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A REVIEW OF THE FOUR IMPORTANT ALIEN INVASIVE SPECIESON RICE AND MANGO IN THE PHILIPPINES

Josie Lynn A. Catindig and Kong Luen HeongEntomology and Plant Pathology Division, International Rice Research Institute

DAPO Box 7777 Metro Manila, The Philippines (j.catindig@cgiar.org)

Summary

Four alien invasive pests of economic importance to the rice and mango are described. These arethe golden apple snail (GAS), Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck) (Mesogastropoda:Ampullariidae), the rice black bug (RBB), Scotinophara coarctata (Fabricius)(Hemiptera:Pentatomidae), the mango pulp weevil (MPW), Sternochetus frigidus (Fabricius) andthe mango seed weevil (MSW), S. mangiferae (Fabricius) (Coleoptera:Curculionidae). Theirecology, distribution and management options are presented in this paper.

Introduction

According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), “Invasive alien species are speciesintroduced deliberately or unintentionally outside their natural habitats where they have theability to establish themselves, invade, outcompete natives and take over the new environments”.They are widespread in the world and are found in all categories of living organisms and alltypes of ecosystems. However, plants, mammals and insects comprise the most common types ofinvasive alien species in terrestrial environments (http://www.biodiv.org).

In the Philippines, four of the most important alien invasive pests are the golden apple snail,locally known as golden kuhol (Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck)), the rice black bug, locallyknown as “itim na atangya” (Scotinophara coarctata (Fabricius)), the mango pulp weevil(Sternochetus frigidus (Fabricius)) and the mango seed weevil (S. mangiferae (Fabricius)).

The golden apple snail and the rice black bug feed on rice. Rice, the food crop for more than halfthe world’s population is the staple food in the Philippines. Of the 4 million hectares of total ricearea, the average rice yield in the Philippines as of 2000 was 3.1 metric tons (MT) per hectare(IRRI, 2002).

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The mango pulp weevil, Sternochetus frigidus (Fabricius) and the mango seed weevil, S.mangiferae (Fabricius) attacked mango fruits of cultivated and wild species in some parts of Asialike the Philippines (Gabriel, 1977; De Jesus, et al., 2004). Mango is the national fruit in thePhilippines and is the third most important fruit crop of the country based on export volume andvalue next to banana and pineapple. Mango export in the country reached to 35,771 MT in 2003($31.011 million) with country’s production of close to one million metric tons(http://www.mb.com.ph).

Golden Apple Snail, Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck)

Lamarck first described the golden apple snail or GAS in 1822 from rivers at Guadeloupe inSouth America (De Souza Lopes, 1956). However, it was thought that the snail originated fromthe catchement area of the Paraguay and Paraná Rivers and drain into the Atlantic in Argentina(Pain, 1960). Because of aquarium trade, it was introduced in Asia, specifically in Taiwan fromArgentina in 1979 as human food to be cultured indoors (Mochida, 1991). From Taiwan, itspread to Japan in 1981 and to the Philippines in 1983 (Santos, 1987) to boost food productionand increase the protein intake of average Filipino families. The Philippine governmentencouraged its production and sponsored a livelihood project in 1984-85 by distributing the snailto all main islands to be raised in soil pits as a backyard cottage industry and promoting it as anational livelihood program (Adalla & Morallo-Rejesus, 1989; Morallo-Rejesus et al., 1990).The urban enterpreneurs were among the first raisers who were interested in generatingadditional income.

The snail eventually escaped from backyards and by 1985, GAS was all over the Philippines andfound its way to agroecosystem and started to alarm the rice farmers. Farmers consider thegolden apple snail to be the most serious pest in the Philippines in 1986 (Morallo-Rejesus et al.,1990). Further, it is said that the population of the native apple snail, Pila luzonica, has declineddrastically since the introduction of the golden apple snail.

Distribution. Aside from the Philippines, GAS is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, California,Cambodia, China, Dominican Republic, Florida, Guam, Hawaii, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos,Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Singapore, Suriname, Taiwan, Texas, Thailand, USA,and Vietnam (CABI, 2001; Rice IPM CD, 2001; http://www.columbia.edu).

