The Sport Psychologist, 1987, 1, 200-207

Job Responsibilities and Backgrounds of NCAA Division I Athletic Advisors

and Counselors

Dana D. Brooks, Edward F. Etzel, and Andrew C. Ostrow West Virginia University

A national survey of the job responsibilities and educational backgrounds of athletic advisors and counselors representing NCAA Division I institutions was conducted. Of the 274 counselors contacted, 134 returned completed questionnaires, representing a 49% return rate. Results of the survey indi- cated that the majority of advisors and counselors were male, held a master's degree, and were former athletes in revenue-producing sports. They were employed primarily by athletic departments and provided counseling services, for the most part, to male college athletes involved in revenue-producing sports. Counseling services for college athletes focused primarily on academic matters, with considerably less attention devoted to personal-social or voca- tional counseling. The implications of these findings toward the provision of future counseling services for college athletes are discussed.

Over the past few years an increasing number of articles have appeared concerning the provision of advising and counseling services to college student- athletes (Cooker & Caffey, 1984; Hurley & Cunningham, 1984; Lanning, 1982; McCurdy, 1983; Mihalich, 1984; Nelson, 1982; Shriberg & Brodzinski, 1984; Wittmer, Bostic, Phillips, & Walters, 1981). The prevalent view seems to be that athletes should be thought of as a special population on campus, and conse- quently there is an assumption of institutional responsibility for helping mem- bers of this often misunderstood and exploited group obtain an adequate education (Farrell, 1985; Lanning, 1982).

There also seems to be an underlying recognition that athletes are people first, the implication being that the coaches, advisor/counselors, and sport psy- chologists who work closely with them should be at least as concerned about student-athlete psychosocial well-being as they are about the quality of their sport skills (Ferrante, 1986; Ogilvie & Howe, 1986).

About the Authors: Dana Brooks is Acting Assistant Dean of the School of Physical Education, West Virginia University, 235 Coliseum, Morgantown, WV 26506. Edward Etzel is Lecturer and Andrew Ostrow is Professor and Graduate Coordinator in the Depart- ment of Sport and Exercise Studies at West Virginia University.

Backgrounds of Athletic Advisors 201

In response to this position, more colleges and universities are beginning to offer a variety of helping services for student-athletes through the cooperative efforts of athletic departments and other on-campus support organizations (McCur- dy, 1983; Nelson, 1982; Wittmer et al., 1981). Some of these services are aca- demic advising, and personal-social and vocational counseling, all of which are commonly available to the student body as a whole. Academic advising often involves assistance with major course selection as well as scheduling. Personal- social counseling provides student-athletes with the opportunity to work on sen- sitive developmental issues or life stress concerns, or to learn various skills in either an individual or group setting. Vocational counseling services help student- athletes make career decisions.

Although the literature in this area is limited, studies about the efficacy of providing certain helping services have produced promising results. For example, Cooker and Caffey (1984) reported that their single-semester, time-limited group counseling and reading improvement program had a generally positive influence on athletes' perceived problem-solving, social, and reading skius. McCurdy (1983) described a multidimensional advising and counseling program at UCLA. The program, a cooperative venture involving the university counseling center and the athletic department, was designed to provide student-athletes with class and academic major selection, and career guidance over a 4-year period. In a study with a similar focus, Nelson (1982) found significant differences in grade point averages, a higher frequency of changing academic majors, and greater reported satisfaction with majors chosen among freshman athletes who participated in a five-session educational-vocational counseling program conducted during the ath- lete's initial semester on the James Madison University campus.

To meet the interest and demand for student-athlete services, institutions are employing increasing numbers of faculty and staff to function as advisors and counselors (Hurley & Cunningham, 1984). This trend is further evidenced by the creation of national organizations whose members' interests and jobs re- late to the unique needs of student athletes. For example, the National Associa- tion of Academic Athletic Advisors (NAAAA) has been in existence for nearly a decade (Mihalich, 1984). Furthermore, a consortium has been created involv- ing some 10 universities across the country; it is dedicated to the enhancement of athlete graduation rates in college, which are assumed to be quite low (Ad- vanced Technology, 1984; Farrell, 1985). Even more recently, at its 1986 annu- al convention the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) passed legislation that permits allowable expenses for institutions to provide on-campus, developmental, and career counseling utilizing the services of personnel outside the institution (NCAA, 1986).

