DISCOURSEWHICHTOOKTHEPRIZEOFTHEACADEMYOFDIJONINTHEYEAR

1750

ONTHISQUESTIONPROPOSEDBYTHATACADEMY:

Whethertherestorationofthesciencesandtheartshascontributedtopurifyingmorals.

BYACITIZENOFGENEVA

HereIamthebarbarian,understoodbynobody.Ovid1

GENEVABARRILLOT&SON

Satyr,youdonotknowit.Seethenote,p.23

NOTICE

Whatisfame?ThisistheunfortunateworktowhichIowemine.Certainlythispiece,whichwonmeaprizeandmadeanameforme,isatbestmediocreandIdareaddthatit isoneoftheslightest in thisentirecollection.Whatanabyssofmiserieswouldtheauthorhaveavoidedifonlythisfirstworkhadbeenreceivedasitdeservedtobe!Butasithappened,afavorablereceptionthatwasinitiallyunjustifiedgraduallybroughtuponmeaharshpenaltythatisevenmoreunjustified.2

PREFACE

Here is one of the greatest and noblest questions ever debated. This discourse is notconcernedwiththosemetaphysicalsubtletiesthathavespreadtoallfieldsofliteratureandfromwhich theannouncementsofacademiesarenotalwaysexempt.Rather, it isconcernedwithoneofthosetruthsthatpertaintothehappinessofthehumanrace.IforeseethatIwillnoteasilybeforgivenforthesideIhavedaredtotake.Clashing

head on with everything that nowadays attracts mens admiration, I can expect onlyuniversalblame, and it is not forhavingbeenhonoredwith the approbationof a fewwisementhatIshouldcountonthatofthepublic.Assuch,Ihavetakenaside;Idonotcare aboutpleasingeither thewittyor the fashionable. In all times therewill bemendestined to be subjugated by the opinions of their age, their country, their society.Someone who today plays the freethinker and the philosopher would, for the samereason, have been a fanatic at the time of theLeague.3Onemust not write for suchreaderswhenonewantstolivebeyondonesage.AnotherwordandIamdone.LittleexpectingthehonorIreceived,aftersubmittingit

I reworked and expanded this discourse to the point of turning it, as it were, into adifferentwork.Inowconsidermyselfobligatedtorestoreittothestateinwhichitwasawardedtheprize.IhavemerelythrowninsomenotesandletstandtwopassageswhichareeasilyrecognizedandwhichtheAcademywouldperhapsnothaveapprovedof.4 Ithoughtthatequity,respect,andgratituderequiredthisnoticeofme.

DISCOURSE

Wearedeceivedbytheappearanceofrectitude.5

Has the Restoration of the sciences and the arts contributed to purifying or tocorruptingmorals?6This iswhat is to be examined.Which side should I take in thisquestion?That,Gentlemen,whichsuitsadecentmanwhoknowsnothingandwhodoesnotthinkanythelessofhimselfforit.Itwillbedifficult,Ifeel,toadaptwhatIhavetosaytothetribunalbeforewhichI

appear.HowdoIdareblamethesciencesbeforeoneofEuropesmostlearnedsocieties,praiseignoranceinafamousacademy,andreconcilecontemptforstudywithrespectforthetrulylearned?Ihaveseenthesecontradictions,andtheyhavenotrebuffedme.ItisnotscienceIabuse,Itoldmyself;itisvirtueIdefendbeforevirtuousmen.Integrity isevenmoredeartogoodmenthaneruditionis toscholars.What, then,haveI tofear?Theenlightenment7oftheassemblylisteningtome?Iadmitit,butthisfearregardsthecompositionofthediscourseandnotthesentimentofthespeaker.Equitablesovereignshave never hesitated to condemn themselves in doubtful disputes, and the mostadvantageouspositioninajustcauseistohavetodefendoneselfagainstanuprightandenlightenedopponentwhoisjudgeinhisowncase.Tothismotivewhichencouragesmeisjoinedanotherwhichdecidesme: it is that,

afterhavingupheldthesideoftruthaccordingtomynaturallights,thereis,regardlessoftheoutcome,aprizeIcannotfailtoreceive.Iwillfinditinthedepthsofmyheart.

FIRSTPART

Itisagrandandbeautifulspectacletoseemanemerging,asitwere,outofnothingnessthrough his own efforts; dissipating by the light of his reason the shadows in whichnature has enveloped him; rising above himself; soaring by hismind to the celestialregions; traversing with the steps of a giant, like the sun, the vast expanse of theuniverse;and,whatisevengranderandmoredifficult, returningintohimself inorderthere to studymanand toknowhisnature,hisduties,andhisend.All thesemarvelshavebeenrevivedinthepastfewgenerations.Europehadfallenbackintothebarbarismofthefirstages.Justafewcenturiesago

thepeoples of that part of theworld today so enlightened lived in a conditionworsethanignorance.Iknownotwhatscientificjargon,evenmoredespicablethanignorance,hadusurped thenameofknowledge andopposedan almost invincibleobstacle to itsreturn.8A revolutionwas needed to bringmen back to common sense. It eventuallycamefrom thequarter fromwhich itwas leastexpected. Itwas the stupidMuslim, itwastheeternalscourgeofletterswhobroughtabouttheirrebirthamongus.ThefallofConstantinesthronecarriedintoItalythedebrisofancientGreece.9Franceinturnwasenrichedbythosepreciousspoils.Soonthesciencesfollowedletters,theartofwritingjoined the art of thinking, a sequencewhich appears strange and is perhaps only toonatural, and people began to feel the principal advantage of communing10with theMuses,thatofmakingmenmoresociablebyinspiringinthemthedesiretopleaseoneanotherwithworksworthyoftheirmutualapprobation.Themind has its needs, as does the body. The lattermake up the foundations of

society, the former make it pleasant. While government and laws provide for thesecurityandwell-beingofassembledmen, thesciences, the letters,and theartslessdespoticandperhapsmorepowerfulspreadgarlandsof flowersover the iron chainswithwhichmen are burdened, stifle in them the feeling of that original freedom forwhichtheyseemedtohavebeenborn,makethemlovetheirslaveryandfashionthemintowhat are called civilized peoples.Need raised thrones; the sciences and the artshave strengthened them. Earthly powers: love talents and protect thosewho cultivatethem.*1Civilizedpeoples:cultivate them;happy slaves: youowe to them thatdelicateandrefined tasteonwhichyou like toprideyourselves; thatsoftnessofcharacterandurbanityofmoralsthatmakerelations11amongyousoaffableandsoeasy; inaword,theappearanceofallthevirtueswithouthavinganyofthem.This is the sortof civility, themoreamiable as it affects todisplay itself less, that

formerlydistinguishedAthensandRomeinthemuchlaudeddaysoftheirmagnificenceandtheirsplendor.Itisthroughit,nodoubt,thatourageandournationwillsurpassalltimes and all peoples.Aphilosophic tonewithout pedantry, natural and yet engagingmanners,asfarremovedfromTeutonicrusticityasfromItalianpantomime: thesearethe fruits of the taste acquired through good education and perfected by moving inpolitesociety.13How sweet it would be to live among us if outward appearances were always the

imageofthedispositionsoftheheart,ifproprietywerevirtue,ifourmaximsservedusas rules, if genuine philosophywere inseparable from the title of philosophy!But somanyqualitiesareall too rarely found together,andvirtuehardlyproceedswith suchpomp. Richness of attiremay announce an opulentman, and his elegance aman oftaste.Thehealthyandrobustmanisrecognizedbyothersigns:itisbeneaththerusticclothesofafarmerandnotbeneaththegiltofacourtierthatstrengthandvigorofbodywillbefound.Fineryisnolessforeigntovirtue,whichisstrengthandvigorofsoul.Thegoodman is an athlete who enjoys competing in the nude. He spurns all those vileornamentswhichwouldhinder theuseofhis strength, andmost ofwhichhavebeeninventedsolelytohidesomedeformity.Beforearthadfashionedourmannersand taughtourpassions to speakaborrowed

language, our morals were rustic but natural, and differences in conduct announcedthose of character at first glance.Humannature, at bottom,was not better.Butmenfound their security in theeaseof seeing throughoneanother, and thatadvantage,ofwhichwenolongersensethevalue,sparedthemmanyvices.Today, whenmore subtle study and a more refined taste have reduced the art of

pleasingtoasetofprinciples,avileanddeceitfuluniformityreignsinourmorals,andall minds seem to have been cast from the same mold. Incessantly civility requires,proprietydemands;incessantlyitiscustomsthatarefollowed,neveronesowngenius.Onenolongerdarestoappeartobewhatoneis;andunderthisperpetualconstraint,themenwhomakeupthatherdcalledsociety,placedinthesamecircumstances,willalldothe same things unless more powerful motives deter them from doing so. One willthereforeneverreallybeabletoknowthosewithwhomoneisdealing.Toknowonesfriend,onewillthereforehavetowaitformomentousoccasionsthatis,towaituntilitistoolate,becauseitistheseveryoccasionsforwhichitwouldhavebeenessentialtoknowhim.What a procession of vices must accompany this uncertainty! No more sincere

friendships, no more real esteem, no more well-founded confidence. Suspicions,offenses,fears,coolness,reserve,hatred,betrayalcontinuallyconcealthemselvesbehindthatuniformanddeceitfulveilofcivility,behindthatmuchlaudedurbanityweowetotheenlightenmentofourage.Thenameofthemasteroftheuniversewillnolongerbeprofanedbyswearing,butitwillbeinsultedbyblasphemieswithoutourscrupulousears