Biology and ecology. The golden apple snail is prevalent in wetland such as marshes, swamps,rivers and irrigation canals lined with vegetation or rice fields. It can survive harsh

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environmental conditions with pollutants in the water or low dissolved oxygen levels (CABI,2001). It can bury itself in moist soil during the dry season. It aestivates for 6 months thenbecame active again when the soil is flooded (PhilRice, 2001).

The golden apple snail shell is light brown with creamy white to golden pinkish or orange flesh(Fig. 1). It has both gills and a lung-breathing organ. It digs deep into the mud and surfacesagain after renewed flooding. During drought, it closes its operculum. It prefers newly-transplanted rice seedlings up to 15 days after transplanting are vulnerable to golden apple snaildamage and from 4 days to 30 days after sowing for direct-seeded rice (PhilRice, 2001). Youngplants that are soft and succulent are susceptible because the snail feeds by scraping the plantsurface with its rough tongue (Basilio & Litsinger, 1988). It also feeds on any decomposingorganic matter. The golden apple snail has separate sexes, which can be morphologicallydistinguished by the curve of the operculum. The male has a convex operculum while the femalehas a concave operculum. The shell of the female adult snail curves inward while the male shellcurves outward (Dela Cruz, et al., 2000) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1. Golden apple snail adult and egg mass (PhilRice).

The average sexual maturity of the golden apple snail is attained in 60-90 d after hatching andmay spawn at weekly intervals throughout the year (Saxena et al., 1987; Santos, 1987; Halwart,1994). Mating occurs any time of the day in all seasons of the year in places where there is acontinuous supply of water. It is prolific and reproduces ten times faster than the native speciesZeo

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(Adalla & Morallo-Rejesus, 1989). A gravid female snail adult can lay as much as 25-1200 eggsor 25-320 bright pink eggs per week with 80% hatchability. Eggs are laid at night on anyvegetation, levees, twigs, stakes, or stones above the water surface. Egg masses are brightpinkish-red (Fig. 1) and turn light pink when about to hatch. Egg incubation is from 7-15 d.After hatching, the soft-bodied juveniles drop into the water and cling onto nearby surface.Their shells harden in 2 days and the hatchlings crawl when they reach 2-5 mm in size (CABI,2001). Hatchlings grow and mature fast. They are voracious feeders and grow quickly, maturingat about 2 months old. They have been called “eating machines” because they can eat 24 hoursa day. The most destructive stage is when the length of the shell is from 10 mm or 1 cm (aboutthe size of a corn seed) to about 40 mm or 4 cm (about the size of a pingpong ball) (Dela Cruz etal., 2000). It devours the base of young seedlings and can even consume the young plants in arice field overnight. The feeding damage results to missing hills (Fig. 3) and floating cut leaveson the water surface (Saxena et al., 1987). At 30 days after transplanting, medium- sized snails(2-3 cm shell height) at a density of one and eight snails/m2 had reduced the number of tillers by19% and 98%, respectively (Basilio, 1991). Furthermore, 0.5 snails/m2 cause 6.5% and 8.0snails/m2 93% of missing rice hills. The golden apple snail can live from 2 to 6 years with highfertility.

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Fig. 2 Ventral view of male and female adults of golden apple snail (PhilRice).

Fig. 3. Missing rice hills (JLA Catindig, IRRI).

The snail has become a major pest not only of rice but also of the aquatic nitrogen-fixing fernAzolla (Saxena et al., 1987; Mochida et al., 1991), taro, and lotus plants (Mochida, 1988) in thePhilippines. It also feeds on maize, citrus, ramie (Adalla & Morallo-Rejesus, 1989), cassava,papaya, kangkong, sweet potato, algae, duckweed, water hyacinth, and other succulent leafyplants (PhilRice, 2001 & 2002).

Recent findings in the rice field in La Union, Philippines showed that the golden apple snail wasfound to be effective against weeds (http://www.manilatimes.net). It is now consider by farmers anally rather than an enemy because it can now manage weeds in lowland irrigated wheretransplanted rice is planted. The snail would benefit farmers provided that the field is leveledvery well so that the depth of water as well as movement of the snail could be controlled. Nowater should be added to the field after transplanting for four to six days. Water should bereleased into the field once weeds have grown to one centimeter. By this time, the rice plants arealready 25 to 28 days old and their stems are already hard. The snail would prefer the soft andsucculent weeds.

