Beegum et al. 2008) and cause

the Earth’s temperature cool but atmosphere’s

temperature warm. This phenomenon fluctuates day-

to-day temperature with great magnitudes from

winter to summer. Under these conditions, our

farming systems including vegetable crops also get

adversely affected largely and sometimes do not

follow the general classification of their own

agroclimatic zones. The climate change is such a

phenomenon that has been under burning topics

(Negi et al. 2012) in the IHR. The different economic

sectors including crop or horticulture farming system

are likely to be adversely affected in future. So the

prime challenge in the way of researchers and policy

makers is how to tackle this climate change

phenomenon. Before understanding all these issues,

the first problem is to understand the temperature rise,

how it is going to rise and what could be its solutions

to cope up with the present day farming system in the

mountain perspective. So keeping in mind the over-

mentioned issues, the two important forms of

pollutions; one visible (solid waste) and other

invisible (air pollution) are important to

understanding with their status and their combined

impact on local temperature rise and radiative forcing

and their implications on a mountain society mainly

in their farming system such as apple cultivation. Experimental sites

The Himalayan states, topographically and

ecologically, are important among other states of the

country. The study of the solid waste problem,

generation, and its management options were carried

out in fourteen case studies representing hill towns,

tourist spots and trekking region from Himachal

Pradesh, while one trekking and one expedition

location from Uttarakhand state. Out of fourteen case

studies representing the different Himalayan ranges

from Himachal Pradesh as well as Uttarakhand, five

hill towns by altitude were selected. These were

namely Bilaspur (556 m), Kangra (700 m), Mandi

(760 m), Hamirpur (769 m), Chamba (928 m) and a

village Panchayat- Keylong (3100 m). While there

were four hill spots such as Kullu (1219 m), Manali

(2050 m), Tabo (3050 m), Kibber (4205), and two

trekking regions such as Chandratal (4292 m), Valley

of Flowers and Hemkund Sahib (VoF; 1830-4330 m).

However, there was only one expedition summit such

as the Pindari Valley (2300-5500 m) taken into

account from Uttarakhand. On the other hand, the

experimental sites for ‘ambient air quality’ and

‘columnar aerosols’ were selected from the Kullu

valley where apple is receding to higher altitudes.

Mohal (1154 m), close to Kullu town, and Kothi

(2474 m), close to famous Manali resort, were the

experimental locations for an in-depth study of

‘ambient air pollution’ or ‘aerosol’. While the impact

of temperature on orchard mainly apple was

observed in the Kullu valley of Himachal Pradesh.

Based on our meteorological observations, the

annual average lowest and highest temperature at

Mohal during 2004-2009 were found to be between

2.30 C to 36.60C (March 14 to June 24, 2005) and at

Kothi from -5.80C to 22.60C (December 11, 2011, to

June 20, 2005). Similarly, annual average rainfall

during observation period varied from 87.8 cm

(2008) at Mohal to 141.8 cm (2006) at Kothi. The low

altitude experimental site-Mohal comes under rain

shadow zone beginning from Aut to Katrain while the

high altitude site- Manali comes under the windward

zone from Katrain to Rohtang Pass (3978 m) within

the Kullu valley (Kuniyal et al. 2003; Kuniyal et al.

2004).

METHODOLOGY

After filling 1 foot3 tin box of the waste sample either

from households, municipal open dumps or other

community places of a town, a hill spot, trekking or

expedition location was considered here to be one

sample. These samples after manual segregation

were grouped broadly into different waste

compositions of readily biodegradable waste

(RBW), biodegradable waste (BW) and non-

biodegradable waste (NBW). By experiment, the

RBW is considered to be such waste that can

decompose under controlled temperature (25±50 C)

condition within a couple of weeks, while BW can

decompose within a couple of month. As against,

NBW cannot decompose under normal condition.

The number of samples, however, varied from one

location to other depending on a waste generation or

one season to other depending on food habits as well

as number of floating population visiting the place at

the time. Location wise, the number of samples

varied from 9 in Kibber to 236 in Mandi during the

whole of the observation period. The per capita waste

generation and total estimation were obtained based

on the number of population and consequent waste

generation consecutively for three days from a

concerned household, area or region. While some of

the ambient air quality parameters were also

monitored at Kothi (2474 m) on the way to Rohtang

Pass. While air pollution in terms of ‘ambient air

quality’ or ‘aerosol’ was monitored using different

equipments with different techniques at Mohal (1154

m). Among the ‘ambient air quality’, particulate

pollution included PM10 using Respirable Dust

Sampler (RDS Envirotech 460 NL) and PM2.5 using

Fine Particulate Sampler (FPS Envirotech 550 APM)

using gravimetric methods. While the simultaneous

measurements of gaseous pollutants including mainly

trace gases such as SO2 and NO2 were done with the

help of attached impingers with the RDS (460 NL)

using colorimetric methods following modified West

and Gaeke (1956) and Jacobs and Hochheiser (1958)

respectively. The surface O3 was monitored with the

help of online Ozone Analyzer (Thermo Fischer

Model, 49i, U.S.A.) kept in an Environmental

Observatory under Atmospheric Chemistry, Transport

and Modeling (AT-CTM) under ISRO-GBP

Programme of ISRO being executed at National Level

through Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad.