beingoffendedbythem.Peoplewillnotboastoftheirownmerit,buttheywillbelittlethatofothers.Theywillnot coarsely insult their enemy,but theywill artfullymalignhim.Nationalhatredswilldieout,buttheywilldosoalongwithloveoffatherland.14Scorned ignorancewillbereplacedbyadangerousPyrrhonism.15Therewillbesomeforbiddenexcesses,somedishonoredvices,butotherswillbedignifiedwiththenameofvirtues;onewilleitherhavetohavethemortoaffectthem.Letthosewhosowishboast of the sobriety of the wise men of the age; as for me, I see in it merely arefinementofintemperanceasunworthyofmypraiseastheirartfulsimplicity.*2Such is the purity ourmorals have acquired. This is howwe have become affable

men.Itisfortheletters,thesciences,andtheartstoclaimtheirshareinsuchasalutarybitofwork.Iwillonlyaddonethought:thatifaninhabitantofsomefar-offlandsoughttoformanideaofEuropeanmoralsbasedonthestateofthesciencesamongus,ontheperfectionofourarts,ontheproprietyofourtheater,onthecivilityofourmanners,onthe affability of our discourse, on our perpetual professions of goodwill, and on thattumultuous competition of men of all ages and of all social conditions who seemanxioustoobligeoneanotherfromthedawnofmorntothesettingofthesun;thatthisstranger,Isay,wouldguessourmoralstobepreciselytheoppositeofwhattheyare.Wherethereisnoeffect,thereisnocausetoseek:butheretheeffectiscertain,the

depravityreal,andoursoulshavebeencorruptedinproportionasoursciencesandourartshaveadvancedtowardperfection.Shallitbesaidthatthisisamisfortuneparticularto our age? No, Gentlemen: the evils caused by our vain curiosity are as old as theworld. The daily rise and fall of the oceans waters have not been more regularlysubjectedtothecourseofthestarthatgivesuslightduringthenightthanhasthefateofmoralsand integrity to theprogressof the sciencesandarts.Virtuehasbeen seen tofleeinproportionastheirlightdawnedonourhorizon,andthesamephenomenonhasbeenobservedinalltimesandinallplaces.BeholdEgypt,thatfirstschooloftheuniverse,thatclimatesoveryfertilebeneatha

brazen sky, that famous land from which Sesostris long ago set out to conquer theworld.Itbecomesthemotherofphilosophyandthefinearts,and,soonthereafter,theconquest of Cambyses, then that of the Greeks, of the Romans, of the Arabs, andfinallyoftheTurks.17BeholdGreece,formerlypeopledbyheroeswhotwicevanquishedAsia,onceinfront

ofTroyandonceat theirveryhearths.Nascent lettershadnotyet carriedcorruptionintotheheartsofitsinhabitants,buttheprogressofthearts,thedissolutionofmorals,andtheyokeoftheMacedoniancloselyfollowedupononeanother,andGreeceeverlearned, ever voluptuous, and ever enslavedno longer experienced anything but achangeofmasters in the courseof its revolutions.AllDemosthenes eloquence couldneverreviveabodythatluxuryandtheartshadenervated.18

It is in the time of the likes of Ennius and of Terence that Rome, founded by ashepherdandmade illustriousby farmers,begins todegenerate.Butafter the likesofOvid, ofCatullus, ofMartial, and that crowdof obscene authorswhose names alonealarmmodesty,Rome,formerlythetempleofvirtue,becomesthetheaterofcrime,thedisgraceofnations,andtheplaythingofbarbarians.Thiscapitaloftheworldultimatelysuccumbstotheyokeithadimposedonsomanypeoples,andthedayofitsfallwastheeveofthedayonwhichthetitleofarbiterofgoodtastewasgiventowasgiventooneofitscitizens.19WhatshallIsayaboutthatmetropolisoftheEasternEmpirewhich,byitslocation,

seemeddestinedtobethemetropolisoftheentireworld,ofthatrefugeofthesciencesandartsbannedfromtherestofEurope,perhapsmoreoutofwisdomthanbarbarism?All that is most shameful in debauchery and corruption; the blackest of betrayals,assassinations,andpoisonings;acontestamongallofthemostatrociouscrimes:thisiswhatmakesupthefabricofthehistoryofConstantinople,thisisthepuresourcefromwhichwehavereceivedtheenlightenmentinwhichourtimetakessuchgreatpride.Butwhyseekinremotetimesproofsofatruthforwhichwehaveenduringevidence

before our eyes? InAsia there is an immense landwhere literary honors lead to thestateshighestoffices.Ifthesciencespurifiedmorals, if theytaughtmentoshedtheirbloodforthefatherland,iftheyanimatedcourage,thepeoplesofChinashouldbewise,free,andinvincible.Butifthereisnotasinglevicethatdoesnotdominatethem,notasingle crime that is not familiar to them, if neither the enlightenment of governmentofficials,northeallegedwisdomofthelaws,northelargenumberofinhabitantsofthatvastempirehavebeenabletoprotectitfromtheyokeoftheignorantandcoarseTartar,ofwhatusehavealltheselearnedmenbeentothem?Whatbenefithavetheyderivedfromthehonorsbestowedonthem?Isittobepopulatedbyslavesandwickedmen?Letuscontrastthesesceneswiththatofthemoralsofthesmallnumberofpeoples

that,protectedfromthatcontagionofvainknowledge,havecreatedtheirownhappinessaswellasanexampleforothernationsbytheirvirtues.SuchwerethefirstPersians,asingular nation in which virtue was learned as science is learned among us, whichsubjugatedAsiawith somuchease, andwhich alonehashad thegloryofhaving thehistoryofitsinstitutionsmistakenforaphilosophicnovel.20SuchweretheScythians,ofwhomsuchmagnificentpraisehascomedown tous.Suchwere theGermans,whosesimplicity,innocence,andvirtuesapenwearyofdepictingthecrimesandfouldeedsofaneducated,opulent,andvoluptuouspeopletooksolaceinportraying.21SuchwasRomeitselfinthe timesof itspovertyand its ignorance.Such,finally,has that rusticnationsolaudedforitscourage,whichadversityhasnotbeenabletofell,andforitsfidelity,whichbadexampleshavenotbeenabletocorruptprovenitselftobetothisveryday.22*3

Itisnotowingtostupiditythattheyhavepreferredotherformsofexercisetothoseofthemind.Theywerenotunawarethatinotherlandsidlemenspenttheirlivesarguingoverthesovereigngood,overviceandvirtue,andthatpridefulreasoners,bestowingthegreatestpraiseon themselves, lumped togetherotherpeoplesunder thecontemptuousname of barbarians. But they considered their morals and learned to disdain theirdoctrine.1CouldIforgetthatitwasintheverybosomofGreecethatacitywasseentoarise

whichwasasfamousforitshappyignoranceasforthewisdomofitslaws,thatrepublicof demigods rather than ofmen, so superior to humanity did their virtues seem?OSparta!Eternalsourceofshameforavaindoctrine!Whilethevicescarriedbythefinearts were introduced together into Athens, while a tyrant was there assembling theworksoftheprinceofpoetswithsuchcare,25youdroveawayfromyourwallstheartsandtheartists,thesciencesandthelearned.The outcome marked the difference. Athens became the abode of politeness and

goodtaste,thecountryoforatorsandphilosophers.Theeleganceofthebuildingstherecorrespondedtothatofthelanguage.Marbleandcanvas,broughttolifebythehandsofthe most skillful masters, were there seen all over. It is from Athens that thoseastonishing works that will serve as models in every corrupted age have come. ThepictureofLacedaemonislessbrilliant.There,saidotherpeoples,menarebornvirtuousandtheveryairofthecountryseemstoinspirevirtue.Ofitsinhabitantstheonlythingthatremainsforus is thememoryoftheirheroicactions.AresuchmonumentsworthlesstousthanthecuriousmarblesAthenshasleftus?Some wise men, it is true, resisted the general torrent and protected themselves

againstvicewhileintheabodeoftheMuses.Butlistentotheverdictthattheforemostandmostunfortunateamongthempassedonthelearnedmenandartistsofhistime.Iexamined,hesays,thepoets,andIregardthemaspeoplewhosetalentimpresses

boththemselvesandothers,whopresentthemselvesaswisemen,whoaretakentobesuch,andwhoarenothingofthesort.From the poets, continues Socrates, I went on to the artists. No one is more

ignorantabouttheartsthanIam;noonewasmoreconvincedthattheartistspossessedsomeveryfinesecrets.YetIperceivedthattheirconditionisnobetterthanthatofthepoetsandthatbothofthemhavethesamebias.Becausethemostskillfulamongthemexcelintheirspecialty,theyregardthemselvesasthewisestofmen.Thispresumptionaltogethertarnishedtheirknowledgeinmyeyes.Asaresult,puttingmyselfintheplaceoftheoracleandaskingmyselfwhichIwouldprefertobe,whatIamorwhattheyare,knowingwhattheyhavelearnedorknowingthatIknownothing,Iansweredmyselfandthegod:IwanttoremainwhatIam.Wedonotknowneitherthesophists,northepoets,northeorators,northeartists,

norIwhatisthetrue,thegood,andthebeautiful.Butthereisthisdifferencebetween

us:thatalthoughthesepeopleknownothing,theyallbelievethattheyknowsomething,whereasI, ifIknownothing,amat leastnot indoubtabout it.Asaresult, thisentiresuperiority ofwisdom that is accorded tome by the oracle amounts simply to beingfullyconvincedthatIamignorantofwhatIdonotknow.26Here, then, is thewisestofmen in thejudgmentof thegodsand thewisestof the