Pomacea canaliculata is similar to other snails including P. doliodes and P. glauca, which arepests of rice in Suriname, and P. insularum in South America. It may also be confused withother snails of the genus Pomacea that are raised for food including P. gigas and P. cuprinawhich may have escaped into rice fields in Asia (CABI, 2001).

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Damage and infestation. In the Philippines, the first report on actual damage of the goldenapple snail was when it devastated Region 2 (Cagayan Valley) with an estimated damage ofabout 300 hectares of irrigated rice in 1986 (Adalla & Morallo-Rejesus, 1989). In 1988, thereported damage increased to an estimated 130,945.78 hectares to 426,000 hectares. It hadreached more than 800,000 hectares by 1995 (Cagauan et al., 1998). Pesticide expenditure for1988 was estimated to be US $ 2.4 million (Halwart, 1994). According to another estimate, yieldloss of rice by GAS in 1990 was at 70,000 to 100,000 t valued at US $ 12.5-17.8 million (Naylor,1996). The total cost due to the golden apple snail including yield loss, replanting cost and thecost of control such as molluscicides and handpicking was estimated at US $ 28-45 million. Thecumulative costs after the snail invasion up to 1993 were estimated as between US $ 425-1,200million (CABI, 2001). Since then, rice area infested with GAS has been increasing until itbecame a national menace (PhilRice, 2001). It was reported that of the 3 million hectares of ricefields in the Philippines, 1.2-1.6 hectares are infested by the golden apple snail (PhilRice, 2001).

Management. There are physical, mechanical, cultural, biological, and chemical controlmeasures recommended against the golden apple snail (Anonymous, 1989; Morallo- Rejesus etal., 1990; Mochida, 1991).

The physical control practice of managing the snail is to install screens with 5-mm mesh at waterinlets (Anonymous, 1989; Litsinger & Estaño, 1993). This can minimize the entry of snails intothe rice fields and will also facilitate hand-collection.

Increase mortality by mechanical action prior to crop establishment is advisable. It includeshandpicking and crushing, staking with bamboo or other wooden stakes before and aftertransplanting can be practiced to facilitate egg mass collection (Saxena et al., 1987). Likewise,the use of a hand-operated device to smash egg clusters between two snail egg clappers can alsoreduce the snail population (Awadhwal & Quick, 1991).

Among the recommended cultural control measures, crop establishment, planting methods,seedling rate, good leveling the field to remove snail refuges and facilitate drainage, planting athigher densities, burning straw, are the most used methods (FAO, 1989; Litsinger & Estaño,1993; Halwart, 1994). Planting older seedlings, planting at higher densities, or planting onridges above the water line are advised against the golden apple snail. The field can be leveled-off or hydrotiller or rototiller to prepare the land (Mochida, 1988). An off-season tillage to crushsnails can also be employed. Snails can also be exposed to sun. Draining the field is also advised

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(Litsinger & Estaño, 1993). Crop rotation with a dryland crop and fallow periods is alsorecommended as control.For easier drainage and collection of the golden apple snail, canalets can be constructed alongbunds and inside paddies. Atractants like newspaper can be used (Joshi & de la Cruz, 2001).

Depressed strips can be constructed to retain a small amount of water drainage. This method alsoconfines the snail to limited areas, hence handpicking can be facilitated. It can be done during thefinal harrowing period.

Good water management obtained by good levelling for the first two weeks is recommended.

Biological methods include herding ducks and raising fish such as carp and tilapia in the paddy iseffective against the golden apple snail (Pantua et al., 1992; Litsinger & Estaño, 1993; Halwart,1994). Birds prey on both eggs and neonates. Rats and snakes also feed on them. Red ants feedon eggs (http://www.columbia.edu).

Molluscicides such as metaldehyde is recommended (Mochida et al., 1991). It is non-toxic tofish and other aquatic life.

