journal of applied learning in higher education · from celebration to critical investigation: ......
TRANSCRIPT
J o u r n a l o f
Applied Learning in Higher Education
F a l l 2 0 0 9 , V o l . 1
J o u r n a l o f
Applied Learning in Higher Education
Co-Editors:
Kelly Bouas Henry, Ph.D., Missouri Western State University
Roy Schwartzman, Ph.D., University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Editorial Board:
Robert G. Bringle, Ph.D., Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis
Patti H. Clayton, Ph.D., Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis
Brian C. Cronk, Ph.D., Missouri Western State University
Mary L. Crowe, Ph.D., University of North Carolina at Greensboro
John Falconer, Ph.D., University of Nebraska at Kearney
Ruthann Fox-Hines, Ph.D., University of South Carolina
Dwight E. Giles, Jr., Ph.D., University of Massachusetts Boston
Karen Fulton, Ph.D., Missouri Western State University
Cynthia Heider, Ph.D., Missouri Western State University
Susan A. Jasko, Ph.D., California University of Pennsylvania
Mitch Malachowski, Ph.D., University of San Diego
Greg A. Phelps, Ph.D., Lindsey Wilson College
J o u r n a l o f
Applied Learning in Higher Education
CONTENTS
FromCelebrationtoCriticalInvestigation: ChartingtheCourseofScholarshipinAppliedLearning ROYSCHWARTZMANandKELLYBOUASHENRY 3
Generating,Deepening,andDocumentingLearning: ThePowerofCriticalReflectioninAppliedLearning SARAHL.ASHandPATTIH.CLAYTON 25
ExaminingtheDevelopmentoftheVictorianCertificate ofAppliedLearningandItsImplicationsforSchools andTeacherEducationinAustralia DAMIANBLAKEandDAVIDGALLAGHER 49 WillTheyRecognizeMyLectureintheField? TheJuvenileCorrectionsCritical AssessmentTourAppliedLearningExperience GREGLINDSTEADTandREGINAWILLIAMS-DECKER 73 StudentMotivationandAssessmentof AppliedSkillsinanEquineStudiesProgram K.I.TUMLIN,R.LINARES,andM.W.SCHILLING 93 DemographicTippingPoint: CulturalBrokeringwithEnglishLanguageLearnersasService- LearningforTeacherCandidatesandEducators WENDYL.MCCARTY,ROSEMARYCERVANTES, andGERALDINESTIRTZ 109
PublishedbyMissouriWesternStateUniversity,St.Joseph,Missouri
Fall2009Volume1
AimsandScope:TheJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education(JALHE)isaninternationalandinterdisciplinaryjournalservingthecommunityofscholarsengagedinappliedlearningatinstitu-tionsofhighereducation.Itspurposeistoadvancescholarshiponappliedlearningbyprovidinganoutletforempiricalandtheoreticalworkrelatedtothispedagogicalpractice.
PeerReviewPolicy:AllpaperssubmittedtoJALHEundergoarigorouspeerreviewprocess,begin-ningwithaninitialscreeningbytheeditorpriortoananonymousreviewbyatleasttwoindependentexperts.Theeditorwillconveyafinaldecisiontotheauthor,alongwithconstructivefeedbackfromthetworeviewers.
Submission Guidelines: Each year, presenters at the annual Conference on Applied Learningin Higher Education are invited to submit manuscripts based on their work presented at the con-ference for consideration for publication in the Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Educa-tion. Manuscripts of up to 5000 words (excluding tables, figures, and references from the wordcount) should be submitted via e-mail to Kelly Henry, Missouri Western State University at:appliedlearning@missouriwestern.edu.ManuscriptsshouldbesubmittedasasingleMicrosoftWorddocumentandshouldfollowcurrent(6thed.)AmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA)Publica-tionGuidelines.Submissionofamanuscriptimpliescommitmenttopublishinthejournal.Authorssubmittingmanuscriptstothejournalshouldnotsimultaneouslysubmitthemtoanotherjournal,norshouldmanuscriptshavebeenpublishedelsewhereinsubstantiallysimilarformorwithsubstantiallysimilarcontent.Authorsindoubtaboutwhatconstitutesapriorpublicationshouldconsulttheeditor.Uponnotificationofacceptance,authorsmustassigncopyrightandprovidecopyrightclearanceforcopyrightedmaterials.
TheJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education(ISSN2150-8259)ispublishedannuallyeachFallbyMissouriWesternStateUniversity,4525DownsDr.,St.Joseph,MO64507;(816)271-5977;fax(816)271-5979;e-mail:[email protected];http://www.missouriwestern.edu/AppliedLearning.Copyright©2009byMissouriWesternStateUniversity.Allrightsreserved.Noportionofthecontentsmaybereproducedinanyformwithoutwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.Addressallpermissionstoappliedlearning@missouriwestern.edu.
Subscriptions:Regularinstitutionalandindividualratesare$50peryear.SubscriptionsareavailablefromtheOfficeofAppliedLearning,203PopplewellHall,MissouriWesternStateUniversity,4525DownsDr.,St.Joseph,[email protected],individualsubscriptionsareincludedaspartoftheConferenceonAppliedLearninginHigherEducationregis-trationfee.Limitedbackissuesmaybeavailablebycontactingappliedlearning@missouriwestern.edu,butfreeaccessisavailabletoalljournalcontentonthejournalwebsiteathttp://www.missouriwestern.edu/AppliedLearning/JALHE.
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Disclaimer:Theviews,opinions,orfindingsexpressedintheJournalrepresentthoseoftheindividualauthors of the respective works and do not represent the views, opinions, or findings of MissouriWesternStateUniversity.
3
From Celebration to Critical Investigation:
Charting the Course of Scholarship in Applied Learning
Roy SChwARtzmAn UniversityofNorthCarolinaatGreensboro
KeLLy BouAS henRy MissouriWesternStateUniversity
Applied learning refers to learning experiences that take place outside traditional class-room settings. Examples include study away, service-learning, undergraduate research, and internship/practica/clinical experiences. As these pedagogies have increased in fre-quency over the past twenty years, the number of outlets devoted to the publication of scholarly work related to them has not kept pace. The JournalofAppliedLearning inHigherEducation(JALHE) attempts to fill that gap, providing an outlet for research and theory that critically examines applied learning’s impact and purpose using multiple meth-odological and disciplinary approaches. The initial volume of JALHE showcases work in this vein from a wide variety of disciplinary backgrounds and highlights areas ripe for future research.
Nowisthetime,weconclude,tobuildbridgesacrossthedisciplines, andconnectthecampustothelargerworld.Societyitselfhasagreat stakeinhowscholarshipisdefined.(Boyer,1990,p.77) Ernest Boyer’s provocative epigraph captures much of what theJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education (JALHE)seekstoac-complish.Appliedlearningfiguresprominentlyinnationalhigheredu-cationreformefforts.Inanerawhenfew,ifany,ofhighereducation’s
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducationVol.1,Fall20093-23©2009MissouriWesternStateUniversity
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall20094
long-heldpresumptions,suchasthevalueoftheliberalartsandoftenuredprofessors,canbetakenforgranted,educational leadershavebecomemore responsive to the demands of various stakeholders—businesses,governingboards,legislatures,parents,communityorganizations,localresidents, regional accreditation agencies, and students. In particular,highereducationinstitutionsarelearningtousescarceresourcesmoreefficientlytoadapttomultiplelearningstylesandtoproducemeasurablelearningoutcomesthatmeettheneedsofindustryandsociety. Thereformofscholarlyresearchchartsasimilarpath.Boyer(1990)commentsthat“futurescholarsshouldbeaskedtothinkabouttheuse-fulness of knowledge, to reflect on the social consequences of theirwork,andinsodoinggainunderstandingofhowtheirownstudyrelatestotheworldbeyondthecampus”(p.69).Hegoesontopraisefieldworkexperiencesinvariousdisciplines“thatinvolvestudentsinclinicalex-perience and apprenticeships” (Boyer, 1990, p. 70). The evolution ofscholarshipclearlyinvolvesadeepeningconcernfortheexperientialas-pectsofeducation.ThisessaywillchartthecourseofJALHEbybrieflytracingitshistoricalandintellectuallineage,thenembarkonnavigatingitthroughtheongoingscholarlydialoguesrelatedtoeducationaltheoryandpractice.