As researchers and student-athlete service providers, we became interested in obtaining a more accurate understanding of the educational backgrounds and responsibilities of those who provide advising and counseling services to student- athletes. Unfortunately, the literature on this topic is very sparse. Indeed, only a single research study was found that provides insight on the issue (Brennan, 1983).

Brennan reported the combined findings of a pair of unequivalent surveys that characterized some 85 NAAAA members in terms of sex, age, length of employment, salary, educational background, employment affiliation, and profes- sional responsibilities. Those who responded to these surveys were predominantly

202 Brooks, Efzel, and Ostrow

males younger than 35 years of age who had been employed in their present ca- pacity for less than 3 years. Furthermore a significant number, 64%, had master's degrees in some field of education. The vast majority of advisors worked for athletic departments and provided a wide range of advisory and counseling ser- vices to both men and women student-athletes (Brennan, 1983).

Athletic advisors and counselors appear to be under increasing pressure, given the complexity of their job responsibilities. Many indicate that they coun- sel upwards of 200 students each, with little or no support staff and no real power to implement policies or introduce needed reforms (Monaghan, 1985). This is unfortunate, particularly given the recent national attention directed toward in- tercollegiate athletics in terms of such issues as drug abuse and the low gradua- tion rates of athletes. Questions have been raised regarding the types of helping services available to intercollegiate athletes. In view of these concerns, it would seem beneficial to direct additional research toward identifying the job responsi- bilities and professional backgrounds of the nation's college athletic advisors and counselors.

Method A questionnaire was sent to a total of 274 NCAA Division I institutions sponsor- ing men's basketball (NCAA Sports Sponsorship, 1984) during the spring semester 1985. Basketball was targeted because it offered the greatest chance of identify- ing institutions that sponsored athletic advising and counseling services. Athletic advisors and counselors listed in the 1984-85 National Directory of College Ath- letics (Franks, 1984) were sent the questionnaire. Of those contacted, 134 returned completed questionnaires, representing a 49% return rate.

The questionnaire contained both unstructured and structured items. Demo- graphic items included questions regarding the advisor's age, sex, athletic back- ground, years of employment, and highest academic degree achieved. Each ad- visor was also asked to indicate his or her specific job title, the department within the institution from which counseling services were provided, and the percent- age of time devoted to academic, personal-social, and vocational counseling within nonrevenue- and revenue-producing sports. An effort was made within the ques- tionnaire to replicate many of the content areas evaluated by Brennan (1983).

Results Demographic Characteristics of Athletic Advisors

Table 1 presents descriptive data regarding the personal attributes of those ath- letic directors and counselors surveyed. Their mean age was 38.98 years (SD = 8.39). The majority surveyed were males (69.40%) and former athletes (61.90%). Football (23.90%), basketball (14.20%), and baseball (7.50%) were the most frequently mentioned sports in which they had participated as athletes.

The highest terminal degree attained by the majority was the master's degree (55.03 %). These advisors and counselors were asked to indicate the specific aca- demic focus of their last degree, which was then categorized into one of five areas-education, business, counseling/psychology, physical education, or other. The most frequently reported areas of academic training were in education

Backgrounds of Athletic Advisors 203

Table 1

Demographic Characteristics of NCAA Division I Athletic Advisors [N= 134)

Characteristic N 010 M SO

Age 133 38.98 8.39 Sex

Male 93 69.40 Female 41 30.60

Former athlete Yes 83 61.90 No 51 38.10

Sport background Football 32 23.90 Basketball 19 14.20 Baseball 10 7.50 Soccer 3 2.20 Track 3 2.20 Wrestling 3 2.20 Other 13 9.20

Highest academic degree Baccalaureate 16 12.10 Master's 73 55.30 Doctoral 43 32.60

Area of academic preparation Business 4 3.00 Counselinglpsychology 33 24.60 Education 39 29.10 Physical education 33 24.60 Other 25 18.70

Years since last degree 132 10.46 7.35

(29.10 %), physical education (24.60 %) , and counseling/psychology (24.60 %). On the average, it had been 10.46 years (SD = 7.35) since they completed their last academic degree. Approximately 37% of the advisors and counselors indi- cated they were currently employed by the same institution from which they received their last degree.

