john blanton, forest silviculturist usda forest service asheville, nc upland hardwood silviculture...

John Blanton, Forest SilviculturistJohn Blanton, Forest SilviculturistUSDA Forest ServiceUSDA Forest Service

Asheville, NCAsheville, NC

Upland Hardwood Silviculture TrainingUpland Hardwood Silviculture TrainingBent Creek Experimental ForestBent Creek Experimental Forest

July 23, 2007July 23, 2007

We will discuss 500 years of We will discuss 500 years of disturbance on 37 million acres in the disturbance on 37 million acres in the Southern Appalachians;Southern Appalachians;

Discussion is based upon available Discussion is based upon available literature, notably, the 1996 literature, notably, the 1996 Southern Appalachian Assessment; Southern Appalachian Assessment;

Thanks to Dr. Scott Schlarbaum, Thanks to Dr. Scott Schlarbaum, Professor of Forestry at Univ. of TN at Professor of Forestry at Univ. of TN at Knoxville, for his assistance and Knoxville, for his assistance and additional slides.additional slides.

Occurrence of disturbances is irregular in both space Occurrence of disturbances is irregular in both space and time.and time.

Fire History Reconstruction, Brush MountainFire History Reconstruction, Brush Mountain

MEI: 4 yrs

LEI: 1yr

UEI: 8 yrs

82% Dormant Season Fires

Importance of understanding Importance of understanding

disturbance historydisturbance history Human activities can cause or postpone Human activities can cause or postpone

certain types of disturbance.certain types of disturbance.

Disturbances will always occur across Disturbances will always occur across the landscape at varying intervals.the landscape at varying intervals.

The forests we have today are a result The forests we have today are a result of past disturbances or lack of them.of past disturbances or lack of them.

Causes of disturbance: FireCauses of disturbance: Fire

2000 & 2002: 7 million acres burned each year

Average of 6 lightning fires/million acres occurs in SA’s

May 2003: 400 tornadoes in one weekMay 2003: 400 tornadoes in one week

Since 1871: 14 hurricane-related windstorms in Southern AppalachiansSince 1871: 14 hurricane-related windstorms in Southern Appalachians

Causes of disturbance: WindCauses of disturbance: Wind

With an aging, even-aged forest, the percentage of With an aging, even-aged forest, the percentage of windthrow will increase (oak decline, heart rots)windthrow will increase (oak decline, heart rots)


Blowdown of individual trees: Perhaps 4-6% of acres could be Blowdown of individual trees: Perhaps 4-6% of acres could be affected in 200 years, including single treefallsaffected in 200 years, including single treefalls



Hurricane Hugo – 1989: high winds, microbursts in mtns.Hurricane Hugo – 1989: high winds, microbursts in mtns. Opal – 1995: 8” rain, 60-80 mph in NC mountains Opal – 1995: 8” rain, 60-80 mph in NC mountains

Canopy gaps were 0.5-2.7 acres on Bent CreekCanopy gaps were 0.5-2.7 acres on Bent Creek Within gaps, 28% of trees windthrown, nearly all uprootedWithin gaps, 28% of trees windthrown, nearly all uprooted Black oak & scarlet oak most vulnerable to uprootingBlack oak & scarlet oak most vulnerable to uprooting At Coweeta, SO composed 6% density, but created 44% At Coweeta, SO composed 6% density, but created 44%

gapsgaps

Landslides - saturated soils on steep slopes

Hurricane Frances, 2004

Causes of disturbance: WaterCauses of disturbance: Water

Causes of disturbance: IceCauses of disturbance: Ice

Ice storms & wet snows (worse if vines are in trees)Ice storms & wet snows (worse if vines are in trees)

- 1993 blizzard: 24-48” snow, high winds, - 1993 blizzard: 24-48” snow, high winds, tornadoes in Easttornadoes in East

- 1994, southeast states ice storm: 9 deaths, $3 - 1994, southeast states ice storm: 9 deaths, $3 billionbillion

- Yellow-poplar, black cherry, & VA Pine very - Yellow-poplar, black cherry, & VA Pine very susceptiblesusceptible