ConCEPTuALToPoGRAPhyoFAPPLIEDLEARnInG Beforeproceeding,adefinitionofthecentralterminthisjournal’stitlerequiresclarification.“Appliedlearning”refersmoretoaspiritormovementineducationthantoadefinitivelyboundedsubjectmatter.Itdesignatesthekindsofpedagogicalprinciplesandpracticesassociatedwithengagedscholarship,communitiesofpractice,civicengagement,experientialeducation,andcriticalpedagogy.Diverseasappliedlearn-ingmayappear,allitsmanifestationssharecertaincharacteristics.Con-creteexperience,“learningbydoing,”liesatthecoreofappliedlearn-ing.Thispedagogyrepresentsactivelearningatitsmostliterallevel,theactivityofputtingintellectualprinciplesintopractice. Appliedlearningmaybecurricularorco-curricular,connectedwithcourseworkora learningexperience thatoccurs throughother institu-
AUTHOR NOTE: Roy Schwartzman, Ph.D., Department of Communica-tion Studies, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Kelly Bouas Henry, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Missouri Western State University, St. Joseph, MO. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Roy Schwartzman, Dept. of Communication Studies, 109 Ferguson Building, Uni-versity of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402-6170; e-mail: [email protected]
Schwartzman,Henry/SCHOLARSHIPONAPPLIEDLEARNING 5
tionalmeans(suchasstudentserviceprojects).Thesepracticesalwayshave a central educational component that—as service-learning prac-titioners quicklyobserve—distinguishes them fromvolunteerismcon-ductedsolelyforitsintrinsicvalue.Althoughtheyextendbeyondcon-ventionalclassroomeducation,applied learningpracticescomplementratherthanreplaceotherpedagogicalmethods.Appliedlearningtypical-lybecomesmanifestinhighereducationasoneormoreofthefollowingkindsofpedagogicalpractices:studyaway(inanoff-siteenvironment,such as studying abroador community-based learning), service-learn-ing,independentresearch,andinternships/practica/clinicalexperiences.Thesepracticesalwayshaveacentraleducationalcomponentwhichdis-tinguishes them fromout-of-class activities conducted solely for theirintrinsichumanitarianvalue. Thedistinctionbetweenappliedlearningandmoreabstracttheoreti-calknowledgeisarticulatedmostcrisplybyphilosopherGilbertRyle.AccordingtoRyle(1949),intelligencemeldstwokindsofknowledge,whichhelabeled“knowingthat”and“knowinghow.”“Knowingthat”encompasses theoretical understanding, the propositional knowledgetypically reflected inmasteryof factsandprinciples.“Knowinghow”involvesthedemonstrationofskillinperformingatask.Theintegrationofthesetwotypesofknowledgeprovescrucialinwhatcountsasintel-ligence.Imaginesomeonelearninghowtoplayagame.The“knowingthat”componentdealswith internalizingtherules toenableplay.The“knowinghow”aspectreferstotheabilitytoexecutemovesinthegame.Scholarship on applied learning investigates this relationship betweenintellectualunderstanding(comprehendingtherules,knowingthesys-tem)andskillfulpractice(takingappropriateaction). Theoretical knowledge without practical application creates theIvoryTowerintellectualincompetenttofacetheeverydaychallengesoflife.InthefilmDefiance (2008),aJewishrefugeewhocannothammeranaildescribeshisvocationas“anintellectual,”whichgeneratesthepuz-zledreplyfromhiscomrade:“Thisisajob?”Ontheotherhand,practicalskillwithout theoreticalunderstandingcannotgeneratedesired resultsconsistently.Theswiftestrunnercannotwintheracewithoutknowingwhichdirectiontorun.Ryle(1949)suggeststhatblendingtheorywithpracticeenablesalearnertotranscendmeretrainingandmovetowardinitiatingtheself-disciplinethatcharacterizeslifelonglearning:“Tobeintelligentisnotmerelytosatisfycriteria,buttoapplythem;toregulateone’sactionsandnotmerelytobewell-regulated”(p.28). The concepts of applied learning often infused the educational lit-erature indiscussionsofvocationaleducation.Researchersnoted thataknowledge-basedeconomywouldrequiretheflexibilitytoapplyknowl-edgetoavarietyoftasks,andthisversatilitycouldariseonlythroughput-tingtheoryintopracticebyengaginginconcreteactivitiesbeyondthecon-
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall20096
finesofthetraditionalclassroom(Kolde,1991).Ongoingcallsforgreaterrelevanceofhighereducationhavehelpedtoacceleratethepaceofappliedlearningandextenditbeyondjobtraining.Formostofsocietybeyondaca-demia,thetruetestofknowledgeliesinitsconnectiontolivedexperience.
RATIonALE:WhyThISJouRnAL?WhynoW? Thedevelopmentofanynewscholarlyjournalrespondstoanintel-lectualneed,theproverbial“gapintheliterature”recognizedineverythesis or dissertation. The need for this journal is both profound andpersistent.Appliedlearningprogramshaveproliferatedfarmorerapidlythan the scholarly tools to examine themeritsof theirdesignand themeasuresoftheireffectiveness.WhilethepopularityofappliedlearninggeneratescelebrationthattheIvoryTowerisbecomingpartofthesur-roundingneighborhood,italsotriggersconsternation.Asmushroomingnumbersofindividualcasestudiesaccumulate,thespeedofimplement-ingvariousappliedlearningpracticeshasoutpacedtheabilitytodeter-minesystematicallywhatworksbest,when,andwhy(Densmore,2000;Eyler,2002). ThechronologicalhistoryofthisjournalbeginswiththeConferenceon Applied Learning in Higher Education (CALHE), developed andhostedbyMissouriWesternStateUniversityinSt.Joseph.Theconfer-encewasbornoutofWestern’sstatewidemissionasMissouri’s“appliedlearning” institution, a designation that became official in 2005. Likemanyuniversities,Westernalreadyhadinstitutionalizedmanyformsofapplied learningexperiences.Beyondsimplypracticingapplied learn-ing,theuniversitysoughttoimplementitsmissionbyprovidingavenuetopromotebestpracticesofappliedlearningthatcouldservethestate,region,andnation.Theconferenceemergedasawaytomeldtheoftenabstractrealmofinstitutionalmissionstatementswiththeoftenunder-theorizedandunder-analyzedpracticeofappliedlearning.CALHEof-fered to bring state-of-the-art training, research, and analysis throughthetopexpertsinvariousareasofappliedlearning—therebyputtingtheuniversity’s mission into practice through scholarship and intellectualdialogue. ShortlyafterthefirstCALHEin2006,webegantoseethatarelatedwaytosupporttheuniversity’smissionandtodeepentheconversationsregardingapplied learningwas todevelopapeer-reviewedoutlet thatfacultyandpractitionerscouldturntoasawaytoengageinscholarlydiscussionsrelatedtoappliedlearning.Theconferencewasbecomingaprovocativeavenueforsharingideasaboutappliedlearningacrossvari-ousdisciplines.Unfortunately, itwas limitedby theephemeralnatureofsuchevents.Energeticexchangesofideasoccur,stimulatingfurtherreflection, and then those exciting conversations gradually fade aftertheconferenceconcludes.Thenarcoticeverydayroutineofpaperwork
Schwartzman,Henry/SCHOLARSHIPONAPPLIEDLEARNING 7