O3 is based on the absorption of UV radiation by

ozone at 254 nm. Its minimum detection limit is 1.00

ppb, while precision is ±1 and flow rate is < 1 to 3

slpm. The observation of aerosol optical depth (AOD)

under Aerosol Radiative Forcing over India (ARFI)

under ISRO-GBP Programme of ISRO was carried

out using Multi-wavelength Radiometer (MWR)

which is developed by Space Physics Laboratory,

VSSC, Trivandrum. It is a passive sampler which

measures the spectral extinction of ground-reaching

direct solar flux between sunrise to sunset with a clear

sun disc all around without any clouds. The MWR

works at ten wavelengths, i.e., 380, 400, 450, 500,

600, 650, 750, 850, 935, 1025 nm, with full width, half

maximum band in the range of 6-10 nm at different

wavelengths as a function of solar zenith angle (SZA).

Based on AOD values, the instantaneous aerosol

radiative forcings were estimated over the top of the

atmosphere, surface and atmosphere following Fu and

Liou (1992; 1993). The heating rate was estimated

based on existing AOD value to represent the Kullu

Valley. The impact of such increasing temperature was

analyzed in context to an apple orchard in the Kullu

valley after concerning further the other temperature

data, changing area in apple and its production during

the four decades. The data of temperature and

precipitation were taken from 1971 to 2000 for

Naggar from Indian Agricultural Research Institute

(IARI), Katrain at Mohal. The per hectare production

(MT/ha) rate, land area (ha) and total production

(MT) of apple for district Kullu from 1981 to 2000

were collected from the Department of Horticulture,

Shimla.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Visible pollution-solid waste

The primary sources of solid waste are households,

shopkeepers, visitors, trekkers, expedition members,

etc. depending on the location and human habitation,

permanent or floating. Waste compositions are largely

governed by the nature of food habits in hill towns, hill

spots or trekking and expedition locations. As a result,

these waste compositions were also found changing in

a transect of the Himalayan locations. Waste

compositions under RBW category showed to be

highest as 65.5% for Manali hill resort and lowest as

4.6% for Chandratal trekking site, while for BW

category was 30.5% as highest for Kangra hill town

and 3.3% as lowest for the Valley of Flowers and

Hemkund Sahib (VoF) trekking region (Fig.1).

Fig.1. Waste compositions, under RBW, BW, and

NBW, manually segregated in a variety of samples in

the hill towns, hill spots and trekking cum expedition

locations in the Central as well as northwestern Indian

Himalayan Region (‘n’ indicates number of samples

(1 Foot-3) segregated in a particular study site)

However, NBW was highest as 90.1% for Chandratal

trekking site and 16.9% as lowest for Manali hill

resort. In essence, it is made clear that the

biodegradable waste (RBW+BW) dominates in the

hill towns and hill spots while non-bio degradable

waste (NBW) in the trekking and expedition regions.

Solid Waste Management (SWM) mainly depends on

four ̀ R’s principles’. The first ̀ R’ principle stands for

`refuse’ that means not to use such commodities

which are waste prone. For example, we may use jute

bags in place of polythene bags for a variety of uses

such as the purchase of vegetables from vendors. This

step indicates avoidance and minimization of waste

generation at its source of generation. The second ̀ R’

principle’ stands for ̀ reduce’ indicating minimization

of waste at its source of generation. In other words, the

whole of the self-generated wastes at its source of

origin can be segregated broadly into two

components, BW and NBW. From BW waste, one can

practice home composting, while from NBW a

variety of other uses can be put into practice. But we

need to collect it in a segregated form in accordance

with its composition at a place in a bulk. For example,

if these are ruptured polyethene bags and have lost

their potential for any further reuse practice, these

need to be collected and deposited at a place and can

be cut into a variety of small pieces to mix with the

charcoal and concrete during road construction in the

Himalayan Region. This step will not only reduce a

load of ruptured polyethene bags rather it will also

increase the life of roads which frequently face heavy

snowfall and torrent rains in the mountains. The third

`R’ principle’ stands for `reuse’. The items or

commodities need to bring under its some other use

twice, thrice and so on depending on their existing

potentiality. But here `reuse’ does not mean to use it

again exactly for which it was originally meant. For

example, if these are soft drink bottles, these can be

reused for raising climbers or money plants rather

than again for storing soft drinks in them. This step

will avoid adulteration in drinks and other eatables.