Causes of disturbance: IceCauses of disturbance: Ice

Hail aloneHail alone

Hail + Hail + insectsinsects

Causes of disturbance: Native InsectsCauses of disturbance: Native Insects

Southern Pine Beetle: From 2000-Southern Pine Beetle: From 2000-2003,2003,

1.5 million acres in western NC1.5 million acres in western NC

Causes of disturbance: Native Causes of disturbance: Native InsectsInsects

SPB: 75% of pine on Daniel Boone NF in KY was killed

Causes of disturbance: Native InsectsCauses of disturbance: Native Insects

Red oak borer in Ozark Mtns.in 2002: Red oak borer in Ozark Mtns.in 2002: Populations over 18 adults/m2 of barkPopulations over 18 adults/m2 of bark 300-500 borer attacks per tree instead of the usual 10 attacks300-500 borer attacks per tree instead of the usual 10 attacks Oak decline on Ozark NF: 300,000 acres (over 400 sq mi) in Oak decline on Ozark NF: 300,000 acres (over 400 sq mi) in

20012001

Exotic forest Exotic forest pests in Eastern pests in Eastern

forestsforests

Chestnut Blight

Butternut CankerDisease

Dutch ElmDisease

Before

After

White and Black Oaks –White and Black Oaks – Gypsy Moth Gypsy Moth

Eastern White Pine –Eastern White Pine – White Pine Blister Rust White Pine Blister Rust

American Chestnut –American Chestnut – Phytophthora cinnamomiPhytophthora cinnamomi, , Chestnut Blight, Chestnut Gall Wasp, Asian Chestnut Blight, Chestnut Gall Wasp, Asian Ambrosia BeetleAmbrosia Beetle

Spruce (Eastern Hemlock) –Spruce (Eastern Hemlock) – Hemlock Woolly Hemlock Woolly AdelgidAdelgid

Tree species recorded by Tree species recorded by Naturalist John Bartram’s Naturalist John Bartram’s first trip (1749) through first trip (1749) through Pennsylvania and their Pennsylvania and their

exotic pests (2007)exotic pests (2007)

Sugar Maple –Sugar Maple – Pear Thrips, Asian Longhorned Pear Thrips, Asian Longhorned BeetleBeetle

Linden –Linden – Basswood ThripsBasswood Thrips

Pitch Pine –Pitch Pine – Pine Shoot Beetle, Sirex woodwasp Pine Shoot Beetle, Sirex woodwasp

Elm –Elm – Dutch Elm Disease (2 strains) Dutch Elm Disease (2 strains)

Beech –Beech – Beech Bark Disease Complex Beech Bark Disease Complex

White Walnut (Butternut) -White Walnut (Butternut) - Butternut CankerButternut Canker

Tree species recorded by Tree species recorded by Naturalist John Bartram’s Naturalist John Bartram’s first trip (1749) through first trip (1749) through Pennsylvania and their Pennsylvania and their

exotic pests (2007)exotic pests (2007)

Causes of disturbance: Exotic InsectsCauses of disturbance: Exotic InsectsGypsy moth: 80,000 acres of defoliation in Virginia in 2003Gypsy moth: 80,000 acres of defoliation in Virginia in 2003

The cumulative effect is alteration of forests as we know them today.

Causes of disturbance: Exotic Causes of disturbance: Exotic InsectsInsects

Hemlock Hemlock Woolly Adelgid: Woolly Adelgid:

Most hemlocks Most hemlocks will die within will die within the next 5 years!the next 5 years!

Causes of disturbance: Exotic DiseasesCauses of disturbance: Exotic Diseases

Chestnut BlightChestnut Blight Up to one quarter of the dominant Up to one quarter of the dominant

trees were chestnuttrees were chestnut 1904 to 1950: American chestnuts on 9 1904 to 1950: American chestnuts on 9

million acres diedmillion acres died

Causes of disturbance: Exotic Causes of disturbance: Exotic DiseaseDisease

Phytophthora cinnamomi:Phytophthora cinnamomi:

Chestnut ink diseaseChestnut ink disease - By - By 1824, great losses of 1824, great losses of American chestnut on American chestnut on poorly drained soils.poorly drained soils.