andothermundanetasksquellsthemomentumbuiltatthemeeting.Thejournaloffersanongoing,permanentresourceforrestoringandsustain-ingvibrantintellectualdiscourse. Thejournalalsoaddressesanissuethathasemergedonmanycollegeanduniversitycampuses.CALHEemergedatatimewhenhighereduca-tionwas(andstillis)embroiledinoneofmanydilemmasthatpittra-ditionalacademicperceptionagainstcurrentacademicpractice.Ononehand,therealitiesofacademiclifeatalllevelsplaceincreasingdemandsonfacultytoserveandteach.Thechronicshortageofpersonnelwillingtoengageingovernanceandleadershipmeansthatabroaderrangeoftheseadministrativedutiesfiltersintotheeverydaydutiesoffacultyandstaff. Increasingteachingandservice loadsdrivenbydemandsforef-ficiencytranslatetomorestudentsandmoretaskswithfewerresources.Time fordiscipline-based researchmayerode in the faceof thesede-mands,especiallyinasocialclimatewhereonlyclassroominstructionisconceivedas“genuine”academic labor.Ontheotherhand,promo-tionandtenurecommitteesstilltendtoprioritizescholarship,especiallyat research-oriented institutions. How can these competing demandsbereconciled? Applied learning often falls through the cracks of faculty evalua-tion and reward systems in higher education. If understood solely asa pedagogical practice, it remains segregated in the “teaching” realmofevaluation.Theconferenceandthe journal treat theboundariesbe-tween teaching, research, and service as permeable. Too often, espe-ciallyatresearch-orienteduniversities,teachingandserviceoccupydis-tinctlylowerlevelsintheevaluativehierarchy.TheJournal of AppliedLearning in Higher Education isdedicated todemonstrating thatped-agogical practice—much of which involves service—and rigorousresearch are not only compatible, but symbiotic. The nature of thejournalreflects themutualfertilizationamongthefour typesofschol-arship Boyer (1990) articulates: scholarship of discovery, scholarshipof integration, scholarshipof teaching,andscholarshipofapplication.Withinthepagesofthisjournal,thepracticesandprinciplesofdifferentdisciplinesareintegratedbytheirsharedgoal: toprobethetheoreticalgrounds, best practices, and implicationsof applied learning in all itsforms.Thisjournalalsoprovidesascholarlyforumforconductingthescholarshipofengagement(Boyer,1996),theexaminationofpedagogi-calpracticesthatimplementthetraditionalinstitutionalmissiontoserveits communityandconstituencies.This scholarlyapproach to service-relatedactivitiesreunitesthepublicserviceactivitiesofhighereducationwiththecriticalanalysisthatconstitutesthecoreofacademicresearch. Some excellent peer-reviewed journals currently address differentaspectsofappliedlearning,butfewscholarlyavenueshaveprovidedasingleforumtoengagemultipledisciplinesindiscussionsofallaspects
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall20098
ofappliedlearning.Byprovidingsuchavenue,thisjournalbroadensthereachofscholarshipbeyonddisciplinaryrestrictions(therebyfosteringintegration)andaddsdepthtoscholarshipofteachingbycoveringmul-tiple pedagogical practices (not only undergraduate research, service-learning, etc.). In many ways, the movement of engaging students inexperientiallearninghasgrownupinsiloform,withdifferentformsofapplied learninghaving their ownorganizations and emphasizingdif-ferences between disciplines and practices rather than seeking sharedconcernswiththenatureandpracticeofappliedlearningperse. Thedifferent formsofapplied learningcan informeachotherandneednot remain segregated in separate journals.Forexample, facultywhohaveformanyyearsengagedinundergraduateresearchhaveusedcritical reflection to further student learning (though often such workwascouchedinanalysisofmethodologicaldesignandstatisticalinfer-ence).Practitionersofservice-learningwhowishtogobeyondreflectionbasedonsharingreactions tomoreanalytical reflectivepracticecouldprobablylearnagreatdealfromtheworkofundergraduateresearchdi-rectorsandpractitionersonhowtointegratethatsortofcriticalreflec-tionintoaservice-learningproject.Inaddition,undergraduateresearchdirectorsmightbepushedbyfacultywhothinkalotaboutfindinggoodinternshipsitestoconsiderwaystointegrateundergraduateresearchintointernshipexperiencethatrelatestheresearchtopotentialemployment. In its fetal stages, CALHE began as an internal, single-institutionposter session with fewer than ten poster presentations. In 2009, theconferencehadmore than200 registrants from 17statesandAustra-lia.ThroughJALHE,thosewhoarecommittedtoappliedlearning,andthe scholarshipof teachingandapplication,will haveaway todocu-ment and disseminate their work. The journal’s promotion of deeperdiscoursebetween thedifferent formsof applied learning canbuild afoundationforunderstandingandfurtheringbestpracticesinallformsofexperientialeducation.
ThEoRETICALMILIEuoFAPPLIEDLEARnInGRESEARCh
Many years of reviewing conference papers, journal manuscripts,and grant proposals reveal a narrative structure that has become toocommoninthescholarshiponappliedlearning.Thestructureconstituteswhatcouldbecalledthecheerleadingmodelofself-advocacy.Toomanysubmittalstoconferences,journals,andgrantreviewboardsuseaposi-tiveexperiencewithaparticularappliedlearningexperiencetomakeagenericargumentinfavorofappliedlearningperse.Theseself-congrat-ulatorynarrativesofunqualifiedsuccessinvitereaderstoworshipatthealtarofappliedlearning.Thescholarshiponappliedlearning,however,
Schwartzman,Henry/SCHOLARSHIPONAPPLIEDLEARNING 9
mustmovefromlovefesttoknowledgequest.Aproductivefirststepinthisdirectionistorecognizeanddiscussthepitfallsofprojects,thelim-itsofexperientiallearning,andmorenuancedwaystoevaluatequalityofoutcomes.Forexample,theproblemsassociatedwithteachingabouttheHolocaustviasimulatedstarvationdietsandmockpersecutionshasledtheAnti-DefamationLeague(2006)toissueastatementcondemn-ing simulation-based Holocaust education. Research on best practicesshould offer insight about what to avoid as well as what to emulate.Ratherthanofferaone-shotcasestudywiththenarrativepattern“Lo,wedidit,andbehold:itwasgood,”researchmustprobetherationalefor the results it reports. How does a particular project fit within thebroaderintellectualconversationregardinghowtostructure,administer,andassessappliedlearning?Anotherwaytoposethisquestionwouldbetoinquire,alongthelinesofFink(2003),abouthowaspecificstudyisdrivenbyandexpandsupontherelevantpedagogicalanddisciplinarytheories. Part of this larger conversation concerns the role applied learningcanplayinthediscourseregardinghighereducation.Severalexamplesillustratetheintriguingissuesstudiesofappliedlearningmightconfront.One issue involves equipping students to become more independent,lifelonglearners.Earlyexposuretoadirectedresearchexperiencemightenablestudentswhoareconditionedtobecomereceivedknowers—pas-sivelyandobedientlyrespondingtoauthoritybutnotinitiatingideas—toacquire greater ownership over their ideas. Guided research activitiescouldreconditionstudentstobecomemoreindependentthinkersbypri-oritizinginventionoverretention.Ratherthanimplementamasterplanof“pleasetheteacher”byrepeatingwhatevertheauthorityfigurewantstohear,researchcouldguidethecapacityforcreativerisk-taking,akeyfactor in critical thinking and problem solving. Future studies mightinvestigate the connection between such research experiences andinnovativestudentachievementsbeyondtheclassroom. Apprehensionaboutthecompetingforcesofefficiencyandeffective-nessloomsoverthehighereducationlandscape.Thenarrowconstraintsofcommodificationhavepositionedstudentsasconsumerstobeplacat-ed,butascheaplyandquicklyaspossible(McMillan&Cheney,1996;Schwartzman,1995;Schwartzman&Phelps,2002).Thisdiscourseofefficiencyclasheswiththecompetingpressuresofdemonstrableeffec-tiveness. The result: paradoxical mandates to increase class sizes butalsoincrease“customerservice”toeachstudent,orbroadenaccesstohigher education but improve standardized test scores and accelerategraduationrates.Thelistcouldcontinueindefinitely.Appliedlearning,however,offerspedagogicalpracticesthathavenavigatedthecontrast-ingdemandsofhighereducationandexternalconstituencies.Forexam-ple,what lessons fromsustainablecampus-communitypartnerships in
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall200910
service-learningprojectsmightgeneralizetocampus-corporateadminis-trationofinternships?Howdoesappliedlearningdemonstratethepracti-calrelevanceofeducationalexperience(asine qua non ofcommodifica-tion)whilealsoimprovingfield-specificintellectualexpertise(theessenceofacademe)?
