1

An Investigation into the Development

of an Appropriate Inventory to Quantify

Cognitive and Somatic Anxiety in

Beginner Scuba Divers and Produce

Recommendations for National

Governing Bodies Coaching

Development

Cognitive, Somatic, Anxiety, Scuba, Ideas

By John Swanwick

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Introduction

The history of diving for the purpose of recreation can be traced to Charles Condert,

who in 1825 designed a horseshoe-shaped, waist-mounted, iron air reservoir that he

used to dive in New York’s east river. This was the first autonomous diving

apparatus that did not require lines and air hoses to the surface (Brittain, 1999). Over

Abstract

The aim of this study is to expose some of causes of these feelings of anxiety and propose

actions that instructors could take to help minimise these feeling within beginner divers. There

are many reasons why a person may feel anxious before taking part in scuba diving. Negative

past experience may also play a major role in a participant’s anxiety levels, this deter someone

from trying scuba diving.

The participants in this study are to take part in a PADI Discover Scuba Diving session at

Sherwood Forest Center Parcs. The participants where aged 16 years and above and were

clear of any medical conditions that would inhibit their ability to dive. At the end of the session

the researcher explained the research to the participants and asked if they would complete the

purpose designed questionnaire.

It was found that the source of many of the anxious feeling that was felt by the participants

was due to negative past experiences endured by participants. Other sources of anxiety

included; embarrassment and fear of the unknown.

It was concluded that good instruction was key to success, an increase of instructor

knowledge of learning styles and that more research in the area was needed.

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the years various pieces of equipment where designed, tried and tested but it wasn't

until towards the end of the Second World War that real progress was made. Captain

Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan working under the restrictive conditions

of Nazi-occupied France, combined hundreds of years of progression in underwater

technology to create the first fully useable and safe scuba (Self Contained

Underwater Breathing Apparatus) system (Moutain, 1996). It was these two who

later built the first Aqualung, which Cousteau used to dive to 60m with no negative

effects in 1946. Since the time that Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan built

the first Aqualung, scuba diving has grown exponentially. The formation of various

certifying organisations including; the British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC), National

Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI), Scuba Schools International (SSI),

Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC) and the National Association of

Scuba Diving Schools (NASDS) has made scuba diving into a worldwide sport, with

hundreds of thousands of people taking courses each year. By far the largest and

most popular training organisation is PADI (Professional Association of Diving

Instructors), founded in 1996, PADI currently issues over 950,000 certifications a

year and it is believed that 55% of the worlds divers are PADI certified (Professional

Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), 2006)

Scuba diving, as in any sport has inherent risks associated with it especially since

the body is being put through the rigors of the hyperbaric environment. These risks

cause certain levels of anxiety within participants new to the sport. Uncontrolled

anxiety can lead to panic and panic underwater makes for a life-threatening situation

if not dealt with immediately. The 2008 DAN Annual Diving Report shows that 85%

of diving fatalities where due to drowning (Divers Alert Network (DAN), 2008) and

(Richardson, 2006) with links to out of air situations or equipment malfunction, both

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of which could link to a panic situation. Among inexperienced divers the main source

of panic is usually something an experienced diver would consider a minor issue,

easily remedied. Issues such as entanglement, equipment malfunction or attempting

a skill and it going wrong etc (Campbell, 2008). Through all these instances the one

thing that surfaces as the root to many situations which have lead to diver deaths is

panic.

The aim of this study is to expose some of causes of these feelings of anxiety and

propose actions that instructors could take to help minimise these feeling within

beginner divers and help instructors become better teachers. There are many

reasons why a person may feel anxious before taking part in scuba diving. Trait

anxiety is considered to be part of the personality, a behavioural tendency that

influences the mental state of participant, for example; the participant is afraid of

water or is afraid of dogs (Butler, 2000). Negative past experience either by the

individual or a friend may also play a role in a participants anxiety levels, for

example; a near-drowning experience may deter someone from trying scuba diving

in the first place.

Methodology

Ethics

The participants all signed to say that they agreed to thier data being used for the

purpose of this study and that they shall remain anonymous to all but the researcher,

Falmouth Marine School and the University of Plymouth. The research was

undertaken with the highest standards of safety in mind, as such all the sessions met

both PADI and HSE standards of health and safety requirements.

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Location and Set-up

The location used for the collection of data was Sherwood Forest Center Parcs,

Nottinghamshire. This location was chosen as it would provide a large number of

sets of data for the study. The participants took part in PADI Discover Scuba (DSD)

sessions run by The Tribe Discover Scuba Ltd, who are contracted in by Center

Parcs to teach the sessions. The researcher was onsite for all the sessions at which

his data was being collected and taught many of the sessions himself. The sessions

where taught in facility’s lane pool which was designed with a variable depth pool

floor.