To make this practice fully functional, such wastes

need to be brought back at least up to road heads

where such collection and transportation facilities to

send back these commodities to recycling factories

are available. The fourth `R’ principle’ stands for

`recycling’. Recycling option can be practiced for

both the type of wastes, NBW and BW. For NBW, if

polyethene is ruptured and cannot further be reused

for any other purposes, these can then be collected at a

place in bulk. After then, the bulk amount can be sent

back to the local recycling units where through down

recycling discarded commodities can be converted

into plastic nodules and can be used further

manufacturing of new products. Although, its grading

quality will be one step below from its original stage

during down recycling. For example, if white plastic

bags are to recycle, these will be manufactured as

coloured plastic bags. Similarly from biodegradable

waste (RBW + BW), one can produce organic

compost, this is also termed as `recycling’. If RBW

and BW can be mixed together and can be treated as if

one category of decomposable waste, its share among

other waste types remains in the majority which can

be converted into organic compost. In this way, we

can manage the decomposable waste from 50.4% at

Tabo to 83.1% at Manali in hill towns (Fig. 2). While

the directly reusable solid waste was in majority in the

trekking regions and varied from 61.3 % in VoF to

39.6% of the total generation in the Pindari valley.

However, the waste considered suitable for

decorative uses stood to be 20.6%, 17.1% and 11.1%

at Kullu, Rewalsar, and Keylong respectively. The

non-bio degradable recyclable waste belonged to as

high as 33.1% at Chandratal, 16.6% at Pindari valley

Fig. 2. Sustainable solid waste management options

based on segregated waste

monitored at Kothi (2474 m) on the way to Rohtang

Pass. While air pollution in terms of ‘ambient air

quality’ or ‘aerosol’ was monitored using different

equipments with different techniques at Mohal (1154

m). Among the ‘ambient air quality’, particulate

pollution included PM10 using Respirable Dust

Sampler (RDS Envirotech 460 NL) and PM2.5 using

Fine Particulate Sampler (FPS Envirotech 550 APM)

using gravimetric methods. While the simultaneous

measurements of gaseous pollutants including mainly

trace gases such as SO2 and NO2 were done with the

help of attached impingers with the RDS (460 NL)

using colorimetric methods following modified West

and Gaeke (1956) and Jacobs and Hochheiser (1958)

respectively. The surface O3 was monitored with the

help of online Ozone Analyzer (Thermo Fischer

Model, 49i, U.S.A.) kept in an Environmental

Observatory under Atmospheric Chemistry, Transport

and Modeling (AT-CTM) under ISRO-GBP

Programme of ISRO being executed at National Level

through Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad.

O3 is based on the absorption of UV radiation by

ozone at 254 nm. Its minimum detection limit is 1.00

ppb, while precision is ±1 and flow rate is < 1 to 3

slpm. The observation of aerosol optical depth (AOD)

under Aerosol Radiative Forcing over India (ARFI)

under ISRO-GBP Programme of ISRO was carried

out using Multi-wavelength Radiometer (MWR)

which is developed by Space Physics Laboratory,

VSSC, Trivandrum. It is a passive sampler which

measures the spectral extinction of ground-reaching

direct solar flux between sunrise to sunset with a clear

sun disc all around without any clouds. The MWR

works at ten wavelengths, i.e., 380, 400, 450, 500,

600, 650, 750, 850, 935, 1025 nm, with full width, half

maximum band in the range of 6-10 nm at different

wavelengths as a function of solar zenith angle (SZA).

Based on AOD values, the instantaneous aerosol

radiative forcings were estimated over the top of the

atmosphere, surface and atmosphere following Fu and

Liou (1992; 1993). The heating rate was estimated

based on existing AOD value to represent the Kullu

Valley. The impact of such increasing temperature was

analyzed in context to an apple orchard in the Kullu

valley after concerning further the other temperature

data, changing area in apple and its production during

the four decades. The data of temperature and

precipitation were taken from 1971 to 2000 for

Naggar from Indian Agricultural Research Institute

(IARI), Katrain at Mohal. The per hectare production

(MT/ha) rate, land area (ha) and total production

(MT) of apple for district Kullu from 1981 to 2000

were collected from the Department of Horticulture,

Shimla.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Visible pollution-solid waste

The primary sources of solid waste are households,

shopkeepers, visitors, trekkers, expedition members,

etc. depending on the location and human habitation,

permanent or floating. Waste compositions are largely

governed by the nature of food habits in hill towns, hill

spots or trekking and expedition locations. As a result,

these waste compositions were also found changing in

a transect of the Himalayan locations. Waste

compositions under RBW category showed to be

highest as 65.5% for Manali hill resort and lowest as

4.6% for Chandratal trekking site, while for BW

category was 30.5% as highest for Kangra hill town

and 3.3% as lowest for the Valley of Flowers and

Hemkund Sahib (VoF) trekking region (Fig.1).

Fig.1. Waste compositions, under RBW, BW, and

NBW, manually segregated in a variety of samples in

the hill towns, hill spots and trekking cum expedition

locations in the Central as well as northwestern Indian

Himalayan Region (‘n’ indicates number of samples

(1 Foot-3) segregated in a particular study site)

However, NBW was highest as 90.1% for Chandratal

trekking site and 16.9% as lowest for Manali hill

resort. In essence, it is made clear that the

biodegradable waste (RBW+BW) dominates in the

hill towns and hill spots while non-bio degradable

waste (NBW) in the trekking and expedition regions.