METhoDoLoGyMATTERS
Thusfar,wehavediscussedthe“what,”“when,”and“why”ofschol-arshiponappliedlearningbytracingitstheoreticalparameters,intellec-tualhistory,andsocialjustification.Attentionnowturnstothe“how,”whichconstitutesthemodesofconductingresearchrelatingtoappliedlearning. Much scholarship on applied learning relies on self-reports,especiallyfromstudentparticipants,asamajorsourceforevidenceoflearningoutcomesandsocialeffects.Suchself-reports,especiallywhenusedasthesoledatapoints,raisesignificantmethodologicalconcerns.These challenges should generate further scholarly reflection on howself-reportsareusedandshouldstimulateresearcherstoemploymultiplemethodsthatcanproducemorediversedocumentationofappliedlearn-ingexperiences.Thefollowingconcernsshouldurgescholarstoemployavarietyofevaluativemeasureswhenseekingtodeterminethevalueofappliedlearning. Eyler(2002)notesthatself-reportsfromstudentparticipantsdonotconstitutesufficientevidenceofsuccessfuleducationaloutcomesorso-cialimpact.Sheraisesthefundamentalissueofvalidity:anecdotalself-reportscannotconsistentlyorsystematically linkexperiential learninginputs(e.g.,programdesign,studentdemographics,natureofthelearn-ingexperience)withpersonalorsocietalbenefits.Schwartzman(2002)detailssomeofthemethodologicalchallengeswhenheexpressescon-cernsovertheheavyrelianceonself-reportsintheservice-learninglit-erature.First,manysurveyinstrumentsmeasureattitudesregardingtheappliedlearningexperience.Itbecomesdifficulttocorrelateattitudinaltendencieswithbehavioraloutcomes,especiallywhenthedesiredout-comesincludelong-rangeorongoingbehavioralchanges.Forexample,studiesmayattempt to showaproject increasedcivicengagementbyreportingasignificantincreaseinlikelihoodtoparticipateinactivitiesassociatedwithresponsiblecitizenship,suchasvoting.Yet,howmanyofthesestudiesactuallytrackwhetherparticipantseventuallyengageinthedesiredactivities?Morestudiesofobservableeffectsthroughdirectobservationandlongitudinaldatacollectioncandocumentnotonlytheimmediatesuccessbutthelong-termstayingpowerofappliedlearning. Excessive reliance on self-reports also invites systematic bias.Gelmon(2003)observesthatcommunitypartnersarelikelytooverem-phasizepositiveservice-learningexperiencesandunderplayanydraw-
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backs, because they fear that any negative feedback might jeopardizefuture supplies of labor. This concern could extend to other appliedlearningactivities.Hostuniversitiesmightbereluctanttoreportnegativeexperienceswithstudyabroadstudentsastheycouldendangerrecipro-calagreementswithinstitutionsthatsentthestudents.Sitesupervisorsofinternsmightofferoverlypositiveperformanceappraisalstoprotectthecontinuedinfusionoflow-costlabor. Self-reportsfromstudentsmaysufferfromdistortiononseverallev-els,includingsocialdesirabilitybias,self-justification,andreciprocity.Eachofthesedifficultiesdeservesfurtherreflection.Discussingresearchon service-learning, Pritchard (2001) identifies social desirability andself-justificationas factors thatmight taint results:“Whensurveysareusedtoevaluatethesuccessofaneffort,particularlyatitscompletion,therespondentsusuallyknowwhatanswerstheevaluatorswantandarealsopredisposedtorationalizingtheirowninvestmentoftimeandeffort”(p. 24). Most applied learning projects include a rather explicit state-mentofdesiredoutcomes.Evenwithoutapre-establishedoutcomeforthespecificproject,thesocialandeducationalgoalstendtobetranspar-ent:studyabroadincreasesculturalawareness,undergraduateresearchenables acquisition of discipline-specific knowledge, service-learningaidsclientsofcommunityorganizations,internshipsdevelopjob-relatedskills.End-of-projectsurveysalsoinvitefalseorexaggeratedpositivesaswaystoavoidcognitivedissonancethatmightarisefromadmittingfailuretoachievetheproject’sobjectives.Finally,reciprocityintroducespotentialdistortionsifrespondentsfeelmorallyobligatedto“returnthefavor”ofastakeholderbyskewingevaluationstowardthepositiveside.Evenwithproperlydesignedquestionnaires,astudyabroadstudentmayrankahostuniversity’sacademicprogramsasoutstandingbasedontheinstitution’shospitalityratherthanitsacademicquality.Infact,manyas-sessmentsofappliedlearningexperiencesmayrequiresubstantialrecon-siderationtoimprovetheirvalidity.Minimally,thetendencytogenerate“falsepositives”shouldraiseconcernsaboutreportingself-evaluationsabsent some type of comparative scales with control populations thatestablishevaluativenorms(Darby,2008). Anothermethodologicalchallengeliesindistinguishingsatisfactionfromlearningoutcomesandsocialimpact.Toooften,successofappliedlearning initiatives tends to be judged by measures of positive affect.Putmoredirectly,popularitypresumablyprovessuccess.Especiallyintimesofeconomicconstraint,appliedlearningmustpaymoretangibledividends than spreading happiness. Neil Postman (1984) has offeredongoingcautionsaboutconfusingentertainmentwitheducation,notingthathighlyengagedstudentsmaynothavelearnedmuchdespite theirexpressingdeepsatisfactionwithalearningexperience.
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall200912
In fact, enthusiastic appreciation of applied learning needs to betempered by carefully determining which measures would suffice tosupportthepositiveimpactofanappliedlearningexperience.Thesup-port invokedhere refers towhatwouldcount as evidence forvariousconstituencies,includinglegislatorsandfundingagencies.Frankly,fewpeopleoutsidethewallsofacademiafindtheresultsofstudentfeedbackparticularlycompellingbecausetheyrecognizethesubjectivityofeventhe most statistically saturated evaluations. One pedagogical strengthofappliedlearningisthatitoffersmanyothertypesofmeasuresfrommultiplestakeholdersthatcandocumentoutcomes.Forexample,aser-vice-learning project could document the number of clientele a com-munityorganizationservedpriortotheprojectcomparedtothenumbertheprojectreached.Thiskindofdocumentationprovidesdemonstrableevidence that a project extended the capacity of a service agency, anespeciallypowerfulstatementiftheagencyalreadyhasbeenrecognizedasvitaltothecommunity. Whenseveralindicatorsdemonstratesimilaroutcomes,theconclu-sionbecomesmuchstronger.Appliedlearningexperiencesareamenabletomanyassessmentmeasures inaddition to (or insteadof) subjectiveself-reportsfromstudents.Severalacademicfieldshavedevelopedquiterefined measures of learning outcomes, and these field-specific mea-surescouldbeadministeredtocomparestudentswhoundergoappliedlearningwiththeircounterpartswhoparticipateintraditionalclassroominstruction.Externalconstituencies,suchascommunitypartnersforser-vice-learning or professional practitioners for field experiences, coulddocumenthowstudentinvolvementaffectedorganizationalpracticesoradministerindependentassessments(suchasknowledgeoffieldmanu-als) todetermine levelsofpractical knowledge. Internsmight receiveperformanceappraisalsfrommultipleevaluatorsratherthanonlyfromasitesupervisorwhofeelscompelledtomaintainapositiverelationshipwiththeacademicinstitution.Along-termassessmentofanyparticipantinappliedlearningcouldconsistofmakingthatstudentamentorforsub-sequentstudents,whowouldthenevaluatethequalityofthepreparationtheyreceivedfortheireducationalexperience. Researchonappliedlearningcancatapultbeyondthe“testimonialofsuccess”modebygoingbeyondaone-dimensionalpre-test/post-testde-sign.Thismethodologymeasuresstudentopinionsorlearningoutcomesbeforeandafteranappliedlearningexperienceandattributesimprove-mentstotheproject.Frequentlythesedesignsfailtoincorporatecontrolsor benchmarks that would enable the researcher to isolate the “valueadded”uniquelyfromtheprojectitself.Forexample,wouldsimilarout-comeshaveresultedfromlessexpensive,lesslabor-intensive,lessriskyinstructional techniques? How do the experiential project’s outcomescompare with the same material taught in a non-experiential format?