Rice Black Bug, Scotinophara coarctata (Fabricius)

The rice black bug or RBB, Scotinophara coarctata (Fabricius) is a dreadful insect pest in thePhilippines (Estoy et al., 1999). It was first reported as a rice pest in the Philippines on the islandof Palawan in 1982 (Barrion et al., 1982). Before this year there was no record of occurrence ofthis pest in the Philippines (de Sagun et al., 1991). The first reported incidence of RBB in thePhilippines was in the southern part of Palawan in September 1979 (Miyamoto et al., 1983). Itsspread was later observed throughout the northern and the central parts of Palawan (Miyamoto,et al., 1983; Mochida et al., 1986; Villareal, personal communication). From Palawan, it movedto Mindanao in 1992 (PhilRice, 2000) and the Visayas region in 1998 and moved back again inMindanao in 2000 and in the Visayas region in 2001.

Recently, the National Crop Protection Center based at UP Los Baños has advised the DARegional Office through the Regional Executive Director to be alert for possible entry of the riceblack bug into the Bicol Region (http://www.bicol.da.gov.ph)

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It was believed that the spread of RBB was due to frequent boat transportation between islands,the plain cultivation of wetland habitats and host plants and perhaps the lack of indigenousnatural enemies.

Distribution. The rice black bug also occurs in Asian countries such as South China, Vietnam,Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, India, Bangladesh, andPakistan (Reissig et al., 1986; Subramanian et al., 1986; Singh & Singh, 1987; Ferrer & Shepard,1987; Ito et al., 1993; CABI, 2001; Rice IPM CD, 2001). It has been a pest of rice in Malaysiafor so many years (Corbett & Yusope, 1924; Grist & Lever, 1969; Van Vreden & Ahmadzabidi,1986).

Biology and ecology. Unlike other pests, which damage the rice plants only at a certain stage,the rice black bug attacks rice at all stages of crop growth particularly from maximum tillering toripening growth stage (Reissig et al., 1986; PhilRice, 2000). At vegetative stage, the damage iscalled deadhearts and whiteheads during the reproductive stage. RBB can cause plant stuntingand bugburn where the leaves turn reddish brown, resulting to crop loss. The nymphs are themost destructive stage because it feeds at the base of the rice plant (Simbajon, 1992). It alsoprefers stem nodes because of the large sap reservoir (Reissig, et al., 1986).

The RBB is not common in upland rice ecosystem (Reissig et al., 1986). It inhabits both rainfedand irrigated wetland environments. It is attracted to high-intensity light and produces anoffensive odor when disturbed (CABI, 2001; Rice IPM CD, 2001). The bug is a weak flier. Itsadult flies to the rice crop to reproduce over several generations when weather conditions arefavourable. It returns to its resting sites after crop harvests. It is capable of migrating longdistances by ships and other means of transportation (CABI, 2001). Its flight activity is affectedby the lunar cycle (PhilRice, 2000). The availability and quality of food also affects its flightactivity. Its flight activity increases when there is no food. There is less migration and dispersalif rice plants are readily available as food in the field (PhilRice, 2000).

The adult of the rice black bug is oval-shaped and about 8-9 mm long (Fig. 4). It lives from 3 to7 months. The female lays about 200 eggs during her lifetime and guards the egg until hatching(Reissig et al., 1986). It deposits its eggs on the lower part of the leaves or on the basal part ofthe rice plant near the water surface (PhilRice, 2000). The eggs are laid in masses of 40-60individual eggs in several parallel rows (Fig. 4). During dry conditions, the female bug depositsits eggs on the leaves and stem. Eggs are also laid in cracks on the soil and on roots (Rice IPMCD, 2001). Freshly laid eggs are greenish and turn pink with age. Egg incubation of the rice

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black bug is 3 to 7 days. The nymphs are brown and yellow with black markings (Reissig et al.,1986). Six nymphal instars are completed in 29-35 days.

Like the adults, the nymphs have similar behavior of remaining in the base of the plant duringthe day and feeding at night (Fig. 4). The nymphs reached adulthood after 4 to 5 molts in 25-30days.

Rice is the main host. It also feeds on a number of grasses and broadleaves (Mochida et al., 1982;IRRI Reporter, 1983; Miyamoto et al., 1983; PhilRice, 2000).