Solid Waste Management (SWM) mainly depends on

four ̀ R’s principles’. The first ̀ R’ principle stands for

`refuse’ that means not to use such commodities

which are waste prone. For example, we may use jute

bags in place of polythene bags for a variety of uses

such as the purchase of vegetables from vendors. This

step indicates avoidance and minimization of waste

generation at its source of generation. The second ̀ R’

principle’ stands for ̀ reduce’ indicating minimization

of waste at its source of generation. In other words, the

whole of the self-generated wastes at its source of

origin can be segregated broadly into two

components, BW and NBW. From BW waste, one can

practice home composting, while from NBW a

variety of other uses can be put into practice. But we

need to collect it in a segregated form in accordance

with its composition at a place in a bulk. For example,

if these are ruptured polyethene bags and have lost

their potential for any further reuse practice, these

need to be collected and deposited at a place and can

be cut into a variety of small pieces to mix with the

charcoal and concrete during road construction in the

Himalayan Region. This step will not only reduce a

load of ruptured polyethene bags rather it will also

increase the life of roads which frequently face heavy

snowfall and torrent rains in the mountains. The third

`R’ principle’ stands for `reuse’. The items or

commodities need to bring under its some other use

twice, thrice and so on depending on their existing

potentiality. But here `reuse’ does not mean to use it

again exactly for which it was originally meant. For

example, if these are soft drink bottles, these can be

reused for raising climbers or money plants rather

than again for storing soft drinks in them. This step

will avoid adulteration in drinks and other eatables.

To make this practice fully functional, such wastes

need to be brought back at least up to road heads

where such collection and transportation facilities to

send back these commodities to recycling factories

are available. The fourth `R’ principle’ stands for

`recycling’. Recycling option can be practiced for

both the type of wastes, NBW and BW. For NBW, if

polyethene is ruptured and cannot further be reused

for any other purposes, these can then be collected at a

place in bulk. After then, the bulk amount can be sent

back to the local recycling units where through down

recycling discarded commodities can be converted

into plastic nodules and can be used further

manufacturing of new products. Although, its grading

quality will be one step below from its original stage

during down recycling. For example, if white plastic

bags are to recycle, these will be manufactured as

coloured plastic bags. Similarly from biodegradable

waste (RBW + BW), one can produce organic

compost, this is also termed as `recycling’. If RBW

and BW can be mixed together and can be treated as if

one category of decomposable waste, its share among

other waste types remains in the majority which can

be converted into organic compost. In this way, we

can manage the decomposable waste from 50.4% at

Tabo to 83.1% at Manali in hill towns (Fig. 2). While

the directly reusable solid waste was in majority in the

trekking regions and varied from 61.3 % in VoF to

39.6% of the total generation in the Pindari valley.

However, the waste considered suitable for

decorative uses stood to be 20.6%, 17.1% and 11.1%

at Kullu, Rewalsar, and Keylong respectively. The

non-bio degradable recyclable waste belonged to as

high as 33.1% at Chandratal, 16.6% at Pindari valley

Fig. 2. Sustainable solid waste management options

based on segregated waste

and 15.4% at VoF. The medical waste, however, was

estimated to be in high quantity in hill towns which is

a serious issue since it needs to be treated separately.

If mixed with municipal or any other waste, it will

contaminate all the waste being considered suitable

for composting.

Bio-composting from solid waste

The steps for preparing organic compost or microbial

bio-composting in a nutshell, therefore, should be as

under (Kuniyal and Thakur, 2013-14): (i) There

should be a sunny site for developing a compost pit

and it should be free from water logging; (ii) The

walls of the compost pit should be below the ground

surface and need to be constructed with stone and

masonry materials rather than concrete and cement;

(iii) The size of the pit may vary from 1m×1m×1m to

3m×1m ×1m depending on waste generation and

availability of biodegradable materials; (iv) The base

of the pit needs vertical stone soling with at least one

foot height below the surface of a pit; (v) The roof of

the pit needs vertical to be covered with multi-layered

ultra-violet resistant polyethylene sheet that would

maintain the fluctuating temperature from day to

night and/or one season to other within the pit; (vi) If

the raw material is kept full of the size of a pit, it

occupies around 500 kg at maximum with a

dimension with 3m×1m ×1m. In addition, two

polyvinyl chlorides ventilated pipes for aeration are

required to put across from the base of a pit; (vii) The

RBW and BW as a raw material for composting

should be free from any other contaminated or

medical wastes; (viii) The waste materials need to be

turned up and down within an interval of 15 days up to

a period of compost preparation; (ix) The 40%

moisture content of the raw material for compost

needs to be maintained at all times. So while turning

up the raw material from the base of a pit, at least one

bucket of water needs to be sprinkled over the waste

material to maintain moisture content. This water

amount will also vary a little bit from one season to

other depending on experience gained by the users in

practicing compost; (x) If all these steps are followed

properly, the compost will become ready within 55±5

days in local summer season (April-July) and 65±5

days in local winter season (December-March); (xi)

The final product in the form of compost will be one-

third of its total material, i.e., 167 kg compost out of

500 kg raw material on fresh weight basis.