Athenians according to the view of all Greece, Socrates, speaking in praise ofignorance!Isitcrediblethat,ifhewerebroughtbacktolifeamongus,ourlearnedandourartistswouldcausehimtochangehisopinion?No,Gentlemen,thatjustmanwouldcontinue to scornourvain sciences,hewouldnothelp to enlarge thatmass of bookswithwhichweare inundatedfromeverydirection,andhewould leavebehindashedidbeforeasthesoleprecepttohisdisciplesandtoourposteritymerelytheexampleandthememoryofhisvirtue.Nowthatisafinewaytoteachmen!WhatSocrateshadbeguninAthens,CatotheEldercontinuedinRomebyloosinghis

furyuponthoseartificialandsubtleGreekswhowereseducingthevirtueandsofteningthe courage of his fellow-citizens.27 But the sciences, the arts, and dialectic stillprevailed. Rome was filled with philosophers and orators. Military discipline wasneglected,agriculturespurned,sectswereembraced,andthefatherlandforgotten.Thesacrednamesoffreedom,disinterestedness,obediencetothelawswerereplacedbythenamesofEpicurus,Zeno,Arcesilaus.28Eversincelearnedmenbegantoappearamongus,saidtheirownphilosophers,goodmenhavebeeneclipsed.29UntilthentheRomanshadbeencontenttopracticevirtue;allwaslostwhentheybegantostudyit.OFabricius!Whatwouldyourgreatsoulhavethought iftoyourownmisfortune,

calledbacktolifeyouhadseenthepompousappearanceofthatRomesavedbyyourmight andmademore illustrious by your respectable name than by all its conquests?Gods!youwouldhavesaid,whathasbecomeofthosethatchedhutsandthoserustichearthswheremoderation and virtue once dwelled?What fatal splendor has replacedRomansimplicity?What is this strange language?Whatare theseeffeminatemorals?Whatisthemeaningofthesestatues,thesepaintings,thesebuildings?Madmen,whathaveyoudone?You,themastersofnations,haveyoumadeyourselvestheslavesofthefrivolous men you vanquished? Is it rhetoricians who govern you? Was it to enricharchitects, painters, sculptors, and historians that you shed your blood inGreece andAsia?ArethespoilsofCarthagebootyforafluteplayer?Romans,hastentoteardowntheseamphitheaters,breakthesemarblestatues,burnthesepaintings,driveawaytheseslaveswhohavesubjugatedyouandwhosefatalartsarecorruptingyou.Letotherhandswinrenownthroughvaintalents;thesoletalentworthyofRomeisthatofconqueringtheworldandmakingvirtuereigninit.WhenCineastookourSenateforanassemblyofkings,hewasdazzledneitherbyvainpompnorbyanoverlyrefinedelegance.Hedidnothearinitthatfrivolouselegance,theobjectofstudyandthedelightoftriflingmen.

What, then, didCineas see thatwas somajestic?Ocitizens!He sawa spectacle thatneither yourwealth nor all your artswill ever produce, the noblest spectacle that hasever appeared beneath heaven: the assembly of two hundred thousand virtuousmen,worthyofcommandingRomeandofgoverningtheearth.30Butletusleapovertheintervalofspaceandtimeandseewhathashappenedinour

landsandbeforeoureyes.Or,rather,letussetasidetherepugnantcanvasesthatwouldoffendourdelicacyandspareourselvesthedifficultyofrepeatingthesamethingsunderdifferentnames. It isnot invain that Ievoked theshadeofFabricius,andwhatdid ImakethatgreatmansaythatIcouldnothaveputinthemouthofLouisXIIorofHenriIV?31Amongus,it istrue,Socrateswouldnothavedrunkthehemlock;buthewouldhavedrunka stillmorebitter cup: insulting railleryand scornahundred timesworsethandeath.Thisishowluxury,licentiousness,andslaveryhaveinallagesbeenthepunishment

for the prideful effortswe havemade to leave that happy ignorance inwhich eternalwisdom had placed us. The thick veil with which it has covered all its operationsseemedtowarnusclearlyenoughthatitdidnotdestineusforvainstudies.Butisthereeven one of its lessons from which we have been able to profit or which we haveneglectedwith impunity?Peoples:knowonce and for all, then, thatnaturewanted tokeepyoufromsciencejustasamothertearsadangerousweaponfromthehandsofherchild,thatallthesecretsithidfromyouaresomanyevilsfromwhichitprotectsyou,andthatthedifficultyyoufindineducatingyourselvesisnottheleastofitsblessings.Menareperverse;theywouldbeevenworseiftheyhadhadthemisfortunetobebornlearned.Howhumiliatingthesereflectionsareforhumanity!Howourpridemustbemortified

bythem!What!Couldintegritybethedaughterofignorance?Couldscienceandvirtuebe incompatible?What consequencesmight be drawn from these prejudices? But inordertoreconciletheseapparentcontradictions,itisonlynecessarytoexaminecloselytheemptinessandmeaninglessnessofthosepridefultitleswhichdazzleusandwhichwegivesogratuitouslytohumanknowledge.Letusthereforeconsiderthesciencesandtheartsinthemselves.Letusseewhatmustresultfromtheirprogressandnolongerhesitatetoagreeonallthosepointswhereourreasoningisfoundtobeinaccordwithhistoricalinductions.

SECONDPART

It was an ancient tradition passed down from Egypt to Greece that a god who washostile to mens tranquility was the inventor of the sciences.*1What, then, must theEgyptiansthemselves,amongwhomtheywereborn,havethoughtofthem?Itwasthatthey saw up close the sources that had produced them. Indeed, whether one leafsthrough the annals of the world, whether one supplements uncertain chronicles withphilosophic research, human knowledge will not be found to have an origin thatcorresponds to the idea one would like to have of it. Astronomy was born fromsuperstition; eloquence from ambition, hatred, flattery, lying; geometry from avarice;physicsfromvaincuriosity;allofthem,andevenmoralphilosophy,fromhumanpride.The sciences and the arts thereforeowe their birth toour vices.Wewouldbe in lessdoubtregardingtheiradvantagesiftheyowedittoourvirtues.Thedefectivenessof theirorigin isonly tooclearlybroughtback tomindforus in

theirobjects.Whatwouldwedowiththeartswithouttheluxurythatnourishesthem?Withoutmensinjusticeswhatpurposewouldjurisprudenceserve?Whatwouldhistorybecomeiftherewereneithertyrants,norwars,norconspirators?Who,inaword,wouldwanttospendhislifeinsterilecontemplationifeachperson,consultingonlythedutiesofmanandtheneedsofnature,hadtimeonlyforthefatherland,theunfortunate,andhisfriends?Arewethendestinedtodiefastenedtotheedgeofthewellintowhichthetruthhaswithdrawn?34This reflectionalone should rebuff from theveryoutseteverymanwhowouldseriouslyattempttoeducatehimselfthroughthestudyofphilosophy.Howmanydangers!Howmanyfalsepathsintheinvestigationofthesciences!How

manyerrors,athousandtimesmoredangerousthanthetruthisuseful,mustbebravedin order to reach it! The disadvantage is evident, for falsehood admits of an infinitenumberofcombinations,but the truthhasbutonemodeofbeing.Furthermore,whoreallyseeksitsincerely?Evenwiththebestofintentions,bywhatsignsisonecertaintorecognize it? Amid this host of differing sentiments, what will be our criterion forjudgingitcorrectly?*2Andwhatismostdifficult,ifbygoodfortuneweeventuallyfindit,whoamonguswillknowhowtomakegooduseofit?Ifoursciencesarevainintheobjecttheyproposeforthemselves,theyarestillmore

dangerous through the effects they produce.Born in idleness, they nourish it in theirturn,andtheirreparablelossoftimeisthefirstinjurytheynecessarilydotosociety.Inpolitics,asinmorals,itisagreatevilnottodogood,andeveryuselesscitizencanberegardedasaperniciousman.Answerme, then, illustriousphilosophersyou, thanks

towhomweknowinwhatproportionsbodiesattractoneanotherinavacuum;whatintheorbitsoftheplanetsaretheratiosoftheareascoveredinequaltimes;whatcurveshave conjugate points, inflexion points, and cusps; howman sees everything inGod;how the soul and the body are, like two clocks, in harmonywithout communicating;whatplanetsmightbeinhabited;whatinsectsreproduceinanextraordinarymanner?36Answerme,Isay,youfromwhomwehavereceivedsomuchsublimeknowledge:evenifyouhadnevertaughtusanyofthesethings,wouldwebeanylesspopulous,lesswell-governed, less formidable, less flourishing or more perverse? Reexamine, then, theimportanceofyourproductions,andifthelaborsofthemostenlightenedofourlearnedandourbestcitizensprocureussolittleutility,telluswhatwemustthinkofthatcrowdof obscurewriters and idlemenof letterswhodevour the states substance at a pureloss.What am I saying, idle? And would to God they were indeed! Morals would be

healthier and society more peaceful. But those vain and futile declaimers go abouteverywhere, armedwith their deadlyparadoxes, undermining the foundationsof faithand annihilating virtue. They laugh disdainfully at those old-fashioned wordsfatherland and religion and consecrate their talents and their philosophy todestroying and degrading all that is sacred amongmen.Not that at bottom they hateeithervirtueorourdogmas:itispublicopiniontowhichtheyarehostile,andinordertobringthembacktothefeetofthealtars,itwouldbeenoughtobanishthemamongtheatheists.Oragefordistinction!Whatwillyounotdo?Themisuseoftimeisagreatevil.Otherevilsstillworseaccompanythelettersand