S. coarctata is similar to many other oval-shaped shield or stink bugs that occur in rice, but thenon-pest species seldom occur in high numbers. S. coarctata is distinguishable from S. lurida bythe position of spines on the pronotum (CABI, 2001).

Fig. 4. Black bug adult, egg mass (IRRI) and nymphs (PhilRice).

Damage and infestation. A number of infestations and outbreaks of the RBB have beenrecorded. For example, 1,246 hectares of rice fields in 4 municipalties in Palawan were damagedin 1982 (Perez, 1989). In this year, at the height of the RBB infestation, the ProvincialGovernment formed the Task Force Black Bug and spent US $ 20,000 for chemicals against

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RBB (Barrion et al., 1982). A major outbreak in 1985 spread towards the central and northernPalawan covering 4,500 hectares of rice lands (Barrion et al., 1982). In Mindanao, it attacked2,070 hectares of rice lands affecting 2,430 farmers who suffered a production loss estimated at2.2 million in 1992 (Fernandez, 1993) and 10,000 hectares of ricelands in 1995 (Apao et al.,1998). In the Visayas, the RBB hit about 6,202 hectares of rice fields in Leyte provinces in 2000(Tempo, 2004).

Management. The best management option for RBB is the possible use of classical biologicalcontrol. Perez et al., (1989, 1995) recorded the presence of an important egg parasitoidTelenomus triptus in Palawan and T. cyrus in Malaysia (Chang et al., (1991). The egg parasitoidT. cyrus is apparently not found attacking Scotinophara species in the Philippines. There areother natural enemies that might be of significance.

Mango Pulp Weevil, Sternochetus frigidus (Fabricius)

Sternochetus frigidus (Fabricius) or MPW is a recently introduced insect pest of mango fruits inthe Philippines (Basio et al., 1994). Its distribution, however, is restricted to the islands ofPalawan. Its establishment in southern Palawan is attributed to the shipping route and tradeactivities between southern Palawan and Borneo, which is a native area of the pulp weevil (Basioet al., 1994). It is considered as one of the serious problems of the mango industry because itspresence brought about a quarantine restriction on Philippine mangoes, which prevented theopening of new markets for export (Medina & Velasco, 2001). To protect the Philippine mangoindustry, the Palawan Island group was placed under quarantine through BPI Special QuarantineAdministrative Order No. 20 Series of 1987 (http:www.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph).

Distribution. Aside from the Philippines, MPW can be spotted in mangoes in Northeast India,Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Pakistan and Papua NewGuinea (CABI, 2001).

Biology and ecology. The adult of MPW is a small hard-bodied insect (Fig. 5) (Altoveros et al.,2004). It is black with brown patches in the elytra and legs. Its female adult lays single eggs ona mango fruit when it is about the size of a chicken egg. Eggs are opaque and turn light yellowwith the developing cranium becoming noticeable (Fig. 6). The female later covers the eggs withblack sticky exudate, which later turns into brown, dry and hardened egg plug. This egg plugserves as protection by holding the eggs in place. Eggs are 0.4 mm long and 0.5 mm wide andhatch in 9.3 d. Eventually the neonate larvae enter the young mango fruits by boring through

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the soft skin, preferring the area closer to the seed (Figure 7) causing the darkening of theaffected tissues (Fig. 8).

Fig. 5. Dorsal and lateral views of adult of MPW (CABI; de Jesus & Gabo).

Fig. 6. Mango pulp weevil (a) egg, (b) 5th instar larva, (c) prepupating larva and (d) pupa(de Jesus & Gabo).

a b c d

a b c d

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Fig. 7. Larval entry into the mango fruit of MPW (de Jesus & Gabo).

The mango pulp weevil undergoes five larval instars observed in 20.3 days (De Jesus et al.,2004). Older larvae create feeding canals or tunnels as they move from one area to another inorder to feed. Before pupation, the mature larvae specifically the 5th larval instar prepares apupal cell and confines itself to this pupal cell until it becomes an adult (Fig. 8). Developmentfrom larva to prepupa to pupa to adult takes place inside the fruit. The pupa is exarate and active(Fig. 5). Total development of S. frigidus from egg to adult stage is 32 d. The adult remainsinside the fruit for another 37 d. It was found out that 70% of the adults exit the fruit by boring ahole directly underneath the pupal chamber.