Ambient air qualitySulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide

Among the gaseous pollutants, the concentration of

SO2 from 2005 to 2010 was measured to be 3.2 µg m-

3 at Mohal and 3.7 µg m-3 at Kothi showing a

decreasing trend of 12.2% year-1 and 5.02% year-1

respectively. While NO2, an important precursor of

surface ozone (O3), was measured to be 3.3 µg m-3 at

Mohal and 2.7 µg m-3 at Kothi showing a decreasing

and increasing trend of -9.3% and +7.8% year-1

respectively. The major sources of SO2 in the region

could be fuelwood burning, forest fires, sulphur water

springs and vehicular influx. On the other hand,

sources of NO2 could be vehicular emissions,

biomass burning or lightening.

Surface Ozone (O3)

Surface ozone is a secondary pollutant which is

formed due to photo-oxidation in presence of ozone

precursors such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon

monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds

(VOCs), such as xylene, react in the atmosphere. The

results during autumn months also show the high

diurnal value of 51.9 ± 9.5 ppbv for O3 but the peak is

less broader than summer months (Fig. 3). On the

other hand, higher NOx values, a major O3 precursor,

were found in autumn (21.2±5.2 ppbv) followed by

winter (14.3±9.5 ppbv) and lower values in the rainy

season (5.2±5.0 ppbv). Surface ozone stands to be one

of the important green house gas (GHGs) but its

concentration compared to other GHGs (methane,

carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide) are relatively low.

However, the role of surface ozone concentration in

global climate change has always been important

which is the most hazardous to living organisms on

the earth’s surface. The surface ozone concentration

was found to be at peak in May showing 84 ± 23.9 ppb

at 1600 hr IST followed by 79 ± 20.6 ppb at 1600 hr

IST in April and 77 ± 8.3 ppb at 1600 hr IST in June.

Strong photo-oxidation process supported by

adequate temperature, solar flux and NOx encourage

the surface ozone formations.

PM10 and PM2.5

Particulate pollutants are important because these

adversely affect the human health, plant life, and local

temperature. PM10 may enter up to the trachea and

have some possibility to come out with coughing and

sneezing. However, the finer the size of particles, the

more they are supposed to be dangerous and enter up

to the innermost part of the alveoli in the lungs and

have a rare chance to come out. Among other

particulate pollution, the average concentration of

PM10 from 2003 to 2010 was measured to be 36.4 µg

m-3 at Mohal and 21 µg m-3 at Kothi showing an

increasing trend of 1.2% year-1 and 0.2% year-1

respectively. While the other finer particulate

pollution such as PM2.5 from 2006 to 2010 was

measured to be 17.4 µg m-3 at Kothi showing an

increasing trend of 24.1% year-1.

Black carbon aerosols (BCA)

Black carbon aerosols are supposed to be heat

absorbing aerosols and are considered to be melting

faster the Himalayan glaciers (IPCC, 2007). The

highest average concentration of BCA during the

observation period (July 2009 and December 2011) at

Mohal ranged from 1161±71 ng m-3 in May 2011 to

7968±374 ng m-3 in December 2009 (Fig. 4). If the

monthly pattern was observed, its concentration was

largely found highest in winter months such as

December (5625±147 ng m-3 in 2010), January

(6617±242 ng m-3 in 2009) and November

(5120±357 ng m-3 in 2009). Based on the

observation taken during three years, it is increasing

steadily in the region due to biomass as well as fossil

fuel burning. In addition, boundary layer dynamics

also promote in increasing ambient BCA

concentration through intrusion in the morning and

evening when the boundary layer remains relatively

shallower.

Fig. 3. Monthly averaged diurnal variation in surface ozone at Mohal (‘n’ indicates number of observation days

in a month)

and 15.4% at VoF. The medical waste, however, was

estimated to be in high quantity in hill towns which is

a serious issue since it needs to be treated separately.

If mixed with municipal or any other waste, it will

contaminate all the waste being considered suitable

for composting.

Bio-composting from solid waste

The steps for preparing organic compost or microbial

bio-composting in a nutshell, therefore, should be as

under (Kuniyal and Thakur, 2013-14): (i) There

should be a sunny site for developing a compost pit

and it should be free from water logging; (ii) The

walls of the compost pit should be below the ground

surface and need to be constructed with stone and

masonry materials rather than concrete and cement;