Littleleaf diseaseLittleleaf disease on on shortleaf pine on shortleaf pine on poorly drained, poorly drained, eroded clay soilseroded clay soils.

Causes of disturbance: AgeCauses of disturbance: Age

Oak Decline Oak Decline Complex:Complex:

(age, site (age, site productivity, productivity,

drought, insects, drought, insects, fungi, pollution):fungi, pollution):

Older, even-aged Older, even-aged forests (on N/P, forests (on N/P, 82% >60 years old)82% >60 years old)

Loss of vigor Loss of vigor predisposes trees predisposes trees to other agents to other agents

Two-lined Chestnut Borer Armillaria Root Rot

http://www.forestpests.org/../images/768x512/3057088.jpg

http://www.forestpests.org/../images/768x512/3057088.jpg

Causes of disturbance: DroughtCauses of disturbance: Drought

2002: $10 billion in damages in 30 states;1988: $40 billion in damages in central/eastern

US;1736, 1756, 1863, 1911, 1925, early-1930’s

(Dust Bowl), 1954, 1956, 1977

Periods of History:Periods of History:

Over 5,000 years ago, the climate Over 5,000 years ago, the climate continued to warm as the ice age continued to warm as the ice age

ended.ended.

Population of Native Americans Population of Native Americans increased over time to 10-12 million increased over time to 10-12 million

(mostly along major rivers).(mostly along major rivers).

Native Americans & the Native Americans & the North American North American

LandscapeLandscape


LandscapeLandscape

Was the North American landscape undisturbed

when the Europeans began colonization?

Was the North American landscape undisturbed

when the Europeans began colonization?

Native Americans & the North Native Americans & the North American LandscapeAmerican Landscape


Often viewed as nomadic hunter-Often viewed as nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes such as the gatherer tribes such as the

Lakotas (Sioux) in the Great PlainsLakotas (Sioux) in the Great Plains



In reality, there were a number of tribes In reality, there were a number of tribes with permanent villages, all dependent with permanent villages, all dependent

upon the surrounding land for food, upon the surrounding land for food, water, and shelter.water, and shelter.

In reality, there were a number of tribes In reality, there were a number of tribes with permanent villages, all dependent with permanent villages, all dependent

upon the surrounding land for food, upon the surrounding land for food, water, and shelter.water, and shelter.

Trees killed by Trees killed by firefire


LandscapeLandscape


LandscapeLandscapeAgriculture

Nomadic Nomadic Hunter – Gatherer Hunter – Gatherer

SocietySociety

Paleoindian PeriodPaleoindian Period10,000 BC – 8,000 10,000 BC – 8,000

BCBC

Paleoindian PeriodPaleoindian Period10,000 BC – 8,000 10,000 BC – 8,000

BCBC

Archaic PeriodArchaic Period8000 BC - 1000 8000 BC - 1000

BCBC

Archaic PeriodArchaic Period8000 BC - 1000 8000 BC - 1000

BCBC

Hunter–Hunter–Gatherer Gatherer

SocietySociety

Small VillagesSmall Villages

Village Gardener Village Gardener SocietySociety

Domestication of Domestication of plants including corn, plants including corn, sunflowers, squashessunflowers, squashes

Woodland PeriodWoodland Period1000 BC - 1000 1000 BC - 1000

ADAD

Woodland PeriodWoodland Period1000 BC - 1000 1000 BC - 1000

ADAD

Mississippian PeriodMississippian Period1000 AD - 1600 AD1000 AD - 1600 AD


Highly structured societyHighly structured societyDevelopment of large villagesDevelopment of large villages