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Does the study control for the instructor or supervisor of the project,orareoutcomes theartifactof theadministrator rather thanstemmingfromtheprojectitself?Whichdemographicfactorsarecontrolled?Forexample,doesastudydiscussingtheimpactofastudyabroadprograminclude comparisons or controls across different nations? Could thedemonstrated impactof a studyabroadprogram resultmore from thenatureofaparticularnationalcultureoruniversitysystemthanfromtheinternationalexperience? Theappliedlearningliteraturealsocouldbenefitfrommorevigorouslongitudinalstudies,especiallythosethattracklong-termbehavioralpat-ternsattributabletoappliedlearningexperiences.Someexcellentworkhasbeendoneon trackingspecificprograms,suchasservice-learningpartnerships, over time (e.g., Keen & Hall, 2009; Kiely, 2005). Still,fewfindingshaveaccumulatedthatdocumenttheextenttowhichstu-dentsindependentlyembarkonactivitiesconsistentwiththeobjectivesoftheirappliedlearningexperiences.Inshort,arestudentsapplyingthelessons of their applied learning? The research questions in this areaseem deceptively obvious, yet they have paramount significance forthelong-termjustificationofappliedlearningpractices.Consideronlya few examples. Do students who study abroad initiate or participatemorefrequentlyinorganizationsthatfurtherinterculturalawarenessandcollaboration?Towhatextentdointernationalexperiencesreduceeth-nocentric attitudes and behaviors? How are the membership numbersof international studentgroups correlated to the ratesof studyabroadexperiences? Do study abroad participants exhibit distinctive patternsintheircareerchoicesthatleveragethevalueoftheirinternationalex-perience?Havefieldexperiencesbeencorrelatedwithbetterqualifiedapplicantsforpositionsinthosefields?Howdoin-fieldplacementratesofstudentresearcherscomparewiththoseofstudentswhodidnoten-gage in undergraduate research? How has the undergraduate researchexperienceequippedalumnito(a)conductresearchoutsidetheirfield,or(b)embarkonprofessionaldutiesthatdonotinvolveresearchintheacademicsense?Closertrackingofstudentparticipantsaswellasotherconstituenciesoveranextendedperiodoftimewouldbegintoanswerthesequestionsandmanymorethatlinger. Research on applied learning could reap substantial benefits frommining the rich but often untapped data from voices rarely heard inscholarship that plucks the low-hanging fruit of student self-reports.Moreextensiveexplorationsofinputfromconstituenciessuchasappliedlearningprogramadministrators(e.g.,service-learning,studyaway,andinternship coordinators), community members, site supervisors, clien-teleservedincommunity-basedprojects,orstudentsandfacultyinhostuniversitiesabroadwouldbroadentheconversationbeyondfacultyre-portingtheirstudents’opinionstootherfaculty.Theimpactofapplied
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall200914
learningresearchalsowouldintensifyifitembracedpublicpolicyissuesmore directly. For example, how do legislators and funding agenciesdefine successful applied learning? How do their criteria and percep-tionssquarewiththoseofacademics?Whatmightaccountfororcorrectmisalignments?Howcouldacademicexpectationsforappliedlearninginterfacebetterwithdesiredpoliticalandsocialoutcomes?
InThISISSuE…AnDBEyonD
Thecontentsof this issue spanabroad scopeof applied learning,illustratingtherangeofpedagogicalpracticesthatcangenerateproduc-tive intellectual discussion. The articles begin with an analysis of theroleofreflectioninappliedlearningandhowtodevelopreflectiontoolsthatcanfacilitatelearningwhileaccuratelydocumentingthenatureofthelearningexperience.Thescholarshipintherestoftheissuecoversawidearrayofconcerns:analternativecertificationprogramcenteredonexperientialcomponents,afieldexperiencethatconnectscourseworkwithprofessionalpractice,theimpactarubrictoassessstudentlearningcanhaveonstudentmotivationinanexperientialsetting,andaservice-learningprojectthatenablesteachercandidatestodeveloptheirSpanishskills while teaching basic English. Together, these articles provide asampleof the rangeof scholarship thatapplied learningcangenerate.Individually,eacharticleraisesissuesandquestionsthatcanstimulateongoingresearch. “Generating,Deepening,andDocumentingLearning:ThePowerofCriticalReflectioninAppliedLearning,”bySarahL.AshandPattiH.Clayton,addressestheimportanceofthecarefulandpurposefuluseofreflectiontomotivateandmeasurestudentlearningoutcomes.AshandClayton(2009)notethattheterm“reflection”issomewhatproblematicinthatitsuggestsareactive,emotionalanalysistotheeventsthattakeplace inanapplied learningsituation rather thanacritical analysisofthoseevents.Thustheyusetheterm“criticalreflection”toconnotethismoreanalyticalprocessthathasbeenlinkedsocloselytostudentlearn-ing(Eyler&Giles,1999).HenryandKempf(2005)foundthatfacultymay use critical reflection far less than they actually prefer. Ash andClaytoncallforfacultywhosuperviseappliedlearningtointentionallydesigncritical reflectionaround learninggoals.Thepieceprovidesanenormousresourcetofacultywhotoooftenrelyonanend-of-termre-flectionpaper(whichrarelygetsfeedbacktostudentsinatimelyfash-ion)orjournalingthatdegeneratesintosharingobservationsratherthananalyzingthoseobservationsinlightoflearninggoalsforthecourse. In addition to providing a powerful pedagogical tool, Ash andClayton’sworkinspiresustothinkintermsofhowstudentassessmentmight not just feed into a gradebook, but into a scholarly analysis of
Schwartzman,Henry/SCHOLARSHIPONAPPLIEDLEARNING 15
howwellourinstructionaldesignworkedintermsoffacilitatinglearn-ing goals. Student learning assessed using their Describe-Examine-ArticulateLearning(DEAL)modelinformsafacultymember’sassess-mentofhisorherownwork.Forinstructorswhowanttopublishtheirworkasscholarshipofteaching,theDEALmodelcangeneratecompel-lingevidenceoftheeffectivenessofagivenappliedlearningexperiencebeyondLikert-typeevaluationsthatmaymeasurestudentsatisfactionasmuchaslearning(Greenwald&Gillmore,1997;Snare,2000).Theabil-itytogeneratesuchanargumentisincreasinglytiedtofundingsupportforactivityinhighereducation.Particularlyintightfinancialtimes,thissortofassessmenttooliscriticalindemonstratingtheimpactofappliedlearninganditsvaluetoexternalconstituents. Finally,AshandClayton’sapproachtoappliedlearninglaysoutaresearchprocessbywhichfacultydevelop,inasense,hypothesesaboutwhatstrategieswillpositivelyimpactstudentlearningandtestthosehy-pothesesusingstudentcriticalreflectionproducts.Thisapproachallowsfacultytomovebeyondscholarlyteachingtowardthecriticalevaluationandtestingofone’sownstrategiesthatcanbesubmittedforpeerreview.Indeed,workthatfollowsthislineofanalysiswouldbemostwelcomeinfuturevolumesoftheJournal of Applied Learning in Higher Education. “ExaminingtheDevelopmentoftheVictorianCertificateofAppliedLearning and Its Implications for Schools and Teacher Education inAustralia,” by Damian Blake and David Gallagher, provides an out-standingexampleofwhatcanbeaccomplishedwhenappliedlearningisimplementedsystem-wide.Italsohighlightstheimplicationssuchanadoptioncanhaveonteachertrainingprograms,whichimpliesthattheremaybeunanticipatedimpactinotherdisciplinesthatseektointegrateappliedlearningacrossthecurriculum. The Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (VCAL) was moti-vatedbyadesiretoincreasegraduationratesfromsecondaryschoolsintheprovince.Thebaselinecompletionrateofseniorhighschoolpriortothedevelopmentofanalternateeducationalpathbasedinappliedlearn-ingpedagogywas80%,withthegoalthattheVCALmightraisethatto90%.Achieving thatgoalwouldaddmore than60,000 individuals totheworkforce,significantlyboostingtheregionaleconomy.ButwhytheVCAL,andnotsomeotheralternativeroutetocompletion,suchastheGEDprogramin theUnitedStates?Because theVCALaddresses theincreaseddiversitythatfoldsintoaneducationalsystemtryingtoretainstudentswhowouldotherwiseleaveschoolearly.TheVCALprovidesameansforthesestudentstoearnlegitimateacademiccreditforlearningthatoccursinnon-traditionalsituations.Theprocessinvolvescreatingadialoguewithstudentsaboutthecurriculumthroughwhichcurricularcontentisnegotiatedandultimatelyassessed.