thearts.Oneofthemisluxury,bornlikethemfrommensidlenessandvanity.Luxuryrarelyproceedswithoutthesciencesandthearts,andneverdotheyproceedwithoutit.Iknow that our philosophy, ever fertile in singular maxims, claimsagainst theexperience of every agethat luxury makes for the splendor of states. But, havingforgotten theneed for sumptuary laws,will it daredenyaswell that goodmorals areessentialtothecontinuanceofempiresandthatluxuryisdiametricallyopposedtogoodmorals?Letluxurybeacertainsignofwealth,letitevenserve,ifyoulike,toincreaseit.Whatmustbeconcludedfromthisparadoxsoworthyofbeingborninourtime,andwhatwillvirtuebecomewhenitisnecessarytoenrichoneselfatanycost?Theancientpoliticians spoke constantly of morals and virtue; ours speak only of commerce andmoney.37Onewill tell you that aman in agiven land isworth the sumforwhichhewould be sold in Algiers. Another, working through this calculation, will discovercountries inwhichaman isnotworthanything, andothers inwhichhe isworth lessthannothing.38They evaluatemen like herds of cattle. According to them, aman isworth to the stateonlywhatheconsumes in it.Thus, aSybaritemightwellbeworththirty Lacedaemonians. Let one guess, then, which of these two republics, Sparta or

Sybaris,wassubjugatedbyahandfulofpeasantsandwhichmadeAsiatremble.39ThemonarchyofCyruswasconqueredwithtwentythousandmenbyaprincepoorer

thantheleastofPersiassatraps,andtheScythians,themostmiserableofallpeoples,resisted themostpowerfulmonarchs in theuniverse.Twofamous republicscontestedtheempireoftheworld:onewasveryrich,theotherhadnothing,anditwasthelatterthatdestroyedtheformer.TheRomanEmpire,initsturn,afterhavinggobbledupalltherichesintheuniverse,wasthepreyofpeopleswhodidnotevenknowwhatwealthwas.TheFranksconqueredtheGauls,theSaxonsEngland,withoutanyothertreasurethan theirbraveryand theirpoverty.Abandofpoormountaineers the sumofwhosegreedwaslimitedtosomesheepskins,afterbreakingAustrianpridecrushedtheopulentandformidableHouseofBurgundythatmadethepotentatesofEuropetremble.Finally,allthepowerandallthewisdomoftheheirofCharlesV,supportedbyallthetreasuresoftheIndies,cametobeshatteredbyahandfulofherring-fishers.40Letourpoliticiansdeigntosuspendtheircalculations inorder toreflecton theseexamples,and let themlearnforoncethatwithmoneyonehaseverything,savemoralsandcitizens.What, then, precisely is at issue in thisquestionof luxury?Toknowwhat ismore

important for empires: to be brilliant and transitory or virtuous and lasting. I saybrilliant, butwithwhat luster?The taste for splendor is hardly ever combined in thesamesoulswiththetasteforthehonorable.No,itisnotpossibleformindsdegradedbyahostoftrivialconcernstoeverrisetoanythinggreat,andeveniftheyhadthestrengthtodosotheywouldlackthecourage.Every artist wants to be applauded. The praise of his contemporaries is the most

precious portion of his reward. What will he do to obtain it, then, if he has themisfortunetobebornamongapeopleandinatimewhenthelearned,havingbecomefashionable,haveputfrivolousyouthintoapositionwheretheysetthetone;whenmenhavesacrificedtheirtastetothetyrantsoftheirfreedom;*3when,sinceoneofthesexeshas dared to approve only what is proportioned to the pusillanimity of the other,masterpiecesofdramaticpoetryaredroppedfromrepertoiresandwondersofharmonyarerejected?Whatwillhedo,Gentlemen?Hewilllowerhisgeniustothelevelofhisageandhewillprefertocomposeordinaryworksthatareadmiredduringhislifetimerather thanmarvels thatwould be admired only long after his death.Tell us, famousArouet,howmuchyouhavesacrificedmanlyandstrongbeautiestoourfalsedelicacy,andhowmuchthespiritofgallantry,sofertileinpettythings,hascostyougreatones?41

This is how thedissolutionofmorals, a necessary consequence of luxury, leads inturn to the corruption of taste. If, by chance, someone among those men ofextraordinarytalentisfoundwhohasfirmnessofsoulandwhorefusestoyield to thegeniusofhisageandtodebasehimselfwithchildishworks,woeuntohim!Hewilldiein poverty and oblivion. If only thiswere a prognostication I ammaking and not an

experience I report!Carle,Pierre: themomenthascomewhen thatbrushdestined toincreasethemajestyofourtempleswithsublimeandsacredimageswillfallfromyourhands or it will be prostituted to decorate the panels of a carriage with lasciviouspaintings.43Andyou,rivalofthe likesofPraxitelesandofPhidias;you,whosechiseltheancientswouldhaveutilizedtomakegodscapableofexcusingtheiridolatryinoureyes:inimitablePigalle,yourhandwillbringitselftosculptingthebellyofagrotesquefigurineoritmustremainidle.44One cannot reflect onmorals without taking delight in recalling the image of the

simplicity of the earliest times. It is a lovely shore, fashioned by the hand of naturealone, towardwhich one continually turns ones eyes and fromwhich one reluctantlyfeelsoneselfmovingaway.Wheninnocentandvirtuousmenenjoyedhavingthegodsaswitnesses of their actions, they lived together in the same huts. But soon, becomingwicked, they grew weary of these inconvenient spectators and relegated them tomagnificent temples. They eventually chased them out in order to take up residencetherethemselves,oratleastthetemplesofthegodswerenolongerdistinguishedfromthehousesof thecitizens.Thiswas theheightofdepravity,and theviceswerenevercarriedfurtherthanwhentheycouldbeseen,sotospeak,setuponmarblecolumnsandengravedonCorinthiancapitalsattheentryofthepalacesofthegreat.While the conveniences of life multiply, while the arts are perfected and luxury

spreads,truecourageisenervated,themilitaryvirtuesvanish,andthistooistheworkofthesciencesandofallthoseartspracticedintheshadeofthestudy.WhentheGothsravagedGreece, all the librarieswere saved frombeing burned only by that opinion,spreadbyoneofthem,thattheyshouldlettheirenemieskeepbelongingssowellsuitedtodeterring themfrommilitary trainingandtoamusing themwith idleandsedentaryoccupations.CharlesVIIIfoundhimselfmasterofTuscanyandtheKingdomofNaplesalmostwithouthavingdrawnhissword,andhisentirecourtattributedthisunexpectedease to thefact that theprincesandnobilityof Italyamused themselvesbybecomingingenious and learned more than they worked at becoming vigorous and warlike.Indeed,statesthesensiblemanwhorelatesthesetwoanecdotes,allexamplesteachusthat in such military regulations, and in all those similar to them, the study of thesciencesismuchmorelikelytosoftenandemasculatemenscouragethantostrengthenandanimateit.45The Romans confessed that military virtue was extinguished among them in

proportion as they began to become connoisseurs of paintings, engravings, jeweledvases,andtocultivatethefinearts.And,as if thatfamouslandweredestinedever toserveasanexampletootherpeoples,theriseoftheMediciandtherestorationoflettersbroughtaboutanew,andperhapsforever, thedownfallof thatwarlikereputationItalyseemedtohaverecoveredafewcenturiesago.The ancient republics ofGreece, with that wisdomwhich shined forth inmost of

their institutions, forbade their citizens all those sedate and sedentary occupationswhich,byweighingdownandcorruptingthebody,soonenervatethevigorofthesoul.How, indeed, do you think men whom the slightest need crushes and the slightestdifficultyrebuffswouldenvisionhunger, thirst,fatigue,danger,anddeath?Withwhatcourage will soldiers endure excessive labors to which they have not becomeaccustomed?Withwhatspiritwilltheymakeforcedmarchesunderofficerswhodonotevenhavethestrengthtotravelonhorseback?Letnooneraiseasanobjectionagainstmetherenownedvalorofallthosemodernwarriorswhoaresoscientificallytrained.Ihear theirbraveryonasingledayofbattlehighly lauded,but Iamnot toldhowtheyendureexcessivelabor,howtheyresisttheharshnessoftheseasonsandtheinclemencyoftheweather.Allittakesisabitofsunshineorsnow,thelackofafewsuperfluities,todissolveanddestroythebestofourarmiesinafewdays.Intrepidwarriors:endureforoncethetruththatissorareforyoutohear:youarebrave,Iknow;youwouldhavetriumphed with Hannibal at Cannae and at Trasimene, with you Caesar would havecrossed the Rubicon and enslaved his country; but it is not with you that the onetraversedtheAlpsandtheothervanquishedyourancestors.46Successincombatdoesnotalwaysleadtosuccessinwar,andforgeneralsthereisan

artsuperiortothatofwinningbattles.Someonemayrunintrepidlyintothelineoffireandyetbeaverybadofficer;eveninasoldier,alittlemorestrengthandvigorwouldperhaps bemore necessary than somuch bravery, which does not protect him fromdeath.Andwhatdoesitmattertothestatewhetheritstroopsperishbyfeverandcoldorbytheenemyssword?Ifthecultivationofthesciencesisharmfultowarlikequalities,itisevenmoresoto

moral qualities. From our earliest years a foolish education adorns our minds andcorrupts our judgment. I see everywhere immense establishments inwhich youth areraised at great expense in order to teach them everything, except their duties. Yourchildrenwillnotknowtheirownlanguage,buttheywillspeakotherswhicharenowherein use. They will know how to compose verses they have difficulty understanding.Withoutknowinghowtodisentangleerrorfromthe truth, theywillpossess theartofmaking it unrecognizable toothers through specious arguments.But as for thewordsmagnanimity, equity, moderation, humanity, couragethey will not know what theyare. The sweet name of fatherland will never strike their ear, and if they hear Godspokenof,itwillbelesstobeafraidofhimthantobescaredofhim.*4Iwouldassoon,saidawiseman,havehadmypupilspendhistimeonatenniscourt:atleasthisbodywould bemore fit.47 I know that childrenmust be kept busy and that idleness is forthemthedangertobemostfeared.What,then,musttheylearn?Thisiscertainlyafinequestion!Let them learnwhat theyought todoasmen,1andnotwhat theyought toforget.