Mound BuildersMound Builders


Mound BuildersMound Builders

Etowah Etowah MoundsMounds

circa 800 ADcirca 800 AD

Etowah Etowah MoundsMounds

circa 800 ADcirca 800 AD

54 acre site in northern 54 acre site in northern GeorgiaGeorgia

Fortified cities led by high Fortified cities led by high priestpriest



Substantial Substantial AgricultureAgriculture

Maximum influence around 1680, controlling Maximum influence around 1680, controlling most of the northeastern United States and most of the northeastern United States and

eastern Canadaeastern Canada

Iroquois Iroquois ConfederacyConfederacy


Hunter – Agricultural SocietyHunter – Agricultural Society



Planting the Three SistersPlanting the Three Sisters

Squash (700 BC), Corn (800 AD), Beans (1200 Squash (700 BC), Corn (800 AD), Beans (1200 AD)AD)



Historic PeriodHistoric Period1600 AD - Present1600 AD - Present

Historic PeriodHistoric Period1600 AD - Present1600 AD - Present

Hunter-Hunter-Agricultural Agricultural

SocietySocietyEastern Eastern

Tennessee and Tennessee and western North western North Carolina was Carolina was

occupied by the occupied by the Cherokee Nation; Cherokee Nation; the Chickasaws the Chickasaws

controlled controlled hunting rights in hunting rights in west Tennessee.west Tennessee.

Native Americans & FireNative Americans & FireNative Americans & FireNative Americans & Fire

Early explorers and trappers often observed Early explorers and trappers often observed huge burned over or cleared areas with many huge burned over or cleared areas with many

dead treesdead trees

Native Americans & Native Americans & FireFire

Native Americans & Native Americans & FireFire

Native Americans burned Native Americans burned parts of the ecosystem to parts of the ecosystem to

promote a diversity of promote a diversity of habitatshabitats

Native Americans & FireNative Americans & Fire

Purposeful fires differed from Purposeful fires differed from natural or accidental firesnatural or accidental fires


Purposeful fires differed from Purposeful fires differed from natural or accidental firesnatural or accidental fires

Seasonality of Seasonality of burningburning

Frequency of Frequency of burning burning certain areascertain areas

Intensity of Intensity of firefire

Native Americans used fire Native Americans used fire for:for:


Driving big game to improve huntingDriving big game to improve hunting

Maintaining prairies or meadows for grass Maintaining prairies or meadows for grass production (basket grasses, grain foods, production (basket grasses, grain foods, habitat for grazing animals)habitat for grazing animals)

Clearing riparian areas to promote better Clearing riparian areas to promote better habitat for beaver, muskrat, moose, and habitat for beaver, muskrat, moose, and waterfowlwaterfowl

Felling trees and clearing wooded areas for Felling trees and clearing wooded areas for crop and berry productioncrop and berry production

Native Americans used fire for:Native Americans used fire for:Native Americans used fire for:Native Americans used fire for:

Favoring plants such as strawberries, Favoring plants such as strawberries, raspberries, and tobaccoraspberries, and tobacco

Protecting medicinal plants by maintaining a Protecting medicinal plants by maintaining a burned area around themburned area around them

Concentrating populations of insects for Concentrating populations of insects for collectioncollection

Reducing pests like black flies, ticks, fleas, Reducing pests like black flies, ticks, fleas, mosquitoes, rodents, and poisonous snakesmosquitoes, rodents, and poisonous snakes



Clearing brush and vines along travel routes Clearing brush and vines along travel routes and to increase accessibility into the forestand to increase accessibility into the forest

Depriving enemies of cover/ambush placesDepriving enemies of cover/ambush places

Signaling in war & announcing gatherings of Signaling in war & announcing gatherings of tribestribes

Driving enemies away or burning themDriving enemies away or burning them

Because burning was done frequently, fuel accumulations were low, and most fires burned only the understory, not killing the dominant trees.


Pre-European SettlementPre-European Settlement1492 AD until 1607 AD1492 AD until 1607 AD

Columbus, Ponce de Leon, Cortes, Verrezano, DeSoto, and other explorers introduced smallpox, measles,

typhus, and malaria to North America, resulting

in up to 90% mortality among Native American populations.

Villages were abandoned, and canebrakes and agricultural fields in river bottoms reverted to

forest.