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall200916
TheassessmentcomponenttotheVCALiscriticaltotheintegrityofsuchprograms.ItispartofthereasonthattheVCALhadsignificantimplicationsforteachertraining.Forteacherswhoaretrainedintradi-tional assessment strategies, it canbedifficult to imaginehowa real-worldexperiencecouldtranslate toassessmentfocusedontestscores.Theuniversitiesintheprovinceeducatingfutureteachershadtopreparetheseindividualstohandleawiderarrayofassessmentstrategies,aswellastodeliverawiderarrayofpedagogicalstrategies.Giventhedifficultyinrecruitingandretaininghigh-qualitysecondaryschoolteachersintheUnitedStates,making theprocessbroaderandmore rigorous isnotatrivialproblem.Thekeytodoingsosuccessfullymaylieintheabilitytodemonstratesuchaprogram’seconomicimpact.TheVCALhasmovedVictoriasignificantlytowardthegoalof90%completionrates.Inaddi-tiontodocumentingcompletionrates,itwillbeimportantinfutureyearsto document the impact of that improved completion rate in terms ofincreasedworkforceandrelatedproductivitygains. Infact,thistypeofaccountabilityisnotonlyrelevanttotheVCAL,but may be a useful strategy for others doing research on appliedlearning.Appliedlearningisinordinatelyinefficientcomparedtotradi-tionallecture-basedcounterpartsintheacademy.Inleantimes,univer-sityadministratorsmayquestionthevalueofcontinuedsupportforsuchpedagogicalstrategies if the facultywhopractice themhavenotcare-fullydocumentedthebenefitsofsuchinvestmentsfortheconstituentsoftheuniversity.Futureresearchinavarietyofareasofappliedlearningwillbenefitfromscholarswhoestablishaneconomicvalue to theex-pensiveprocessofappliedlearning,aswellastheimpactongraduationratesandstudentlearning. “Will They Recognize My Lecture in the Field? The JuvenileCorrectionsCriticalAssessmentTourAppliedLearningExperience,”byGregLindsteadtandReginaWilliams-Decker,raisesseveralimpor-tantissuesforappliedlearning.Theauthorsnotethestimulusforappliedlearningaspedagogical,butalsoasastepinrehabilitatingthereputationofcriminaljusticeasanacademicfield.Thiskindofreflectionprovesespeciallytimelyduringeconomicbelt-tightening,whenacademicpro-gramsmustappealto(largelynon-academic)policymakersbydemon-strating practical relevance. Lindsteadt and Williams-Decker examinethe ways a deep field experience within juvenile justice facilities canshowtheapplicabilityofcoursecontenttotheactualpracticeofjuvenilejustice.Writlarge,thisessayposesthequestionofhowwellclass-andtext-based theory aligns with the practices within the criminal justicesystem. The Juvenile Corrections Critical Assessment Tour (JCCAT) dis-cussed in thearticle invites reflection that extends farbeyond thedy-namicsofthespecificappliedlearningexperience,ambitiousasitwas.
Schwartzman,Henry/SCHOLARSHIPONAPPLIEDLEARNING 17
Usuallythepracticalrelevanceofcoursecontentisjudgedunidirection-ally,bymeasuringcorrespondenceofclassexperiencewithactivitiesintheprofession.Futureresearchmightinvertthequestiontheseauthorsask,queryingwhetherpractitionerswillrecognizefuturejuvenilejusticeworkerswhentheyinteractwiththestudents.Appliedlearningexperi-encesusuallyoccurattheintersectionofseveralrealmsofparticipants:students, academics, field workers, and clients in the field. It mightproverewardingtogatherdatanotonlyonwhetherstudentsrecognizecourse content in thefield,but alsowhether thepersonnel at juvenilejusticefacilitiesviewthecoursecontentasanaccuratedepictionofthejusticesystem. As for learning outcomes, the JCCAT opens the door to multiplemeasuresoflearning.Thearticleoffersintriguingglimpsesofpossiblesystemicbiasesintheactualpracticeofjuvenilejustice,especiallyintheareasofracial,gender,andclassequity.Thecourseaswellastheprojectitselfmightinfutureiterationsdigdeeperintotherootsofthesedispari-ties—perhapsuncoveringlingering,unresolvedtensionsbetweenreha-bilitativemodelsofjusticeandpunitivepracticesthatmaycontributetorecidivismmorethanreformation.Onabroaderlevel,theJCCATexpe-riencecouldconfronttheconvergencesanddivergencesbetweensocialjusticeandcriminaljustice(Rawls,1971).Directengagementwiththesesystemicissuesmightequipstudentsnotsimplytobecomefuturework-erswithinthejusticesystem,butrathertoempowerthemasagentstorectifythediscrepanciestheyobservebetweentheoriesofjusticeandthewaysjusticeismetedouttojuveniles. “StudentMotivationandAssessmentofAppliedSkillsinanEquineStudiesProgram,”byK.I.Tumlin,R.Linares,andM.W.Schillingde-scribestheimpactofusingarubric—andprovidingittostudentspriortotesting—toassesshands-on,psychomotorskillssuchasshowmanshipinanequinestudiesprogram.Theoretically,providingstudentswiththerubricaheadoftheassessmentshouldclarifythegradingstandardsandimprovestudentperformanceontheappliedtasks.Infact, theauthorsofthisstudyreportthecounterintuitivefindingthatstudentswhoweregivenarubricbeforehandactuallyperformedworseontheassessmentoftheirappliedskillsthanstudentswhohadnotseentherubricatall. Rubricsarestandardoperatingproceduresinmuchoftheeducation-aldomain, inpartbecause theystandardizeassessmentofskilland inpartbecausetheymaketheevaluationstandardstransparenttostudents.Indeed,McTigheandO’Connor(2005)arguethatprovidingtherubrictostudentsisanecessary(thoughnotsufficient)conditionforsupport-ingstudentlearning.Thefindingthatinanappliedlearningsettingtherubricresultedinpoorerstudentlearningoutcomesisintriguing.Futureresearchmightfocusonestablishingwhetherornotthisresultisrepli-cable inotherdisciplines thatuseappliedlearning,andif theresult is
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall200918
reliable, thereasonbehindit.Theauthorsof thisstudyreport that thestudents in this program are largely more goal-oriented than process-oriented.Coulditbethatprovidingstudentswhoarealreadygoal-(i.e.,grade?)orientedpushes them toachieve theminimumrather than themaximumpossible?This isexactlywhathappenedfor thestudents inthisstudy—theaverageperformancewasloweroverallandthefailureratewas lowerwhentherubricwaspresentbut the“superior”perfor-mancecategorywasmuchmorelikelytobeachievedwhentherubricwasnotprovided. This result invites the question of what impact a rubric has in anappliedlearningsetting.Insomeways,providingarubric“frames”thesituation for students a priori. Part of the point for those of us whoencouragestudents toparticipate inapplied learningactivitiessuchaspracticainadisciplineistoexposestudentstolearningsituationsthatarevague andundefined, requiring the student to frame theproblemstheyencounteron-sitefor themselves.Theabilitytoeffectivelyframea situation so that one can apply the appropriate academic content togenerate solutions andproductivework is critical to applied learning.Indeed,EylerandGiles(1999)arguethat“application”isoneofthevitalcomponents of the learning process in service-learning settings. Doesprovidinga rubric tostudents inanapplied learningsituationperhapsdefeatpartofthepurposeofappliedlearningbyeffectivelynarrowingstudents’attentiontoalimitedsetoffeaturesorpossiblesolutions?TheresultsreportedbyTumlin,Linares,andSchillinginvitefuturescholarstoinvestigatetheseandotherpossibilities. “Demographic