Ourgardensareadornedwith statuesandourgallerieswithpaintings.Whatwouldyou think these masterpieces of art, exhibited for public admiration, represent? Thedefenders of the fatherland?Or thosemen still greaterwhohave enriched it by theirvirtues?No.Theyaretheimagesofalltheaberrationsofheartandhead,painstakinglydrawnfromancientmythologyandearlyonpresentedtothecuriosityofourchildren,doubtlesssothattheyhavebeforetheireyesmodelsofevilactionsbeforeevenknowinghowtoread.From where do all these abuses arise, if not from the fatal inequality introduced

amongmenbythedistinctionoftalentsandbythedegradationofvirtues?Thisisthemostobviouseffectofallourstudiesandthemostdangerousofalltheirconsequences.Itisnolongeraskedofamanwhetherhehasintegritybutwhetherhehastalents,orofabookwhetheritisusefulbutwhetheritiswellwritten.Rewardsarebestowedonthewitty and virtue remains without honors. There are a thousand prizes for finediscourses, none for fine actions.Will someone tell me, however, whether the gloryattached to the best of the discourses that will be crowned by this academy iscomparabletothemeritofhavingfoundedtheprize?Thewisemandoesnotrunafterfortune,butheisnotinsensitivetoglory.Andwhen

heseesitsopoorlydistributed,hisvirtue,whichalittleemulationwouldhaveanimatedandmadeadvantageous tosociety, falls in lassitudeand isextinguished inmiseryandoblivion.Thisiswhatthepreferenceforagreeabletalentsoverusefultalentsmustinthelong runeverywhereproduce,andwhatexperiencehasconfirmedonly toowell sincethe revival of the sciences and the arts. We have physicists, geometers, chemists,astronomers,poets,musicians,painters.Wenolongerhavecitizens,or,ifwestillhavesome, dispersed in our abandoned countryside, they perish there impoverished andscorned.Suchistheconditiontowhichthosewhoprovideuswithbreadandwhogiveourchildrenmilkarereduced,suchistheregardtheygetfromus.I admit, however, that the evil is not as great as it might have become. Eternal

foresight,byplacingsalutaryherbsnext tocertainnoxiousplants,and the remedyforthe wounds inflicted by various harmful animals within their bodies, has taughtsovereigns,whoareitsministers,toimitateitswisdom.Itisafteritsexamplethatthatgreatmonarchwhoseglorywillacquireonlynewlusterfromoneagetoanotherdrewfromtheverybosomofthesciencesandthearts,sourcesofathousanddisorders,thosefamous societies responsible simultaneously for the dangerous trust of humanknowledgeandfor thesacred trustofmorals through theattention theyhavegiven tomaintaining among themselves everypurity and to require it of all themembers theyadmit.53Thesewiseinstitutions,strengthenedbyhisaugustsuccessor54andimitatedbyallthe

kingsofEurope,willatleastserveasacheckonmenofletters,allofwhom,aspiringtothehonorofbeingadmittedtotheacademies,willkeepwatchoverthemselvesandwill

strive to make themselves worthy of being admitted through useful works andirreproachablemorals.Thoseamongthesesocietiesthatchoosesubjectsfitforrevivingloveofvirtueincitizensheartsfortheprizeswithwhichtheyhonorliterarymeritwillshowthatthislovereignsamongthemandwillgivepeoplesthatpleasure,sorareandsosweet, of seeing learned societies dedicated to disseminating not only agreeableenlightenment,butalsosalutaryteachingsthroughoutthehumanrace.LetnoonethereforeraiseasanobjectionagainstmewhatIregardasmerelyanew

proof.Somanyprecautionarymeasuresshowonlytoowellthenecessityoftakingthem,andonedoesnotseekremediesforevils thatdonotexist.Whyshould itbe thecasethat,despitethis, theseveryremediesarejustas inadequateasordinaryremedies?Somanyestablishmentscreatedforthebenefitofthelearnedareonlyallthemorecapableof impressingpeoplewith regard to the object of the sciences andof steeringmindstowardtheircultivation.Itseems,fromtheprecautionsthataretaken,thattherearetoomany farmers and that a shortage of philosophers is feared. I do not wish to risk acomparisonbetweenagricultureandphilosophyhere; itwouldnotbe tolerated. I willsimplyask:what isphilosophy?Whatdo thewritingsof thebestknownphilosopherscontain?Whataretheteachingsofthosefriendsofwisdom?Tolistentothem,wouldntone take them for a troop of charlatans crying out, each fromhis spot on the publicsquare:Cometome,itisIwhoalonedoesnotdeceive?Oneclaimsthatthereisnobodyandthateverythingisanidea.AnotherthatthereisnosubstancebutmatternoranyotherGodthantheworld.Thisoneproposesthatthereareneithervirtuesnorvices,and that moral good and evil are chimeras. That one, that men are wolves and candevouroneanotherwith a clear conscience.55Ogreat philosophers!Why do you notsavetheseprofitableteachingsforyourfriendsandyourchildren?Youwouldsoonreapthereward,andwewouldnolongerfearfindinganyofyoursectariansamongourown.These,then,arethewondrousmenonwhomtheesteemoftheircontemporarieshas

beenbestowedduring their lifetimesandforwhomimmortality isreservedafter theirdemise! These are thewisemaximswe have received from them andwhichwewilltransmittoourdescendantsfromoneagetoanother.Didpaganism,givenovertoalltheaberrationsofhumanreason,leavetoposterityanythingthatcouldbecomparedtotheshamefulmemorialsthatprintinghaspreparedforitunderthereignoftheGospel?TheimpiouswritingsofthelikesofLeucippusandofDiagorasperishedalongwiththem.56The art of immortalizing the extravagances of the human mind had not yet beeninvented. But, thanks to typography*5 and to the use we make of it, the dangerousreveriesofthelikesofHobbesandofSpinozawilllastforever.57Go,famedwritingsofwhichtheignoranceandrusticityofourforefatherswouldnothavebeencapable:escorttoourdescendantsthoseevenmoredangerousworksthatreekofthecorruptionofourown agesmorals and together transmit to the ages to come a faithful history of the

progressandadvantagesofoursciencesandourarts.Iftheyreadyou,youwillnotleaveany doubt regarding the question we are debating today, and unless they are morefoolishthanweare,theywillthrowuptheirhandstoheavenandwillsaywithabitterheart: Almighty God, thou who holds all spirits in thy hands, deliver us from theenlightenmentandfatalartsofourfathersandgiveusbackignorance,innocence,andpoverty, thesolegoods thatmightcreateourhappinessandwhichareprecious in thysight.But if the progress of the sciences and the arts has added nothing to our genuine

felicity,ifithascorruptedourmorals,andifthecorruptionofmoralshastaintedpurityoftaste,whatshallwethinkofthatthrongofrudimentaryauthorswhohaveremovedfromthetempleoftheMusesthedifficultiesthatguardedaccesstoitandthatnatureplaced thereasa testof the strengthof thosewhomightbe tempted toknow?Whatshallwethinkofthosecompilersofworkswhohaveindiscreetlybrokendownthedoorofthesciencesandlet intotheirsanctuaryapopulaceunworthyofapproachingthem,whereasonewouldhopethatallthosewhocouldnotadvanceveryfarinthecareerofletterswouldhavebeenrebuffedfromtheoutsetandwouldhavebeendirectedintoartsuseful to society. Someonewho for his entire lifewill be a bad versifier, a subalterngeometer,wouldperhapsbecomeagreatclothmaker.Thosewhomnaturedestinedtomake its disciples needed no teachers. The likes of Verulam, of Descartes, and ofNewton61thosepreceptorsofthehumanracehadnonethemselves,andwhatguideswould have led them to the point their vast genius carried them? Ordinary teacherscouldonlyhavenarrowedtheirunderstandingbyconfiningitwithinthenarrowcapacityof theirown. It isby thefirstobstacles that they learned toexert themselvesand thattheytrainedthemselvestotraversetheimmensespacetheycovered.Ifsomemenmustbeallowedtogive themselvesover to thestudyof thesciencesandthearts, it isonlythosewho feel theyhave the strength towalk alone in their footsteps and gobeyondthem. It belongs to this small number to raisemonuments to the gloryof thehumanmind.Butifonewantsnothingtobeabovetheirgenius,nothingmustbebeyondtheirhopes.This is the sole encouragement they need.The soul imperceptibly proportionsitself to theobjects thatoccupy it,and it isgreatoccasions thatmakegreatmen.Theprince of eloquence was consul of Rome, and perhaps the greatest of philosopherschancellorofEngland.62Isittobebelievedthatiftheformerhadonlyheldachairinsomeuniversityorthelatterhadobtainedonlyamodestpensionfromanacademy,isittobebelieved,Isay, that theirworkswouldnothavereflectedtheirstatus?Letkingstherefore not consider it beneath them to admit into their counsels those men mostcapableofadvising themwell.Let them renounce thatoldprejudice, inventedby thepride of the great, that the art of leading peoples is more difficult than that ofenlighteningthem,asifitwereeasiertogetmentodogoodwillinglythantoconstrainthemtodoso.Letthelearnedofthefirstrankfindhonorableasylumintheircourts.