Early European Settlement Early European Settlement 1607 until 1880 – A Closed-Canopy 1607 until 1880 – A Closed-Canopy

ForestForest

Early colonial settlers and exploratory Early colonial settlers and exploratory expeditions reported relatively complete expeditions reported relatively complete coverage of closed-canopy forests from coverage of closed-canopy forests from the Atlantic Coast westward to the Great the Atlantic Coast westward to the Great Plains.Plains.

The open conditions written about by the The open conditions written about by the early explorers like DeSoto were gone early explorers like DeSoto were gone except near the remaining Native except near the remaining Native American villages.American villages.

Early European Settlement Early European Settlement 1607 until 1880 – A Closed-Canopy 1607 until 1880 – A Closed-Canopy

ForestForest

Early colonial settlers began to clear the land for Early colonial settlers began to clear the land for agriculture harvest the forest to export wood to Europe, agriculture harvest the forest to export wood to Europe, as European forests had been exhausted of old growths as European forests had been exhausted of old growths or virgin timber. or virgin timber.

Many of the forest products exported were related to Many of the forest products exported were related to construction of naval ships. construction of naval ships.

As European settlers moved into the Southern As European settlers moved into the Southern Appalachians during the 1700’s, their approach to land Appalachians during the 1700’s, their approach to land management, including agriculture and timber harvest, management, including agriculture and timber harvest, was much more intense than those of Native Americans.was much more intense than those of Native Americans.

Colonial settlers received land from the Public Domain, Colonial settlers received land from the Public Domain, cleared forest land for pasture, exhausted the land and cleared forest land for pasture, exhausted the land and

moved westward repeating the same land clearing moved westward repeating the same land clearing procedures.procedures.

Colonial settlers received land from the Public Domain, Colonial settlers received land from the Public Domain, cleared forest land for pasture, exhausted the land and cleared forest land for pasture, exhausted the land and

moved westward repeating the same land clearing moved westward repeating the same land clearing procedures.procedures.

Abandoned Native American fields were sought out and cleared using tree girdling

and fire.

Early Early SettlementSettlement

This photo of a ‘deadening’ for sheep pasture was taken August 1, 1901 on White Top Mt. in Virginia by H.B. Ayres.

Cattle, hogs, and sheep ranged freely and in large numbers. John Muir called sheep ‘hoofed locusts’

Razorback hogRazorback hog

Annual burning of the mountain slopes became a standard practice to increase forage (broom sedge and wild legumes) for hogs and cattle, which grazed freely across the landscape.

Left of fence has been grazedLeft of fence has been grazed

Mountain farmstead subsistence farms dotted the mountain coves by 1900. Cattle and sheep ranged freely through the woods which were burnt each year to maintain forage.

1Cumberland NF 1934 McKee-Driprock Road E.S. Shipp

Photo #1: U.S. Forest Service Southern Research Station Collection, D.H. Ramsey Library, Special Collections, University of North Carolina at Asheville 28804

FARMING

Source: American Memory online photographic collection, Library of Congress

A mountain farm at Unicoi Gap in Georgia on the Blue Ridge Divide crest about 1930. Note the crown density on the skyline.

FARMING

Photo courtesy of R8 Digital Image Library at http://fsweb.r8.fs.fed.us/rf/pao/image_library/

Without fertilize ‘new grounds’ had to be cleared about every 5 to 7 years. But with only human and animal power available, the best technique was to girdle the trees in placeand plant underneath them.‘Grubbing’ with a ‘grubbinghoe’ removed hardwood rootstocks. Without cover crops winter erosion also depleted natural fertility.

U.S. Forest Service Southern Research Station Collection, D.H. Ramsey Library, Special Collections, University of North Carolina at Asheville 28804

The photo is of corn planted in 1922 on land burned in 1913. It is on the head of Harper Creek near Pineola, NC. The picture was taken by E.F. McCarthy.