Safety and Risk Assessments

Daily risk assessments (Figure 1.1) where completed each day by the instructor staff

and checked by the researcher. All staff are PADI Instructors, or PADI Assistant

instructors/Divemasters under the direct supervision of PADI Instructors. All

instructors are qualified and current Emergency First Response/First Aid Instructors

(EFRI). Also thier is a permanent rotation of surface support lifeguard cover (Figure

2.1) supplied by Center Parcs, that are briefed on equipment and rescue procedures

by The Tribe Discover Scuba Ltd staff. Furthermore emergency oxygen is also on

hand should it be needed in an emergency.

Participants

The participants were all guests at the Sherwood Forest Center Parcs site and chose

of thier own free will to take part in the scuba diving sessions. They where aged 16

years and above and were clear of any medical conditions (such as seizures,

asthma, CHD, ear disease, etc) (Figure 3.1) that would inhibit their ability to dive.

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Measures

A simple 10-question purpose designed questionnaire was written and used to

gather data for this research. The questionnaire took aspects from the Sport

Competition Anxiety Test or SCAT (Brian Mac, 2011) (Figure 4.1) analysis and Trait

and State Measures of Confidence (Vealey, 1986) to gage the overall anxiety levels.

Also a number of questions where designed to give the participants a chance to

elaborate on thier feelings in previous questions and gage such feelings in greater

depth. The questionnaire consisted of 7 quantitative questions and 3 qualitative

questions in order to provide the researcher with adequate data. The questionnaire

was laid out in a simple and easy to read format. See (Figure 5.1).

Equipment

Purpose designed questionnaires.

6 sets of standardised scuba diving equipment containing; regulators, fins,

mask, air tank, submersible pressure gage (SPG) and BCD (Buoyancy

Compensator Device).

Personal equipment; towel, swim clothing etc.

Procedure

1. Participants are welcomed and asked to complete the paperwork which

covers thier personal information (Name, Address, Date of birth, etc), a

statement of risks and liability release, emergency contact information, a

medical questionnaire and a PADI Discover Scuba knowledge and safety

review. All of which is required by PADI, The Tribe Discover Scuba Ltd and

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the HSE. (Figure 3.1). This paperwork is then checked by the instructor’s

onsite and also by the researcher to ensure all information is correctly filled

out and the form is completed to a satisfactory level.

2. Participants are equipped with a pair of fins and briefed as a group, in waist

deep water, on the order of the session. The participants are then briefed by

the instructor in detail about the importance of continual breathing,

equalisation and signals.

3. Participants are then given thier scuba equipment and instructed on how to fit

it correctly. Next the functions and purpose of each individual piece of

equipment (including; BCD+inflator hose, regulators, pressure gage, mask

and fins) is explained and also how to use it whist taking part in the session.

4. After allowing adequate time for the participants to become accustomed to the

use of the equipment, the instructor then teaches the participants some basic

skills (regulator removal and recovery, partial mask flood and clear and

alternate air source use) intermingled with free swimming periods around the

pool. Towards the end of the session the pool floor may be lowered to give

more of a feel of the real scuba diving experience, though this is at the

discretion of the instructor.

5. At the end of the session the instructor gives a debrief and instructs the

participants how to take-off thier scuba equipment. Participants exit the pool.

6. When handing out the certificates at the end of the session the

researcher/instructors explained the research to the participants and asked if

they would complete the purpose designed questionnaire.

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Results

(Figure 6.1)

Anxiety state of the participants before taking part in a new activity

23 out of the 33 participants have low to moderate (1-5) levels of anxiety before

taking part in a new activity. Of the remaining 10 participants who felt moderate to

very high anxiety (5-10) only 1 participant answered above 8 on the scale. From the

graph (Figure 6.2) it is clearly visible that the highest average stress levels when

taking part in a new activity was experienced by 20-30 year olds and the lowest

levels are experienced by people at age 50+.

The influence of past experience in water on anxiety

25 participants had no past experience in the water that may have affected thier

metal state before the research was conducted. Of the remaining 8 participants only

5 had a negative past experience in the water, most of which was entrapment

underwater.

Previous scuba diving experience

6 of the 33 participants had prior scuba diving experience. For all the participants the

experience was more than a year ago and for 4 of them over 5 years ago. The

majority of this group also answered that they felt comfortable in the water and feel

little anxiety before trying something new. There were some exceptions to this.

Furthermore all 6 of the participants said they would feel more comfortable taking

part in a full scuba diving course after the session.