(iii) The size of the pit may vary from 1m×1m×1m to

3m×1m ×1m depending on waste generation and

availability of biodegradable materials; (iv) The base

of the pit needs vertical stone soling with at least one

foot height below the surface of a pit; (v) The roof of

the pit needs vertical to be covered with multi-layered

ultra-violet resistant polyethylene sheet that would

maintain the fluctuating temperature from day to

night and/or one season to other within the pit; (vi) If

the raw material is kept full of the size of a pit, it

occupies around 500 kg at maximum with a

dimension with 3m×1m ×1m. In addition, two

polyvinyl chlorides ventilated pipes for aeration are

required to put across from the base of a pit; (vii) The

RBW and BW as a raw material for composting

should be free from any other contaminated or

medical wastes; (viii) The waste materials need to be

turned up and down within an interval of 15 days up to

a period of compost preparation; (ix) The 40%

moisture content of the raw material for compost

needs to be maintained at all times. So while turning

up the raw material from the base of a pit, at least one

bucket of water needs to be sprinkled over the waste

material to maintain moisture content. This water

amount will also vary a little bit from one season to

other depending on experience gained by the users in

practicing compost; (x) If all these steps are followed

properly, the compost will become ready within 55±5

days in local summer season (April-July) and 65±5

days in local winter season (December-March); (xi)

The final product in the form of compost will be one-

third of its total material, i.e., 167 kg compost out of

500 kg raw material on fresh weight basis.

Ambient air qualitySulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide

Among the gaseous pollutants, the concentration of

SO2 from 2005 to 2010 was measured to be 3.2 µg m-

3 at Mohal and 3.7 µg m-3 at Kothi showing a

decreasing trend of 12.2% year-1 and 5.02% year-1

respectively. While NO2, an important precursor of

surface ozone (O3), was measured to be 3.3 µg m-3 at

Mohal and 2.7 µg m-3 at Kothi showing a decreasing

and increasing trend of -9.3% and +7.8% year-1

respectively. The major sources of SO2 in the region

could be fuelwood burning, forest fires, sulphur water

springs and vehicular influx. On the other hand,

sources of NO2 could be vehicular emissions,

biomass burning or lightening.

Surface Ozone (O3)

Surface ozone is a secondary pollutant which is

formed due to photo-oxidation in presence of ozone

precursors such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon

monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds

(VOCs), such as xylene, react in the atmosphere. The

results during autumn months also show the high

diurnal value of 51.9 ± 9.5 ppbv for O3 but the peak is

less broader than summer months (Fig. 3). On the

other hand, higher NOx values, a major O3 precursor,

were found in autumn (21.2±5.2 ppbv) followed by

winter (14.3±9.5 ppbv) and lower values in the rainy

season (5.2±5.0 ppbv). Surface ozone stands to be one

of the important green house gas (GHGs) but its

concentration compared to other GHGs (methane,

carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide) are relatively low.

However, the role of surface ozone concentration in

global climate change has always been important

which is the most hazardous to living organisms on

the earth’s surface. The surface ozone concentration

was found to be at peak in May showing 84 ± 23.9 ppb

at 1600 hr IST followed by 79 ± 20.6 ppb at 1600 hr

IST in April and 77 ± 8.3 ppb at 1600 hr IST in June.

Strong photo-oxidation process supported by

adequate temperature, solar flux and NOx encourage

the surface ozone formations.

PM10 and PM2.5

Particulate pollutants are important because these

adversely affect the human health, plant life, and local

temperature. PM10 may enter up to the trachea and

have some possibility to come out with coughing and

sneezing. However, the finer the size of particles, the

more they are supposed to be dangerous and enter up

to the innermost part of the alveoli in the lungs and

have a rare chance to come out. Among other

particulate pollution, the average concentration of

PM10 from 2003 to 2010 was measured to be 36.4 µg

m-3 at Mohal and 21 µg m-3 at Kothi showing an

increasing trend of 1.2% year-1 and 0.2% year-1

respectively. While the other finer particulate

pollution such as PM2.5 from 2006 to 2010 was

measured to be 17.4 µg m-3 at Kothi showing an

increasing trend of 24.1% year-1.

Black carbon aerosols (BCA)

Black carbon aerosols are supposed to be heat

absorbing aerosols and are considered to be melting

faster the Himalayan glaciers (IPCC, 2007). The

highest average concentration of BCA during the

observation period (July 2009 and December 2011) at

Mohal ranged from 1161±71 ng m-3 in May 2011 to

7968±374 ng m-3 in December 2009 (Fig. 4). If the

monthly pattern was observed, its concentration was

largely found highest in winter months such as

December (5625±147 ng m-3 in 2010), January

(6617±242 ng m-3 in 2009) and November

(5120±357 ng m-3 in 2009). Based on the

observation taken during three years, it is increasing

steadily in the region due to biomass as well as fossil

fuel burning. In addition, boundary layer dynamics

also promote in increasing ambient BCA

concentration through intrusion in the morning and

evening when the boundary layer remains relatively

shallower.

Fig. 3. Monthly averaged diurnal variation in surface ozone at Mohal (‘n’ indicates number of observation days

in a month)

Fig. 4. Monthly variation in BC concentration at

Aerosol optical depth (AOD)

The AOD values at Mohal from April 2006 to 2013

showed 0.25 at 500 nm in one of its representative

wavelength (Fig. 5). While compared at 500 nm with

other locations, these were 0.03 at Manora Peak,

Nainital (Pant et al. 2006; Dumka et al. 2006) and

0.60 at Kanpur (Singh et al. 2004) indicating that our

present study site is about ten times higher polluted

compared to Manora Peak, Nainital and about half

times is less polluted than Kanpur metro city.