FARMING

1880 AD until 1920 AD1880 AD until 1920 AD Near mountain communities, about 25% of Near mountain communities, about 25% of

the land was cultivated, 20% was cleared the land was cultivated, 20% was cleared pasture, and the remainder was forestpasture, and the remainder was forest

After the Civil War, the Industrial After the Civil War, the Industrial Revolution and the railroad made timber Revolution and the railroad made timber harvesting very profitable. Annual lumber harvesting very profitable. Annual lumber production in the South increased 1,000 production in the South increased 1,000 percent. In 1901, it was estimated that percent. In 1901, it was estimated that only 10% of the forest was still virgin only 10% of the forest was still virgin growth.growth.

A 1908 report estimated that 50% of A 1908 report estimated that 50% of Southern Appalachian timberland was Southern Appalachian timberland was owned by large companies, and 86% of the owned by large companies, and 86% of the acreage in the Southern mountains was acreage in the Southern mountains was either cleared, burned, or both.either cleared, burned, or both.

Steam skidders, railroads, and buying land outright set the stage for the ‘cut outand get out’ with much closer utilization.Note the smallest logs in these pictures.

CUT OUT & GET OUT

Earliest logging was near valley bottoms and concentrated on the best trees. Timber buyers bought individual trees for $0.50 to $1 on the stump and branded them for later cutting.

HIGH GRADING

1920 AD until Present1920 AD until Present Starting after passage of the Weeks Act in 1911, Starting after passage of the Weeks Act in 1911,

the Forest Service began to purchase land in the the Forest Service began to purchase land in the Southern Appalachians.Southern Appalachians.

Reforestation was not occurring on much of the Reforestation was not occurring on much of the land due to frequent large fires on cutover areas, land due to frequent large fires on cutover areas, so fire prevention became a primary task. In so fire prevention became a primary task. In southwestern Virginia, approximately 15 fires southwestern Virginia, approximately 15 fires burned a table mountain pine site from 1798 to burned a table mountain pine site from 1798 to 1935; since 1936, the study area has burned 1935; since 1936, the study area has burned only once. only once.

Proponents of open range were opposed to fire Proponents of open range were opposed to fire control, and arson was commonplace. New laws control, and arson was commonplace. New laws requiring fencing and ending open range requiring fencing and ending open range reduced the incentive for general burning.reduced the incentive for general burning.

Fires in heavy logging slash with fuel loadings ranging from 20 to over 50 tons/acre were intense and exposed mineral soil for the establishment of light-seeded, shade intolerant species. These fires werenot typical of the pre-historic or even early historic fire regime.

AFTERMATH

Source: USDA Forest Service Chattahoochee-Oconee NF file photo

Source: USDA Forest Service Chattahoochee-Oconee NF file photo

The combination of large-scale timber harvesting, chestnut blight,

and fire prevention has created a forest in the Southern Appalachians

probably unlike any forest that occurred in the past.

ConclusionsConclusions

It may not be possible to reproduce the chain It may not be possible to reproduce the chain of events that caused conditions in the pastof events that caused conditions in the past

Dense overstory shade often results in forests Dense overstory shade often results in forests with open understories, while sunlight on the with open understories, while sunlight on the ground can result in more dense growthground can result in more dense growth

Vegetation conditions can’t always be achieved Vegetation conditions can’t always be achieved by disturbing site at an average intervalby disturbing site at an average interval


Past conditions might have developed due Past conditions might have developed due to irregular disturbances and intervalsto irregular disturbances and intervals

Exotic forest pest problems are Exotic forest pest problems are progressively affecting more native progressively affecting more native species, altering forest structure and species, altering forest structure and function. function.


Vegetation effects vary according to the Vegetation effects vary according to the vegetation in place at the time of the vegetation in place at the time of the disturbancedisturbance

Management prescription should consider Management prescription should consider existingexisting species composition, stand species composition, stand structure, and site characteristicsstructure, and site characteristics

Use Use direct observationdirect observation along with academic along with academic conclusions based on indirect evidenceconclusions based on indirect evidence

john blanton, forest silviculturist usda forest service asheville, nc upland hardwood silviculture...

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