Tipping Point: A Discussion of Cultural Broker-ing with English Language Learners as Service-Learning for TeacherCandidates andEducators”byWendyMcCarty,RosemaryCervantes,andGeraldineStirtzdetailstheexperienceofaservice-learningprojectthatillustratesthemutualimpactsuchexperiencescanhaveonstudentsand community members. The project implements “cultural broker-ing,”definedasinterculturalpartnershipsinitiatedtoinstigatepositivesocial change. The brokering in this case involves teacher candidateshelpingnativeSpanishspeakerslearnbasicEnglish.Thelanguagelearn-ingmovedintwodirections, typifyingthebrokeringrelationship.TheEnglish language learners (ELLs) developed their linguistic skills toimprove their social mobility, while the teacher candidates acquiredmoreSpanishlanguageskillsthroughconversingwiththelearnersandtheirfamilies. The cultural brokering experience offers intriguing possibilitiesregarding how service-learning might combine with interculturalactivities to enhance linguistic and intercultural competence. Spe-cifically, standardizedpre-testsandpost-testsof languageskillscouldgaugethedegreetowhichtheteachercandidatesandtheELLslearned
Schwartzman,Henry/SCHOLARSHIPONAPPLIEDLEARNING 19
eachother’slanguage.Asforinterculturalsensitivity,priorresearchonservice-learninghasnotedthepotentialforinterculturalexperiencestotriggerboomerangeffectsif theunfamiliarcultureiscast inparticularkindsofsocialroles(Erickson&O’Connor,2000).Placingcertainpop-ulations,suchasnon-nativeEnglishspeakers,consistentlyintheroleofneedingassistancemightactuallyreinforceethnocentricviewsofAnglo-Americanhegemony.Inventoriesofinterculturaltoleranceormeasuresofprejudicecouldbeadministeredtodeterminehowculturalbrokeringaffectsthecross-culturalattitudesofparticipants. Astheauthorsnote,participantfeedbackdeservessupplementationwithotherkindsofempiricalandinterpretiveanalysis.OneinterestingdirectionforfurtherresearchwouldbetoemploydifferentpedagogicaltechniquestoteachtheELLstudents.Theprojectcouldcollectimportantdataonthemosteffectivewaystoenablenon-nativeEnglishspeakerstoacquireEnglishlanguageskills.Dothesametechniquesforforeignlanguage instruction of native English speakers work as well for stu-dentsfromotherlinguisticbackgrounds?Whichpedagogicaltechniquesprovemosteffectivewithparticulardemographicsoflanguagelearners?McCarty,Cervantes,andStirtzopenthedoorforfutureresearchtobegintomineavarietyofdatasourcesforanswerstothesequestions.
InVITATIonToFuRThERInVESTIGATIon
Thefinaleofthisarticleconsistsofsuggestionsforfutureresearchdirections rather than a definitive conclusion that brings inquiry to aneat—and necessarily premature—conclusion. Scholarship on appliedlearning needs to move beyond self-advocacy. The justifications forappliedlearninghavebeenmadeconvincingly.Theseargumentsrequiremorenuancedexaminationtoavoidcategoricalendorsementofappliedlearningregardlessofitsmethodorcontextofimplementation.Wesug-gest severalmodesofconductingscholarshiponapplied learning thatgobeyondself-justificationsofparticularappliedlearningexperiences. Many fruitful paths for scholarship on applied learning await ex-ploration.Thusfar,littleattentionhasfocusedontheinterfacebetweenapplied learning and emergent educational technologies. Appliedlearningtechniqueshavebeendiscussedaslow-techwaystointensifyintellectualexperiences,especiallywhencomparedtohands-off,deper-sonalizedmethods thatoperateviaeconomiesofscale (Schwartzman,2001).Minimalattention,however,hasbeendevotedtotheroletechnol-ogymightplaywithinappliedlearning.Forexample,whatimplicationsdo computerized simulations have for field experiences and practica?Asbudgetarybeltstighten,mightvirtualexperiencesupplement,enrich,ordisplacewhatcountsasexperience inexperiential learning?Ratherthandemonizenewtechnologicaltools,futureresearchcouldtapintothe
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall200920
instructionaltechnologyliteraturetoinvestigatehowtechnologicaltoolsandappliedlearningcouldprovemutuallybeneficial.Howcouldinex-pensivemeansfortouringsitesandconductinglong-distanceinterviewsenhancepreparationforstudyaway?InwhatwaysmightcollaborativeandsocialnetworkingtoolsfromwikistoTwitterandbeyondincreasethesustainabilityoflearningbeyondthedurationofatermspentstudy-ingabroadorataninternshipsite?CouldvirtualrealitiessuchasSecondLifeandsimilarrealmsintensifypreparationforfirsthandappliedlearn-ingexperiences?Overall,howmightappliedlearningleveragethepow-eroftechnologyto(a)improvestudentreadinessforappliedlearning,(b)enrichtheappliedlearningexperience,(c)extendthesustainabilityofappliedlearningbeyondaproject’sterminationatagivenlocale,(d)improvemethodsofassessinglearningoutcomes,(e)reduceormaintaincostswithoutsacrificingquality? Inanimportantessaysurveyingthetheoreticalterritoryofthecom-municationstudiesfield,Craig(1999)identifiessocio-culturalandcriti-cal approaches as twoclassificationsof communication theory.Theseperspectives transcend communication studies and could generate re-searchthatwouldenrichthestudyofappliedlearning. Socio-cultural scholarship on applied learning asks questions thatexploretheinteractionbetweenappliedlearninganditssocialenviron-ment.Internshipsofferanexcellentexampleofopportunitiesforsocio-cultural explorations. Internships tend to be discussed from two per-spectives: the student’spedagogical/professionaldevelopment and thesponsoringorganization’slaborneeds.Lessattentionhasbeendevotedtoissuesrelatedtointernshipsandorganizationalculture.Onesuchissueinvolvestheintern’splaceinorganizationalhierarchies.Ifaninternshipservesasatraininggroundforexecutivepositions,ahopemanystudentinternsharbor,thenhowdorankandfileemployeesviewtheinternwhoservesabriefinternshipandthenleapfrogsoveremployeeswithgreatersenioritytoapositionthatoutranksthem?Howdoestherapidriseofaninternthroughtheorganizationalrankscomportwithanorganizationalculture that toutsadvancement through“payingyourdues,”and“tak-ingcareofourown”?Ifinternsareanalogoustoapprentices,thenhowdoes an apprenticeship through an educational institution’s internshipprogramcomparetoanapprenticeshipofon-the-jobtrainingwithoutanacademiccomponent? Internshipsalsoprovideanopportunevenuefordelvingintotheam-biguous role of students engaged in applied learning. The student in-ternassumesadualrolecomparabletothegraduateteachingassistant.Teachingassistantsmustnavigatebetweenseveralpotentiallyconflict-ingroles,suchaspeertothestudentstheyteach(allarestudentsearn-inggrades)grader,mediatorbetweenundergraduatesandfull-fledged
Schwartzman,Henry/SCHOLARSHIPONAPPLIEDLEARNING 21