Employment Responsibilities of Athletic Advisors and Counselors Table 2 presents descriptive data outlining the employment responsibilities of the athletic advisors and counselors who, on the average, had been working in their present job for 4.15 years (SD = 4.03). These individuals were primarily em- ployed by an athletic department (87.10%). Trained raters were used to catego-

204 Brooks, Ehel, and Ostrm

Table 2

Employment Characteristics of NCAA Division I Athletic Advisors and Counselors (N = 134)

Characteristic N 010 M SD

Years of employment (on present job)

Department employed by Athletics Physical education Student services Advisor-coach Advisor-administrator

010 of Time devoted to: Academic advising Personal-social counseling Vocational counseling Other

010 of Time devoted to: Revenue athletes Nonrevenue athletes

010 of Time devoted to: Male athletes Female athletes

rize reported job titles into one of three areas: advisor-counselor, advisor-coach, and advisor-administrator. The most frequently reported job title was advisor- counselor (67.20 %), followed by advisor-administrator (23.90 %) and advisor- coach (9.00%).

These advisors (Table 2) devoted most of their time to male athletes in- volved in revenue-producing sports. Almost half of their time (45.69%) was spent in academic advising, with very little devoted to personal-social (13.93 %) or voca- tional counseling (8.15 %). Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients ex- amining the relationship between the amount of time devoted to athletes in revenue sports and the type of counseling services provided indicated a low (r = .36, p < -01) but statistically significant relationship with academic advising. In other words, there was some indication that the increasing time devoted to revenue- sport advising was most associated with an increase in academic advising. In- terestingly, however, no relationship was found between the percentage of ad- vising time devoted to male or female athletes and the gender of the advisors or the type of counseling services provided (i.e., academic, personal-social, or vocational counseling).

A 3 x 5 (Type of Terminal Degree x Academic Focus of Tenninal Degree) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was computed to determine the extent to which the amount and focus of academic preparation had any bearing

Backgrounds of Athletic Advisors 205

on the types of advising or counseling services these individuals provided (i-e., academic, personal-social, or vocational). However, the obtained F ratio was not statistically significant at the .05 level. In addition, a 2 x 3 (Median Split on Years Since Completing Last Degree x Job Title Area) MANOVA was comput- ed to determine if these factors influenced the types of counseling services pro- vided. The resultant F ratio was also not statistically significant. Finally, a 2 X 2 (Gender of Advisor x Former Athlete) MANOVA was computed to examine the extent to which the respondent's gender and/or athletic background influenced the types of counseling services offered. The F ratio computed was not statisti- cally significant, indicating that these attributes had no bearing on the types of counseling services provided to athletes.

Discussion This national survey of the job responsibilities and backgrounds of athletic advi- sors and counselors produced a profile indicating that these individuals were predominantly male, held a master's degree, were former athletes, and had been out of school an average of 10 years. These individuals were employed primarily by athletic departments. They provided counseling services, for the most part, to male college athletes involved in revenue-producing sports. These counseling services focused primarily on academic matters, with considerably less attention devoted to personal-social or vocational counseling.

These findings are similar to the combined findings of two unequivalent surveys reported by Brennan (1983). Those who responded to these two surveys were also male, held master's degrees in a field of education, and worked for athletic departments. Of course, given a survey return of 49%, caution is war- ranted in generalizing. It is possible that the length of the questionnaire or the lack of formalized advising services precluded institutions from responding.

Studies by Cooker and Caffey (1984), McCurdy (1983), and Nelson (1982) reflect a trend toward providing multidimensional advising and counseling ser- vices for athletes. This trend is in line with the recognition that the institution has a responsibility for the overall welfare of the athlete beyond the stereotypical practice of the athletic advisor's responsibilities being delimited to class selec- tion and grade monitoring. There is a concern that colleges and universities should offer helping services such as individual and group counseling, as well as voca- tional counseling, to effectively promote the psychosocial and vocational growth and development of their student athletes (Cooker & Caffey, 1984; Lanning, 1982; Wittrner et al., 1981). Furthermore, we advocate that greater attention be direct- ed toward the potential utilization of sport psychologists in this area. This recom- mendation is consistent with the U.S. Olympic Committee's advocation of a three-tier system for the delivery of sport psychology services (US Olympic Com- mittee Establishes Guidelines for Sport Psychology Services, 1983). We feel that individuals trained as clinical sport psychologists are especially prepared to pro- vide athletes such counseling services.