Letthemthereobtainthesolerecompenseworthyofthem:thatofcontributingbytheirreputationtothehappinessofthepeoplestowhomtheywillhavetaughtwisdom.Itisonlythenthatitwillbeseenwhatvirtue,science,andauthoritycandowhenanimatedbyanobleemulationandworkinginconcertforthefelicityofthehumanrace.Butaslongaspowerisbyitselfontheoneside,enlightenmentandwisdombythemselvesontheother,thelearnedwillrarelythinkofgreatthings,princeswillevenmorerarelydonoblethings,andpeoplewillcontinuetobeabject,corrupt,andunhappy.Asforus,vulgarmen,towhomheavenhasnotimpartedsuchgreattalentsandhas

notdestined for somuchglory, letus remain inourobscurity.Letusnot runafter areputationwhichwouldeludeusandwhich,inthepresentstateofthings,wouldnevergivebackwhat it would have cost us, even if we possessed all the qualifications forobtainingit.Whatgoodisittoseekourhappinessintheopinionofothersifwecannotfinditinourselves?Letusleavetoothersthetaskofinstructingpeoplesintheirdutiesandletus limitourselvestofulfillingourownwell:wedonotneedtoknowanythingmore.Ovirtue!Sublimescienceofsimplesouls,arethensomanyeffortsandpreparations

neededtoknowyou?Arenotyourprinciplesengravedinallhearts,andisitnotenoughtolearnyourlawstoreturnintooneselfandtolistentothevoiceofonesconscienceinthesilenceofthepassions?Thisisgenuinephilosophy,letusknowhowtobesatisfiedwithit;andwithoutenvyingthegloryofthosefamousmenwhoareimmortalizedintherepublicofletters, letustrytoestablishthatgloriousdistinctionbetweenthemanduslongagonotedbetweentwogreatpeoples:thattheoneknewhowtospeakwell,andtheothertoactwell.63

THEEND

DISCOURSE-WHICHTOOKTHEPRIZEOFTHEACADEMYOFDIJONINTHEYEAR1.OvidTristia5.9.37,quotedbyRousseauinLatin:Barbarushicegosumquianonintelligorillis.Rousseauslightly

changestheoriginalLatin.TheRomanpoetOvid(43BCAD17/18)wrotetheTristia(Sorrows)wheninexileinTomisontheBlackSeawheremanyinhabitantscouldnotunderstandLatin,thereforemakingOvidthebarbarianamongthem.RousseauwouldlaterusethissameepigraphforhisautobiographicalworkRousseauJudgeofJean-Jacques.

NOTICE2.TheNoticewaswrittenbyRousseauin1763foracollectededitionofhisworks,hencehisremarkintheNotice

thattheDiscourseisoneoftheslightestinthisentirecollection.Inspeakingoftheharshpenaltyhehassufferedforhisfameasawriter,RousseaurefersforemosttothecondemnationofhisEmileandSocialContractin1762,ayearbeforethiscollectededitionappeared.Seetheeditorsintroduction.

PREFACE

3.TheLeague,orHolyLeague,wasaCatholicfactionthatattemptedtosuppressProtestantismduringtheFrenchwarsofreligionofthelatterpartofthesixteenthcentury.4.ContrarytoRousseaussuggestion,thesepassagesarenoteasilyrecognizedandtheiridentityhasbeenamatter

ofdisputeamongscholars.

DISCOURSE5.HoraceOntheArtofPoetry(Arspoetica)5.25,quotedbyRousseauinLatin:Decipimurspecierecti.6.Moralstranslatesmoeurs,whichmightalsobetranslatedmoresandhasabroadsenseofmorals,manners,

andevencustoms.Thebroadsenseofthetermshouldbekeptinmind.7.Enlightenmenttranslateslumires,hereandthroughout.Thetermreferstotheilluminationorlightofthe

mind.AlthoughRousseauscontemporariesreferredtotheireraasthecenturyofenlightenment(sicledeslumires),thetermEnlightenmentasusedtorefertotheintellectualmovementoftheeighteenthcenturydidnotcomeintoEnglishusageuntilaboutacenturyafterthepublicationoftheDiscourseontheSciencesandtheArts.

FIRSTPART8.RousseaualludestothetechnicalvocabularyofScholasticphilosophythatpredominatedinmedievaltheology

andphilosophy.9.RousseaureferstothefallofConstantinoplein1453totheinvadingOttomanTurks.Constantinoplewas

foundedbytheEmperorConstantineastheeasterncapitaloftheRomanEmpireandbecamethecapitaloftheByzantineEmpire.TherefugeesfromConstantinoplecarriedwiththemmanyGreekliteraryandphilosophicalworksthatservedasaninspirationfortherevivaloflearninginItalyandelsewhereduringtheRenaissance.10.Communingtranslatescommerce,whichhasthegeneralsenseofinteractionsordealingsamongindividuals

orgroups,whichisthesensehere,orsometimesthespecificsenseofcommercialrelations.Giventheimportanceofthetermforeighteenth-centurythoughtabouttheoriginsandeffectsofcommerceinbothsensesoftheterm,commercehaseitherbeentranslatedascommerceoranotewillidentifyanalternativetranslationsuchasrelationsorinteractions.11.Or:commerce(commerce).*1Princesalwaysviewwithpleasurethetastefortheagreeableartsandforsuperfluitiesthatdonotresultinthe

exportationofmoneyspreadamongtheirsubjects.Forasidefromtherebynurturinginthemthatpettinessofsoulsoappropriatetoservitude,theywellknowthatalltheneedswhichthepeoplegivesitselfaresomanychainswithwhichtheyburdenthemselves.Alexander,wantingtokeeptheIchthyophagidependentonhim,compelledthemtogiveupfishandtofeedthemselvesonfoodscommontootherpeoples,12andthesavagesofAmericawhogoaroundtotallynakedandwholiveonlyontheyieldoftheirhuntinghaveneverbeensubdued.Indeed,whatyokecouldbeimposedonmenwhoneednothing?12.AlexandertheGreatencounteredagroupofpeoplecalledtheIchthyophagi(Fish-Eaters)inwhatistoday

Pakistanwhoateprimarilyfish.13.Or:throughsocialcommerce(commerce).14.Fatherlandtranslatespatrie.Patriemightalsobetranslatedcountryinthesenseofthephraseloveof

country,hencepatriotism.However,asidefromthefactthatcountryalsotranslatespays,whichdoesnothavethestrongpoliticalsenseofpatrie,Rousseauarguesthatmodernpeoplescanhaveacountry(pays)withouthavingatruefatherland(patrie).AlthoughthetermfatherlandincontemporaryEnglishoftenhasapejorativesensestemmingfromthenationalistmovementsandwarsofthetwentiethcentury,patriewillbetranslatedasfatherlandthroughout.15.Pyrrhonismwasanancientphilosophicaldoctrine,namedafterPyrrhoofElis,thattaughtsuspensionof

judgmentinthefaceofuncertaintyabouttruth.InRousseaustimethedoctrinethatwastakentobeaformofradicalskepticism.*2Ilike,statesMontaigne,toargueanddiscuss,butonlywithafewmenandformyownsake.Fortoserveasa

spectacleforthegreatandtoviewithothersbyparadingoneswitandchatteris,Ifind,amostunbecomingoccupationforamanofhonor.Thisistheoccupationofallourwits,saveone.16

16.MicheldeMontaigne,Essays(158092),OftheArtofDiscussion,3.8,p.704.TheexceptionthatRousseaumakesforoneofhiscontemporarieswhodoesnottalkmerelytodisplayhiswitisgenerallyagreedtorefertoDenisDiderot,hisclosestfriendatthetimehewrotethisDiscourse.17.SesostriscouldrefertoanumberoflegendaryEgyptianrulers.ThePersiankingCambysesconqueredEgyptin

525BC.Inturn,AlexandertheGreatconquereditin332BC,theRomansunderAugustusin30BC,theArabsunderCaliphOmarIin63942,andtheOttomanTurksin1517.18.TheAthenianoratorDemosthenes(384322BC)spokeinoppositiontotheMacedonianexpansionintothe