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Anxiety state of the participants before taking part in the DSD session

22 of the 33 participants felt low to moderate (1-5) levels of anxiety before taking part

in the DSD session. Of the remaining 11 participants who felt moderate to very high

anxiety (5-10) only 3 answered above 8 on the scale. (Figure 6.4)

Confidence to take a full scuba diving course after the DSD session

Of the 33 participants, 30 said they would feel more confident about taking part in a

full scuba diving course after thier DSD session. Of the 3 participants remaining only

1 stated that they would not feel confident. The remaining 2 participants did not give

an answer. (Figure 6.3)

Overall rating of the DSD session

Of the 33 participants 28 rated the session 8 or above on the scale. Of the remaining

5 participants, 2 did not answer.

Discussion

Age relation to anxiety

It is curious that the highest average stress levels when taking part in a new activity

were felt by the 20-30 year olds. It could be suggested that the 20-30 year olds are

at an age where they have young families and they are more anxious because they

don't know what would happen to their families if anything should happen to them.

Another aspect to consider is that by the small amount of 20-30 year olds that took

part in the research (just 3 participants) that this result is purely coincidental.

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In terms of the lowest anxiety when taking part in new activities felt by participants, it

is interesting to note that this was felt by the 50+ participants. A lot of recent

magazine articles etc suggest that the 50+ market or 'baby boomers' as they are

known, are a major up-and-coming market for trying new activities. In fact in PADI's

Undersea Journal for the second quarter of 2009 there is a 12 page article about

how to market towards different generations effectively. Baby Boomers (Those born

between 1946 and 1964) now represent one-third of the world's population

(Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), 2009). Many baby boomers

are at or nearing retirement age, this means they are looking for new life experiences

and want to pursue lifelong dreams, scuba diving may be one of them. Also recent

research tells us that this generation have the largest annual income and therefore

disposable income to spend on new experiences. (Professional Association of Diving

Instructors (PADI), 2009)

The effects of negative past experience on beginner scuba divers

5 participants said they have had a negative past experience that has increased thier

anxiety levels before taking part in the DSD session. 3 of the 5 stated that they felt

uncomfortable in the water because of an entrapment/near-drowning incident that

happened to them when they were young. These experiences as a child can leave

long-term psychological damage to the people involved and definitely would have

had a detrimental effect on thier anxiety levels during the session. Though these

negative experiences may have affected them before and possibly during the

session, the results show that 4/5 would be more confident taking a full scuba diving

course now and that 3/5 gave the overall experience a 9 on the scale.

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Participant suggestions on ways to make the DSD less stressful

Of all 33 of the participants only two suggestions where made; "Going into more

detail on hand signals and how to cope when out of air" and "more reassurance that

the breathing would get easier."

In terms of going into more detail on hand signals and how to cope when out of air,

the instructors only teach the participants what signals they think are pertinent to the

session for example, "I'm ok", "I have a problem", up and down etc. Other signals

such as air gage amounts and abort dive, etc are not really necessary in a swimming

pool environment that most participants can stand up in. The main goal of the DSD

experience is to get the participants underwater swimming around and having fun, so

finding the balance between amount of instruction and play-time is key to the

success of the session. Instructors tell the participants to keep an eye on their

submersible pressure gage and to inform them when it enters the caution zone. Also

most instructors will glace at the participants pressure gage as they swim by. A

suggestion may be to get instructors to reaffirm signals with participants after they

have been though them once and also before the instructor gives them free-swim

time. Also to give details on why they are highly unlikely to run out of air whilst in the

pool would be beneficial.

In reference to the comment and "more reassurance that the breathing would get

easier", the instructor advised that it is a matter of getting used to it and at first it may

feel a little strange but given a little time it will become a normal feeling. This

participant was also one of the more anxious taking part, which in turn may have

affected his ability to let himself become happy with breathing from the regulator.

Other comments from the questionnaires gave very positive feedback, some

answers where; "No, staff made experience relaxing," "No, was taught everything

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needed," "No, excellent instructors, very reassuring, "Couldn’t have been made less

stressful, instructors made you feel at ease and obviously knew what they were

doing" and "No, very well explained and the small group size was good. All these

positive comments show that a large part of the success of the DSD session relies

on the instructor being, knowledgeable, approachable, reassuring, calm and fun.

Continued effort and personal review by instructors will help keep these kind of

comments coming.

Sources of pre-DSD anxiety according to the participants

The questionnaires showed that the two main sources of the participant’s anxiety

was the fear of the unknown and embarrassment in front of other people. Comments

such as; "Uncertainty about what the experience would feel like," "Worried about

embarrassing myself in front of the group," "Scarred of deep water" and "Afraid of

making a complete fool of myself" support these facts.