Fig. 8. Affected fruit tissues (a) (http://www.min.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph) and pupal cell (b)of MPW(de Jesus & Gabo).

The damage caused by MPW is not apparent in infested fruits (Velasco and Medina, 2004). Bythe time, the fruits are harvested the tiny wound created by the young larvae as their point ofentry in the skin of mango fruits is not anymore recognizable and had completely gone.

In the absence of mango fruits, MPW adults have been found feeding on mango flowers orpanicles during full bloom stage with peak activity observed at 0600-1000h (De Jesus, et al.,2003). During the fruiting season, the adults also feed on the developing fruits by making very

a b

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small punctures on the peel. However, the larvae are the most destructive because they feed anddevelop on the pulp.

The weevils feed exclusively on mango regardless of the variety (De Jesus and Gabo, 2000).

Damage and infestation. The MPW started infesting mango plantations in the southernmostpart of Palawan since 1987 (Altoveros, et al., 2004). It started in the towns of Bataraza,Brooke’s Point, Narra and Aborlan. In 1995, infestation of MPW occurred sporadically inPuerto Princesa City in the central part of Palawan. In backyards in Brooke’s Point, infestationof trees was high as 43% (De Jesus and Cortez, 1998). The northern part of the province is stilluninfested (De Jesus and Gabo, 2000).

Management. There are mechanical and chemical control measures available for the mangopulp weevil.

One way of preventing the insects from touching the mango fruit is to bag it or cover the wholefruit (PCARRD, 1999). The fruits can be bagged when the fruits are the size of a chicken egg orabout 55 to 60 d before spraying. Doing so effectively protects the fruits from pest and diseases.Durable papers such as imported newsprints are the recommended bagging materials,newspapers or the yellow pages of phone directories can also be used. Fruit bagging can reducethe use of pesticide by 23% and it reduces fruit rejects from 60% to 15% of the total harvest. Itwas found out that the cost of chemical control with bagging was P 818.00 a tree, while non-adopters spent P 1,050 a tree (http:www.globalpinoy.com).

Pruning is also advisable as it removes unproductive and overlapping branches as well as thosedamaged by insects and diseases, resulting in good light penetration and air circulation(http:www.globalpinoy.com). Sanitation is another way of control.

Infected mango fruits that dropped on the ground should be properly disposed by burying themhalf meter below the ground to prevent the insect from completing its life cycle(http://www.min.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph.).

The use of insecticide such as lambdacyhalothrin is found to be effective against Sternochetusfrigidus (http:www.min.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph).

Mango Seed Weevil, Sternochetus mangiferae

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Of equal importance is the mango seed weevil or MSW, S. mangiferae. It was first described in1775, in the genus Curculio (CABI, 2001). It is also found in the Philippines (Gabriel, 1977). Onnumerous occasions, it has been intercepted in mangoes from the Philippines by the Animal andPlant Health Inspection Service of the United States Department of Agriculture (Anonymous,1988). It was known to originate from India (Waterhouse, 1993) and Myanmar (CABI, 2001).However, its mode of transfer to the Philippines is not known.

Distribution. The mango seed weevil is found in Africa, Australia, Bangladesh, Barbados,Bhutan, Chagos Archipelago, China, Dominica, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guadeloupe, Guam,Hawaii, Hongkong, India, Indonesia, Martinique, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Caledonis,Northern Mariana Islands, Oman, Pakistan, St. Lucia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tonga, Trinidad andTobago, United Arab Emirates, United States Virgin Islands, Vietnam, Wallis and Futuna Islands(CABI, 2001).

Biology and ecology. Not many studies have been conducted on the mango seed weevil. Itsadult lays its eggs in green fruits. Its legless larvae bore as far as the seed, leaving only a tinyscar on the skin. The larvae feed during maturation and then bore a second gallery to leave thefruit, enhancing the development of secondary rot at the end of storage (http://www.min.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph).