Greekcity-states.19.Ennius(c.239c.169BC),whoisconsideredthefatherofRomanpoetry,andTerence(c.195/185159BC),

thegreatdramatist,bothlivedduringtheperiodoftheRomanRepublic.ThepoetOvid(43BCAD17/18),whowaswellknownforhiseroticpoems,livedduringtheearlyRomanEmpire.Catullus(8454BC),aneroticpoet,livedduringthetimeofthecollapseoftheRomanRepublic.Martial(40c.104)wrotesatiricalpoemsandlivedduringatumultuousperiodoftheearlyRomanEmpire.ThecitizennamedarbiterofgoodtastewasPetronius(c.2766),thesatiricalwriterwhowasacourtiertoNeroandwhowasrenownedforhisdebauchery.20.ThephilosophicnovelinquestionistheEducationofCyrus,writtenbyXenophon(c.430354BC),whowas

anassociateofSocrates.21.TheauthorofthepeninquestionisTacitus(56117),whoseHistoriesandAnnalschroniclethehistoryof

theearlyRomanEmpireandwhowasthealsotheauthoroftheGermania,whichdescribedtherusticGermanictribes.22.RousseauappearstorefertotheSwiss.*3Idarenotspeakofthosehappynationswhichdonotevenknowthenameoftheviceswehavesomuchtrouble

suppressing,ofthosesavagesofAmericawhosesimpleandnaturalorderingMontaignedoesnothesitatetoprefer,notonlytothelawsofPlato,buteventoeverythingthatphilosophycouldeverimagineasmostperfectforgoverningpeoples.Hecitesnumerousstrikingexamplesforthosewhoknowhowtoappreciatethem.Butjustthink!hesays,theydontwearbreeches!2323.SeeMontaigne,Essays(158092),OfCannibals,1.31,p.159.1Really,willsomeonetellmewhatopiniontheAtheniansthemselvesmusthavehadofeloquencewhentheykept

itawaywithsuchcarefromthatuprighttribunalwhosejudgmentsthegodsthemselvesdidnotappeal?24WhatdidtheRomansthinkofmedicinewhentheybanisheditfromtheirrepublic?AndwhenwhatlittlehumanitytheyretainedledtheSpaniardstoforbidtheirlawyersfromenteringAmerica,whatideamusttheyhavehadofjurisprudence?MightitnotbesaidthattheybelievedthatbythissingleacttheyatonedforalltheevilstheyhaddonetothoseunfortunateIndians?24.RousseaureferstotheAreopagus,thehighestjudicialcourtinancientAthens.25.TheAtheniantyrantPeisistratos(d.c.527BC)commissionedwhatbecamethestandardeditionofHomers

poetry.26.RousseauhereparaphrasesPlatoApologyofSocrates21b22e.PlatohasSocratesrecounttherehowSocrates,

havinglearnedthattheOracleofDephideclaredthatnooneiswiserthanhe,wenttothosereputedwisestamonghisfellow-citizensthepoliticians,thenthepoets,andfinallythemanualartisansorcraftsmenandconcludedfromhisinquiriesthathiswisdomconsistedinknowingthathedidnotknowanything.Amongotheralterationsoradmissionsinhisparaphrase,Rousseaumostsignificantlyomitsanydiscussionofpoliticiansandreplacesmanualartisansorcraftsmenwithartists.27.MarcusPorciusCatoorCatotheElder(234149BC)wasaRomanstatesmanfamousforhisadherenceto

old-fashionedRomanvirtuesandhisoppositiontotheintroductionintothecityoftheGreekphilosophicalsects.28.Epicurus(341270BC)wasthefounderoftheEpicureansect,ZenoofCitium(c.334c.262BC)wasthe

founderoftheStoicsect,andArcesilaus(c.316c.240BC)wasthefounderofaformofskepticismassociatedwiththelaterPlatonicAcademy.29.RousseauhereparaphrasesSenecaLetters95.13.30.GaiusFabriciusLuscinuswasaRomanstatesmanandgeneralwhowaselectedconsulin282and278BC.He

wasknownforhisausteremoralsandforhisnegotiationofpeacetermswiththeGreekkingPyrrhus,whowassoimpressedwithFabriciusimmunitytobriberythathereleasedhisRomanprisonerswithoutanyransom.CineaswassentbyPyrrhustoRometonegotiateforpeace.

31.LouisXIIwaskingofFrancefrom1498to1515andHenriIVfrom1589to1610.TheintervalbetweenthereignsofthesetwokingswasaperiodofintensereligiousconflictinFrancebetweenCatholicsandProtestants.

SECONDPART*1TheallegoryofthefableofPrometheusiseasilygrasped,anditdoesnotappearthattheGreeks,whonailed

himtotheCaucasus,scarcelythoughtmorefavorablyofhimthantheEgyptiansdidoftheirgodThoth.32Thesatyr,anancientfablegoes,wantedtokissandembracethefirethefirsttimehesawit,butPrometheuscriedouttohim:Satyr,youwillmournthebeardonyourchin,foritburnswhenitistouched.33Thisisthesubjectofthefrontispiece.32.SeePlatoPhaedrus274c275b,whereSocratestellsastoryaboutthegodThoth(orTheuth)displayinghis

artstotheEgyptianpharaoh,whoquestionsthegoodorharmthatmaycomefromthem.SeealsoPlatoProtagoras320c322d.33.RousseaucloselyparaphrasesPlutarch,HowtoProfitbyOnesEnemies,2.Thecontinuationofthepassage

isinstructiveforunderstandingthecomplexityofRousseausargumentintheDiscourseontheSciencesandtheArts:Yetthisveryfireisamostbeneficialthingtomankind:itbestowsuponustheblessingsbothoflightandheat,anditservesthosewhoknowhowtouseitforthemostexcellentinstrumentsofthearts.34.Truthwithdrawingintoawellorpitorabyssisanimagecommonlyattributedtotheancientatomist

philosopherDemocritus(seeDemocritus,Fragment17).Rousseaucouldhavetakentheimagefromanumberofsources,includingMontaigne,Essays(158092),OftheArtofDiscussion,3.8,p.708.*2Thelessoneknows,themoreonebelievesoneknows.DidthePeripateticsdoubtanything?DidnotDescartes

constructtheuniversewithcubesandvortices?35AndeventodayisthereinEuropeaphysicist,howevershabby,whodoesnotrashlyexplainthatprofoundmysteryofelectricity,whichwillperhapsforeverremainthedespairoftruephilosophers?35.ThePeripateticswerethesectofphilosophyassociatedwiththeLyceum,originallyfoundedbyAristotle.Ren

Descartes(15961650),thephilosopher,naturalscientist,andmathematician,proposedatheoryofplanetaryorbitsandothercelestialphenomenabasedonaseriesofinterlockingvortices,orlargebandsofmaterialparticlesmovinginacircularmanner.36.Thediscoveriesoftheillustriousphilosophersareasfollows:thefirstthree(theproportionsbywhichbodies

attractoneanotherinavacuum,theratiosoftheareascoveredinequaltimesbytheplanets,andtheconjugatepoints,inflexionpoints,andcuspsofvariouscurves)werediscoveredordevelopedbyIsaacNewton(16431727),althoughtheratiosofplanetarymotionwerefirstformulatedbyJohannesKepler(15711630);thedoctrinethatmanseeseverythinginGodwasputforthbyNicholasMalebranche(16381715);thenotionoftheharmonybetweenthesoulandbodyasillustratedbytwosynchronousclockswasadvancedbyGottfriedWilhelmLeibniz(16461716);speculationthatotherplanetsmightbeinhabitedreferstoBernardLeBovierdeFontenelle(16571757)andhisworkConversationsonthePluralityofWorlds(1686);finally,probablythebestknowninvestigationsintothereproductionofinsectsweredonebythenaturalistRenAntoineFerchaultdeRaumur(16831757).37.CompareMontesquieu,SpiritoftheLaws(1748),3.2,pp.2223:ThepoliticalmenofGreecewholived

underpopulargovernmentrecognizednootherforcetosustainitthanvirtue.Thoseoftodayspeaktousonlyofmanufacturing,commerce,finance,wealth,andevenluxury.38.SeeMontesquieu,SpiritoftheLaws,23.17,p.439:SirWilliamPettyhasassumedinhiscalculationsthata

maninEnglandisworthwhathewouldbesoldforinAlgiers.ThiscanbegoodonlyforEngland:therearecountriesinwhichamanisworthnothing;therearesomeinwhichheisworthlessthannothing.39.SybariswasanancientcityinwhatistodaysouthernItalywhosewealthwaslegendarythatwasconqueredby

Croton,anothercityinthesameregion,in510BC.ContrarytoRousseausexaggeratedclaim,Crotonwasalsoawealthycityandnotahandfulofpeasants.Sparta(orLacadeamon)wastheGreekcitythat,alongwithAthens,ledGreekresistancetothePersianEmpireduringthe5thcenturyBC.40.Inthisparagraph,Rousseaureferstothefollowinghistoricalevents,oftenwithadegreeofexaggeration:the

conquestofPersia(themonarchyofCyrus)byAlexandertheGreatin334330BC;thefailureofthePersianstoconquertheScythiansduringthesixthcenturyBC;thewarsbetweenRomeandCarthage(twofamousrepublics)knownasthePunicWarsin264241BC,218201BC,and149146BC;theinvasionsofRomebytheGoths,

Huns,andVandalsandtheultimatefalloftheRomanEmpirein476;theconquestoftheGaulsbytheFranksandtheSaxoninvasionsofBritain,bothduringthefifthcenturyAD;thesuccessfulresistancebytheSwiss(abandofpoormountaineers)againsttheAustrianHabsburgEmpireduringthefourteenthcenturyandthentheirvictoryoverCharlestheBold,DukeofBurgundyin1476;thesuccessfulrevoltoftheNetherlandsagainstKingPhilipIIofSpain(theheirofCharlesV,thatis,theHabsburgHolyRomanEmperorCharlesV,whowasalsokingofSpain)from1566to1579.41.FamousArouetisthepoet,dramatist,andhistorianVoltaire(16941778),whosegivennamewasFranois-