Fear of the unknown is relatively easy to deal with, make the unknown known. It’s

important that instructors put across as much information as possible to the students

and answer any of their questions or concerns in a detailed and relaxed manor.

What the instructor must be careful of is starting to explain something and having to

cut thier explanation short due to time constraints etc. This leaves uncertainty in the

mind of the student which will more than likely fester in thier mind and become fear.

Embarrassment in front of other people is harder to deal with as it depends a lot on

the person’s personality. A shy person may become easily embarrassed if they make

a mistake on a skill or have a moment of panic; again it is down to the instructor to

make the participant feel as comfortable and as confident as possible. For example if

a participant fails to complete a skill 3 times during the DSD, the instructor could

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complete the skill with the rest of the class and send them off for a swim, then come

back to the struggling participant and explain the skill again and give it another go

without the rest of the group watching. This may sound like common sense but some

instructors don't understand that people get nervous trying something new,

especially if it is something that they may have a slight phobia of. Just putting in that

extra effort to make the participant feel a little more comfortable will make the whole

experience that much more positive for them.

Some participants identified that past experience and phobias where the cause of

thier anxiety. Quotes from these participants include; Phobia of drowning,

submarines, shipwrecks and deep water, afraid of the water, trapped under a sailing

dingy as a child and multiple participants said that fear of drowning was thier cause

for anxiety.

Conclusion

Good instruction is key

The key to the success of the DSD and other scuba diving courses is quality

instruction. It may sound like an obvious answer but many dive schools do not

appreciate the importance of teaching people the right way and not just the most

cost effective way. Through personal research, it was found that in these tough

financial times dive schools are cutting back, unfortunately many are cutting back on

the important things like staff and are teaching courses that only just meet the

training organisations standards. This obviously is having a detrimental effect on the

quality of students that are going out into the wider diving world. This obviously will

have an effect on the safety of those divers, the divers they dive with and may have

a negative effect on the perception that the masses have on scuba diving as a

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whole. Many instructors don’t realise is that making just a little more effort to smile or

go just a little bit out of their way to help a student who is struggling, could greatly

increase their student return rate. Happy and friendly clubs make happy and friendly

divers. True that many clubs have come a long way from the days of saying “only big

tough men can be divers” but there is still room for improvement. If all instructors

showed a little more compassion and understanding towards their students needs,

then many more people would continue with the sport.

Increasing instructor knowledge of learning styles

We all learn in different ways and ensuring that instructors understand different

learning styles is an important aspect of teaching. Building criteria into instructor

programs that encompass for example the Honey and Mumford Learning Styles

model would greatly benefit both instructors and students. In short Peter Honey and

Alan Mumford adapted David Kolb’s model for use with a population of middle

managers in business (Peter Honey Publications, 2011). The model breaks down

into 4 main learning styles; Activists, Reflectors, Theorists and Pragmatists.

Activists are the doers, they prefer to immerse themselves fully in new experiences

and enjoy the here and now. They tend to be open minded, enthusiastic and flexible

people who act first, and consider the consequences later (Clark, 2008). Reflectors

like to review and repeat processes in order to fully understand them. They prefer to

stand back and observe and act cautiously towards the activity (Clark, 2008). They

use information from past, present and immediate observations to maintain a big

picture perspective. Theorists make early conclusions by thinking through problems

in a logical manner. They value rationality and objectivity judge the activity.

Pragmatists are the planners. There keen to put ideas, theories and techniques into

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practice and search for new ideas and experiment. It would be useful for instructors

to understand these different learning styles and to adapt teaching style accordingly

to the individuals in the session or class their teaching. This can be difficult as all the

class will learn differently from one another and will not be able to take on

information as well as they could if the teaching was aimed at their specific learning

style. (Peter Honey Publications, 2011)

More research needed

It is clear that this subject area needs more research on a much larger section of

divers, taking into consideration age, negative past experience and previous scuba

diving experience of the participants.

Acknowledgements

PADI, BSAC, DAN, Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC) and Cornish

Diving for thier help and support during the beginnings of this research.

The Scuba Tribe Ltd and thier staff who helped with data collection.

Specifically Phil Elson and Gemma Wright for thier continued advice, help and

support throughout the research.

Center Parcs and Jon Peters who supported the research and provided the

location and participants.

Falmouth Marine School and its staff. Specifically Steven Bowens and Dr

Claire Eatock for thier advice and support throughout the research.

The University of Plymouth for providing the opportunity for the research to be

undertaken.

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