The mango seed weevil is similar in appearance to S. frigidus. S. frigidus and S. mangiferae (Fig.9) can be distinguished because the pronotum of S. frigidus is parallel-sided in the basal half; theelytra is only one quarter as long as it is broad and is strongly declivous apically; the profemorais slender, not clavate (CABI, 2001).

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Fig. 9. Mango seed weevil adult (CABI).

Management. Its management follows the management options of S. frigidus(http://www.min.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph).

Destruction of scattered stones is also recommended (Kok, 1979).

References

Adalla CB, Morallo-Rejesus B. 1989. The golden apple snail, Pomacea sp., a serious pest oflowland rice in the Philippines. In: Ed. I. Henderson. Slugs and snails in worldagriculture. Proceedings of a Symposium by the British Crop Protection Council.Guildford (UK): University of Surrey. April 10-12. p. 417-422.

Anonymous. 1988. List of intercepted plant pests, fiscal year 1987. United States Departmentof Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service PPQ. Hyattsville, Maryland,USA. 194 p.

Anonymous. 1989. Quarterly Newsletter, Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission 32:39-42.

Anonymous. 1989. Integrated ‘golden’ kuhol management. Philippine GovernmentDepartment of Agriculture, Quezon City, Metro Manila and Fao, Rome.

Apao ER, Lulu AA, Sambulan FS, Esturas AC, Sobredo TN, Araya JP. 1998. Integrated controlstrategies for the rice black bug (Scotinophara coarctata) in western Mindanao. PhilRiceTechnical Bulletin 3: 49-54.

Awadhwal NK, Quick GR. 1991. Crushing snail eggs with a snail egg clapper. InternationalRice Research Newsletter 16:26.

Basio RG, Johnson PJ, Pua DR, Bergonia HT, Diloy CC, Villegas EI. 1994. Mango pulp weevil(Sternochetus frigidus (Fabricius) (Curculionidae, Coleoptera) found in Palawan. Philipp.Ent. 9:350-351.

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Barrion AT, Mochida O, Litsinger JA. 1982. The Malayan black bug, Scotinophara coarctata(F.) (Hemiptera:Pentatomidae): a new rice pest in the Philippines. Int. Rice Res. Newsl.7: 6-7.

Basilio R, 1991. Problems of golden apple snail infestation in rice farming. In: Acosta BO, PullinRS, eds. Environmental impact of the golden snail (Pomacea sp.) on rice farming systemsin the Philippines. ICLARM, Manila, 11-12.

Basilio RP, Litsinger JA. 1988. Host range and feeding preference of golden apple snail.International Rice Research Newsletter 13:44-45.

Cagauan AG, Tiongco ER, Rodriguez C, 1998. Overview of golden apple snail (Pomaceacanaliculata Lamarck) infestation and control in rice farming in the Philippines. Paperpresented at International Workshop on the Integrated Management of the Golden AppleSnail in Rice Production in Vietnam, August 4-6, 1998, Nghe An Province, Vietnam.

Chang P, Ito K, Salleh NMNB. 1991. Migration and management of the Malayan black bug,Scotinophara coarctata (Fabricius) (Heteroptera:Pentatomidae), in Kerian, Malaysia.Proceedings of International Seminar on Migration aand Dispersal of Agricultural Insects.Tsukuba Japan, September 1991. Pp. 229-245.

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Convention on Biological Diversityhttp://www.biodiv.org

R-5 alerted on entry of rice black bughttp://www.bicol.da.gov.ph

Snail found effective vs. weedshttp://www.manilatimes.net

Introduced species summary project apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata)http://www.columbia.edu.

Mango pulp weevilhttp://www.min.pcarrd.dost.gov.ph

Pruning a big help to mango growershttp://www.globalpinoy.com

9.4 M hectares can be tapped for mango farmshttp:www.mb.com.ph

Acoustical methods for detecting internal infestation of mango pulp weevil (Sternochetusfrigidus Fabr.) on raw mangoes (Mangifera indica L.). 13(2) excerpt 26. (by Altoveros NC, SeseRMD, Medina CRD. 2004)http:www.dpi.qld.gov.au

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