Data from the present survey suggest, however, that this trend has had little impact on these advisors' perceptions of their advising and counseling respon- sibilities. The bulk of their counseling services are directed toward academic ad- vising. In a sense, these individuals may be unprepared to extend their services beyond the academic realm. Although a third of the group held doctoral degrees,

206 Brooks, Etzel, and Ostrow

only a few reported that their training had been in counseling or psychology.' Furthermore, given that the majority of advisors are employed by athletic depart- ments, the development of a holistic counseling services program may be second- ary to ensuring that the athlete remains academically eligible, in view of potential conflicts of interests.

If institutions of higher education are truly committed to facilitating the personal growth of the athlete both on and off the athletic field, then greater at- tention must be directed toward the quality of academic and experiential prepa- ration expected of athletic advisors and counselors. To function effectively in the future, it is apparent that many advisors and counselors will need to expand the scope of their training to include coursework and practical experience in the delivery of such helping services. Athletic departments may find it useful either to seek out licensed sport psychologists or the assistance of on-campus profes- sionals (e.g., university counseling service staff) who already provide such ser- vices to the general student population.

Furthermore, advising counseling services should not focus primarily on male athletes in revenue-producing sports. It is the institution's responsibility to address the personal growth and welfare of all athletes, regardless of the sport in which they participate, and regardless of their gender or other personal at- tributes.

References Advanced Technology, Inc. (1984). Study of ffeshman eligibility standards: Executive

summary. Reston, VA: Social Sciences Division. Brennan, T. (1983). Academic athletic advising: A job description statement. Unpublished

manuscript, University of New Mexico. Cooker, P., & Caffey, C. (1984). Addressing the cognitive and affective needs of college

athletes: Effects of group counseling on self-esteem, reading skills, and coaches' perceptions of attitude. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6 , 377-384.

Farrell, C. (1985, June 26). Consortium aims to help athletes complete degrees. Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. 23-44.

Ferrante, A. (1986, October). Athletics and outreach programming: Theproblem, the need. Paper presented at the 29th Southeastern Conference on College Counseling Center Personnel, Boone, NC.

Franks, R. (Ed.). The 1984-85 National Directory of College Athletics (Men's Edition). Amarillo, TX: Ray Franks Publishing Ranch.

Hurley, R., & Cunningham, R. (1984). Providing academic and psychological services for the college athlete. In A. Shriberg & F. Brodzinski (Ms.), Rethinking services for college athletes @p. 5 1-58). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Lanning, W. (1982). The priviledged few: Special counseling needs of athletes. Jounal of Sport Psychology, 4 , 19-23.

McCurdy, J. (1983, September 14). UCLA counseling athletes on careers after their glory days are over. Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. 23, 26.

Mihalich, J. (1984). College sports: Decisions for survival. In A. Shribert & F. Brodzinski (Ms.), Rethinking services for college athletes @p. 71-84). San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.

Backgrounds of Athletic Advisors 207

Monaghan, P. (1985, December 4). Athletes' academic advisors ask colleges for increased authority and job security. Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. 37, 39.

National Collegiate Athletic Association. (1984). NCAA Sports Sponsorship: 1984-85 Winter Sports. Mission, KS: Author.

National Collegiate Athletic Association. (1 986). 1986 Convention O$ce Notice. Mission, KS: Author.

Nelson, E. (1982). The effects of career counseling on freshman college athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology, 4 , 32-40.

Ogilvie, B., & Howe, M. (1986). The trauma of termination from athletics. In J. Williams (Ed.), Applied sportpsychology: Personal growth to peakpe$ormance. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.

Shriberg, A., & Brodzinski, F. (Eds.). (1984). Rethinking services for college athletes. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

US Olympic Committee Establishes Guidelines for Sport Psychology Services. (1983). Journal of Sport Psychology, 5 , 4-7.

Wittmer, J., Bostic, D., Phillips, T., & Walters, W. (1981). The personal, academic, and career problems of college student athletes: Some possible answers. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 60, 52-55.

'Although the MANOVA analysis indicated that level and focus of academic training had no bearing on the types of counseling services provided, this finding may be attribut- able in part to the low cell size for the number of individuals reporting the doctoral degree in counseling or psychology.

Manuscript submitted: December 1 , 1986 Revision received: April 24, 1987