MarieArouet.ByusingVoltairesgivennameratherthanhispenname,RousseauemphasizesVoltairesdesireforfame.*3Iamquitefarfromthinkingthatthisascendencyofwomenisinitselfanevil.Itisagiftnaturehasgiventhem

forthehappinessofthehumanrace.Betterdirected,itcouldproduceasmuchgoodasitnowdoesevil.Itisnotsufficientlyappreciatedwhatadvantageswouldariseforsocietyifabettereducationweregiventothathalfofthehumanracewhichgovernstheother.Menwillalwaysbewhatispleasingtowomen.Ifyouwanttobecomegreatandvirtuous,therefore,teachwomenwhatgreatnessofsoulandvirtueare.Thereflectionsthissubjectfurnishes,andwhichPlatolongagomade,greatlydeservetobemorefullydevelopedbyapenworthyofwritingafterthemodelofsuchamasterandofdefendingsogreatacause.4242.SeePlatoRepublic5(451b457b),whereSocratesproposesthatthemenandwomenofthebestcityareequal

andshouldthereforehavethesameeducationandrolesinthecity.43.CarleorCharles-AndrVanLoo(170565)andJean-Baptiste-MariePierre(171489)werewell-known

paintersoftheperiod.44.Jean-BaptistePigalle(171485)wasoneofthemostpopularsculptorsofthetime.Praxiteles(4thcenturyBC)

wasthemostfamoussculptorofancientGreece,andPhidias(5thcenturyBC)wasthemostfamoussculptor,artist,andarchitectofancientAthensandwascommissionedbyPericlestomakeseveralstatuesfortheParthenon.45.KingCharlesVIIIofFranceinvadedItalyin1494inordertoclaimthethroneoftheKingdomofNaplesand

Sicily,andhemarchedthroughTuscanyandotherareasofItalywhilemeetinglittleresistance.ThesensiblemanwhorelatesthesestoriesisMontaigne.SeeMontaigne,Essays(158092),OfPedantry,1.26,p.106.46.TheCarthaginiangeneralHannibalsuccessfullycrossedtheAlpswithhisarmyin218BCinordertoattack

Rome,andamongthebattleshefoughtwereatCannae(216BC)andLakeTrasimene(217BC).TheRomangeneralJuliusCaesarcrossedtheriverRubiconwithhisarmyin49BC,defyingtheSenateandignitingthecivilwarthatultimatelyledtothedownfalloftheRomanRepublic.47.ThewisemanisMontaigne.SeeMontaigne,Essays(158092),OfPedantry,3.8,p.101.*4PhilosophicalThoughts.4848.DenisDiderot,PhilosophicalThoughts(1746),section8:Therearepeopleofwhomitmustnotbesaidthat

theyfearGod,butratherthattheyarescaredofhim.1SuchwastheeducationoftheSpartans,accordingtothegreatestoftheirkings.49Itis,statesMontaigne,50a

thingworthyofgreatconsiderationthatthereissolittlediscussionofdoctrine,evenintheveryhomeoftheMuses,inthoseexcellent,andintruthmonstrouslyperfect,ordersofLycurguseventhoughtheyweresoconcernedwiththeraisingofchildren,asifthisweretheirprincipaltaskasifthosenobleyouth,spurningeveryotheryoke,hadtobefurnishedonlywithteachersofvalor,prudence,andjusticeinsteadofourteachersofscience.LetusnowseehowthesameauthorspeaksoftheancientPersians.Plato,hestates,recountsthattheeldestsonin

theirroyallinewasraisedinthefollowingway.Afterhisbirth,hewasgivennottothewomenbuttotheeunuchswhohadthegreatestauthoritywiththekingduetotheirvirtue.Theytookchargeofmakinghisbodyhandsomeandhealthy,andafterhewasseventheytaughthimtorideandhunt.Whenhereachedfourteen,theyplacedhiminthehandsoffourmen:thewisest,themostjust,themostmoderate,themostvaliantinthenation.Thefirsttaughthimreligion,thesecondalwaystobetruthful,thethirdtoconquerhisappetites,thefourthtofearnothing.51All,Iwilladd,tomakehimgood,nonetomakehimlearned.Astyages,inXenophon,asksCyrustorecitehislatestlesson.Itisthis,sayshe:inourschoolalargeboy,havinga

smalltunic,gaveittooneofhissmallerclassmatesandtookawayfromhimhistunic,whichwaslarger.Ourpreceptor,havingmademejudgeofthisdispute,Ijudgedthatthingsshouldremainastheywereandthatbothseemedtobebettersuitedinthisrespect.Whereuponhereprimandedmeforhavingdonewrong:forIhadlimitedmyselftoconsideringsuitability,whenitwasnecessarytohavefirstprovidedforjustice,whichdemandsthatnoone

becompelledwithregardtowhatbelongstohim.Andhesaysthathewaspunishedforit,justlikewearepunishedinourvillagesforhavingforgottenthefirstaoristof.Myschoolmasterwouldhavetogiveafineharangue,ingeneredemonstrativo,beforehecouldpersuademethathisschoolisasgoodasthatone.5249.ThegreatestofkingsofSpartareferstoAgesilaus(444360BC).Forthesayingattributedtohimquotedby

Rousseauinthemaintext,seePlutarchSayingsoftheSpartans67.50.ThislongnotedrawsheavilyonMontaigne,Essays(158092),OfPedantry,3.8,pp.1045,althoughwith

significantchangesbyRousseau.51.ForMontaignessource,seePlatoAlcibiadesI121d122a.52.ForMontaignessource,seeXenophonEducationofCyrus1.3.1617.Astyages,thekingoftheMedian

Empire,wasthegrandfatherofthefuturePersianemperorCyrustheGreat,whowouldlaterdethronehimin550BC.TheGreekverbmeanstostrikeorhit,sothejokeisthattheschoolmasterstrikesthestudentfornotknowinghowtoconjugatetheverb,thusprovidingalessoningeneredemonstrativo,orofthekindthroughdemonstration.53.RousseaureferstoKingLouisXIVofFrance(16381715),whoestablishedanumberofacademies.54.TheaugustsuccessorofLouisXIVaskingofFrancewasLouisXV(171074).55.InthepreviousfoursentencesRousseauappearstorefer,respectively,tothephilosophicaldoctrinesofGeorge

Berkeley(16851753),whodeniedtheexistenceofmaterialsubstancesorbodiesandarguedthattheseobjectsareonlyideasinthemind;BaruchSpinoza(163277),whoequatedGodandnatureortheworld,althoughhedidnotdirectlyclaimthatallsubstanceswerematerial;BernardMandeville(16701733),whofamouslyarguedthatprivatevicesproducepublicbenefits(orprivatevicemakespublicvirtue),butdidnotclaimthattherearenovicesorvirtues;andThomasHobbes(15881679),whowrotethatmanisawolftoman(seeDeCive,EpistleDedicatory,p.3).56.Leucippus(5thcenturyBC)wasaphilosopherofatomism.Diagoras(5thcenturyBC)wasasophistregarded

asanatheist.57.ThephilosophersThomasHobbes(15881679)andBaruchSpinoza(163277)werewidelyregardedin

Rousseaustimeasatheists.*5ConsideringthefrightfuldisordersthatprintinghasalreadycausedinEurope,judgingthefuturebythe

progressthattheevilmakesfromonedaytothenext,onecaneasilyforeseethatsovereignswillnotdelayindevotingasmuchcaretobanishthisterribleartfromtheirstatesastheytooktoestablishit.SultanAhmed,givingintotheimportuningofsomesupposedmenoftaste,consentedtoestablishaprintingpressatConstantinople.58Buthardlyhadthepressbegunoperatingthanithadtobedestroyedandtheequipmentthrownintoawell.TheysaythatCaliphOmar,whenconsultedregardingwhatshouldbedonewiththelibraryatAlexandria,respondedinthefollowingterms.IfthebooksinthatlibrarycontainthingscontrarytotheKoran,theyarewickedandmustbeburned.IftheycontainnothingbutthedoctrineoftheKoran,burnthemanyway:theyaresuperfluous.Ourlearnedmenhavecitedthisreasoningastheheightofabsurdity.59Yet,imagineGregorytheGreatinplaceofOmarandtheGospelinplaceoftheKoran:thelibrarywouldstillhavebeenburned,andthiswouldperhapsbethefinestmomentinthatillustriousPontiffslife.6058.TheOttomansultanAhmedIII(16731736)patronizedtheartsandauthorizedthefirstprintingpressusedto

printworksinArabicandTurkish.59.CaliphOmarreputedlyorderedthedestructionofthefamouslibraryofAlexandriaafterthecitywascaptured

bytheinvadingMuslimsin642.60.PopeGregorytheGreat(c.540604)allegedlyhadallthepaganbooksinthePalatinelibrarydestroyed.61.FrancisBacon(15611626),createdBaronVerulamin1618,RenDescartes(15961650),andIsaacNewton

(16431727)wereallimportantphilosophersandnaturalscientists.62.RousseaureferstoMarcusTulliusCicero(10643BC),whowaselectedConsulin63BC,andFrancisBacon,

whoservedaslordchancellorofEngland.63.Thatis,theAtheniansandSpartans.

CopyrightTitle PageDedicationContentsChronologyIntroductionSelect BibliographyAcknowledgmentsNote on the Translation and EditionDiscourse on the Sciences and the ArtsDiscourse on InequalityOn the Social ContractNotesBibliography of Rousseaus SourcesIndex