Considering one of the representative wavelength,

AOD at 500 nm is observed as low as 0.22 in 2007 and

as high as 0.30 in 2011 indicating an increasing trend

of 3.5% year-1 since 2007.

Fig. 5. Aerosol optical depth (2006-2013) at Mohal

Aerosol and temperature rise

According to varying columnar aerosols at three

levels of the atmosphere, radiative forcing at the top

of the atmosphere was -33.2 W m-2, at the Earth’s

surface -80.2 W m-2 and at the atmosphere 47 W m-2

when AOD was 0.57 at 500 nm on 10 December 2011

(Fu and Liou, 1992; 1993) (Fig. 6). The heating rate

due to AOD is estimated to be from 0.30 kelvin (K)

day-1 to 1.20 K day-1 in May and September 2011,

respectively.

Fig. 6. Aerosol Radiative Forcing at Mohal

Implications on mountain society

The temperature rise due to anthropogenic emissions

will result in shifting of age-old crops, vegetables,

orchards, medicinal herbs and vegetation to higher

altitudes and may also adversely affect their

productivity. For example, apple crop is shifting from

lower to a higher altitude in the Kullu valley. In the

1960s, it was grown in Bajaura region (1000 m)

which is now shifted up to Katrain (2000 m), a mid

part of the Kullu Valley (Fig. 7). Looking at climatic

impacts on apple productivity in the Kullu Valley,

during good apple cropping years; the average

maximum temperature stood to be 14.35×1.35 °C

from November to April. This was relatively lower

than the maximum temperature (16.49×1.49 °C)

during poor category of apple cropping years of the

similar months. December and March were the

months when temperature differences of nearly 3ºC

were recorded which was much pronounced. The

other important thing during the years of the poor

category of apple cropping, rainfall (6.74×1.91 cm)

and snowfall (9.83×7.38 cm) were also noticed very

poor. As against, rainfall (10.29×3.06 cm) and

snowfall (19.33×6.96 cm) were higher than that of the

same months during good apple cropping years.

Weather conditions starting from initiation of chilling

to crop maturity determine the productivity of apple.

For a better yield of apple, nearly 1200 chilling hours

are required below 7ºC to break the rest of the period

(Kanwar, 1988).

On account of anthropogenic impacts and consequent

emissions, the temperature is rising slowly. It is

certain that if the temperature continues to rise at its

present rate, the required chilling hours to apple

cultivars in the present study could not be easily met

and apple production may suffer a lot in the valley

(Fig. 8). Under these circumstances, the mountain

people have been attempting to adapt the system

Fig. 7. Shifting Apple crop towards the upper Kullu valley in Himachal Pradesh

coming out of climate change implications. The

farmers here have replaced vegetable cash cropping in

place of apple which requires further scientific skill in

making this system more resilient to combat the

climate change. The scientific skill is either to develop

such a breed to be resistant to climatic change or

building the skill of the farmers to adapt easily with

some sustainable options such as vegetables and

others in the present case.

Recommendations and conclusions

(i) Solid waste

The microbial bio compost technique (turning

biodegradable waste into compost) would largely

support the organic farming systems through

providing nutrients especially the traditional crops,

vegetables, apple orchard, etc. The unattended waste

dumps here and there will be used as raw material for

compost which will develop a feeling of the clean

environment; (ii) Waste, a cause of pollution, if

tackled sensibly and scientifically with the application

of energy driven technology (as suggested above),

there will not be wasted but everywhere there would

be resources; (iii) NBW needs to be brought back from

the trekking and expedition locations and needs to be

collected at a place for reuse and recycling. Reuse will

enable the users to realize their potential, while

through recycling new products will become possible

to manufacture; (iv) Managing indiscriminate waste

would reduce the emission amount especially CH4

Fig. 8. Pattern of total production (MT) and

production rate (MT/ha) of apple in the Kullu valley

(Source: Department of Horticulture, Kullu)

Fig. 4. Monthly variation in BC concentration at

Aerosol optical depth (AOD)

The AOD values at Mohal from April 2006 to 2013

showed 0.25 at 500 nm in one of its representative

wavelength (Fig. 5). While compared at 500 nm with

other locations, these were 0.03 at Manora Peak,

Nainital (Pant et al. 2006; Dumka et al. 2006) and

0.60 at Kanpur (Singh et al. 2004) indicating that our

present study site is about ten times higher polluted

compared to Manora Peak, Nainital and about half

times is less polluted than Kanpur metro city.

Considering one of the representative wavelength,

AOD at 500 nm is observed as low as 0.22 in 2007 and

as high as 0.30 in 2011 indicating an increasing trend

of 3.5% year-1 since 2007.

Fig. 5. Aerosol optical depth (2006-2013) at Mohal

Aerosol and temperature rise

According to varying columnar aerosols at three

levels of the atmosphere, radiative forcing at the top

of the atmosphere was -33.2 W m-2, at the Earth’s

surface -80.2 W m-2 and at the atmosphere 47 W m-2

when AOD was 0.57 at 500 nm on 10 December 2011

(Fu and Liou, 1992; 1993) (Fig. 6). The heating rate

due to AOD is estimated to be from 0.30 kelvin (K)

day-1 to 1.20 K day-1 in May and September 2011,

respectively.

Fig. 6. Aerosol Radiative Forcing at Mohal

Implications on mountain society

The temperature rise due to anthropogenic emissions

will result in shifting of age-old crops, vegetables,

orchards, medicinal herbs and vegetation to higher

altitudes and may also adversely affect their

productivity. For example, apple crop is shifting from

lower to a higher altitude in the Kullu valley. In the

1960s, it was grown in Bajaura region (1000 m)

which is now shifted up to Katrain (2000 m), a mid

part of the Kullu Valley (Fig. 7). Looking at climatic

impacts on apple productivity in the Kullu Valley,

during good apple cropping years; the average

maximum temperature stood to be 14.35×1.35 °C

from November to April. This was relatively lower

than the maximum temperature (16.49×1.49 °C)

during poor category of apple cropping years of the

similar months. December and March were the

months when temperature differences of nearly 3ºC

were recorded which was much pronounced. The

other important thing during the years of the poor

category of apple cropping, rainfall (6.74×1.91 cm)

and snowfall (9.83×7.38 cm) were also noticed very

poor. As against, rainfall (10.29×3.06 cm) and

snowfall (19.33×6.96 cm) were higher than that of the

same months during good apple cropping years.

Weather conditions starting from initiation of chilling

to crop maturity determine the productivity of apple.

For a better yield of apple, nearly 1200 chilling hours

are required below 7ºC to break the rest of the period

(Kanwar, 1988).

On account of anthropogenic impacts and consequent

emissions, the temperature is rising slowly. It is

certain that if the temperature continues to rise at its

present rate, the required chilling hours to apple

cultivars in the present study could not be easily met

and apple production may suffer a lot in the valley

(Fig. 8). Under these circumstances, the mountain

people have been attempting to adapt the system

Fig. 7. Shifting Apple crop towards the upper Kullu valley in Himachal Pradesh

coming out of climate change implications. The

farmers here have replaced vegetable cash cropping in

place of apple which requires further scientific skill in

making this system more resilient to combat the

climate change. The scientific skill is either to develop

such a breed to be resistant to climatic change or

building the skill of the farmers to adapt easily with

some sustainable options such as vegetables and

others in the present case.

Recommendations and conclusions

(i) Solid waste

The microbial bio compost technique (turning

biodegradable waste into compost) would largely

support the organic farming systems through

providing nutrients especially the traditional crops,

vegetables, apple orchard, etc. The unattended waste

dumps here and there will be used as raw material for

compost which will develop a feeling of the clean

environment; (ii) Waste, a cause of pollution, if

tackled sensibly and scientifically with the application

of energy driven technology (as suggested above),

there will not be wasted but everywhere there would

be resources; (iii) NBW needs to be brought back from

the trekking and expedition locations and needs to be

collected at a place for reuse and recycling. Reuse will

enable the users to realize their potential, while

through recycling new products will become possible

to manufacture; (iv) Managing indiscriminate waste

would reduce the emission amount especially CH4

Fig. 8. Pattern of total production (MT) and

production rate (MT/ha) of apple in the Kullu valley

(Source: Department of Horticulture, Kullu)

into our atmosphere thereby reducing and regulating

local temperature rise; (v) Further, the adequate

amount of nutrients to crops, vegetables and orchards

would again make them resistant and adaptive to ever

changing climatic conditions.

(ii) Ambient air pollution’ or aerosol

The first and foremost task of every concerned

stakeholder within a particular agro-ecosystem is to

minimize the emission of aerosols into the

atmosphere at its source of generation. By way of a

variety of anthropogenic activities, our emissions are

continuously increasing. This results in a rise in local

temperature. The low temperature demanding

vegetables ultimately recede to the higher locations.

This is also evident from the cases of some of the

horticultural plants (apple) and other vegetation

(Pinus roxburghii). The day is not far behind when

such crop, vegetable, and horticultural species would

be diminishing from the age-old farming systems of

low altitude agro-climatic zone of the Indian

Himalayan Region. The immediate need is to bring

under control the local temperature by controlling the

respective sources of different species of aerosols

supported by the green cover of a native variety of

species. The prime solution lies at its source of origin.

If forest fire is one of the major reasons for higher

BCA, prohibiting such human induced activity from

our daily life would help much to control our daily

emissions. This step will bring under control

temperature rise and increase the farmers’ resilience

and adaptive capacity to grow traditional crops,

vegetables and horticultural crops due to global

climate change.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is thankful to the Director, G.B. Pant

National Institute of Himalayan Environment and

Sustainable Development, Kosi-Katarmal, Almora,

Uttarakhand for providing facilities in Himachal Unit

of the Institute which could make the present study

possible.

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