faculty.Studentinterns,whetherpaidorunpaid,facesimilarcomplexi-tiesinpositioningtheirrolewithinanorganization. Scholarship thatexploresapplied learningasacritical forcecouldinvestigate the maintenance and disruptions of power relationshipsthat infuseexperiential learning.Johnston(2007)notes thedisconnectbetween the compliant subservience sooften rewarded in cooperativeeducationventures,whichcouldincludeinternships,andtheencourage-mentofquestioningandchallengingsystemsofembeddedprivilegethatlieattheheartofcriticalpedagogy.Howmightscholarshiponappliedlearningreconciletheconflictingsocialpressurestotrainobedientem-ployeeswhilealsofosteringcriticalthinkerswhoquestiontheembeddedsystemsofprivilege thatperpetuate subservience?AstudybyCarsonandFisher(2006)foundthat25percentofstudentsdidnotdemonstratesignsofcriticalthinkingintheirreflectionsontheinternshipexperience.Thesestudentssimplydescribedtheirexperienceswithoutquestioningwhattheyencountered.Theresearchersnotethatstudentsmightbecomereluctanttoengageincriticalreflectionwhensimpledescriptionposesfewerrisks.“Werecognizethatattemptingtoproducecriticality inanenvironmentthatoftenasksfortheopposite(conformityandadherencetothestatusquo)canbeariskyundertaking,onethatmanystudentsmaybereluctanttopursue”(Carson&Fisher,2006,p.716).Towhatextentcanappliedlearningmovetowardmorecriticalreflectionwithoutjeop-ardizing the continuity of campus-community or campus-corporationpartnerships? Anotherproductivepathforresearchwouldleadresearcherstowardreflectingmoredeeplyontherelationshipbetweenappliedlearningandthe cultivation of what Benjamin Barber (2004) calls “strong democ-racy.”Amoresubstantialbodyofempirical researchcoulddocumentwhich kinds of applied learning correlate with long-term behavioralchanges that reflectdeep involvement incivicaffairs.Theoreticalandinterpretiveresearchcouldexplorehowappliedlearningcanbuildthecapacity for systemic democratization, perhaps by creating a cultureof mutual obligation and care as a counterpoint to consumerism andcommodification(Schwartzman&Phelps,2002).Forexample,studiescouldadoptnetworkingtheoriesordiffusionofinnovationstodeterminethemosteffectivewaystodisseminatetheculturalawarenessstudentsacquirefromstudyabroad.Suchinvestigationsmightprovideinsightsregarding ways to counteract American hegemony and foster morecivilizedinterculturaldialogues. Futurescholarshiponappliedlearningcanblazemanypromisingin-tellectualtrails.Wearepleasedtoplayaroleinthisexploratoryventureandinviteallscholarsandpractitionersinvolvedinappliedlearningtojointhejourney.
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall200922
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Snare,C.E.(2000).An alternative end-of-semester questionnaire. PS: Political Science and Politics, 33,823-825.
25
Generating, Deepening, and Documenting Learning: the Power of
Critical Reflection in Applied Learning
SARAh L. AShNorthCarolinaStateUniversity
PAttI h. CLAytonPHCVentures/IndianaUniversity-PurdueUniversityIndianapolis
Applied learning pedagogies—including service-learning, internships/practica, study abroad, and undergraduate research—have in common both the potential for significant student learning and the challenges of facilitating and assessing that learning, often in non-traditional ways that involve experiential strategies outside the classroom as well as individualized outcomes. Critical reflection oriented toward well-articulated learning outcomes is key to generating, deepening, and documenting student learning in applied learning. This article will consider the meaning of critical reflection and principles of good practice for designing it effectively and will present a research-grounded, flexible model for integrating critical reflection and assessment.
Applied learning pedagogies share a design fundamental: the nur-turingoflearningandgrowththroughareflective,experientialprocessthattakesstudentsoutoftraditionalclassroomsettings.Theapproachisgroundedintheconvictionthatlearningismaximizedwhenitisactive,engaged, and collaborative. Each applied learning pedagogy providesstudentswithopportunities toconnect theoryandpractice, to learn inunfamiliar contexts, to interact with others unlike themselves, and topracticeusingknowledgeandskills. Despite the oft-cited maxim that “experience is the best teacher,”we know that experience alone can, in fact, be a problematic teacher
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducationVol.1,Fall200925-48©2009MissouriWesternStateUniversity
26 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
(Dewey,1910;Conrad&Hedin,1990;Hondagneu-Sotelo&Raskoff,1994;Stanton,1990;Strand,1999).Experientiallearningcanalltooeas-ilyallowstudentstoreinforcestereotypesaboutdifference,todevelopsimplisticsolutionstocomplexproblems,andtogeneralizeinaccuratelybasedon limiteddata.Theservice-learningstudent, forexample,maythinkthatallfoodassistanceprogramsfunctionexactlyliketheoneatwhich he is working, causing him to make sweeping generalizationsabouttheeffectivenessofsuchprogramsdespitewidespreadvariationsinsize,structure,andsourcesoffoodandfunding. Inaddition, studentsmaynotderive themost importantorsignifi-cant learning from their experiences.Theundergraduate researcher inthephysiologylabmaybefrustratedbythetediousnessoftheresearchandnotappreciatethatscientificinquiryisintentionallyaslowprocessoftrialanderror.Shemaynotfullyunderstandwhytheresearchques-tionssheisinvestigatingareimportantorhowthedatasheiscollectingfitintopreviousfindings. Studentsmayleaveappliedlearningexperienceswithlittlecapacityto turn learning into improved action. The study abroad student maybelievehehasdevelopedagreatersensitivitytoculturesdifferentfromhisownbutsixmonthslaterfindhimselfjumpingtoconclusionsaboutothersbasedontheirbackgroundorethnicity.Theinternwhofindshercollaborativeprojectfrustratingmayenduprepeatingpatternsofpoorteamworkinhernextgroupproject. Finally,students inapplied learningpedagogiesmayhaveavaguesenseoftheimpacttheirexperienceshavehadonthembutnotbefullyawareofthenatureoftheirownlearning,itssources,oritssignificance.Theymayonlybeabletodescribeoutcomesvaguely,withphrasessuchas“I learneda lot fromworkingwithcommunitymembers”or“Igotsomuchoutoflivingabroad.”Theservice-learningstudentmayfailtounderstandthedifferentwaysinwhichtheclassroomandthecommu-nitypresentherwithlearningchallenges.Thestudyabroadstudentmaybeunabletoidentifyspecificchangesinherattitudestowardothersor
AUTHORNOTE:Sarah L. Ash, Ph.D., Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University; Patti H. Clayton, Ph.D., PHC Ventures, Cary, North Carolina/Center for Service and Learning, Indiana Univer-sity-Purdue University Indianapolis. The authors would like to express apprecia-tion to the many student and faculty colleagues who have contributed over the past decade to the work overviewed in this article and to Kelly Henry, Audrey Jaeger, Jessica Jameson, George Hess, and Roy Schwartzman for their review of earlier versions of this manuscript. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Patti H. Clayton, 300 Swiss Lake Drive, Cary, NC 27513; e-mail: [email protected]
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 27
toarticulatewhatledtothechanges.Studentsmay,inotherwords,misstheopportunitytolearnabouttheirownlearningprocesses—todevelopthemeta-cognitiveskillsrequiredforlifelong,self-directedlearningthatappliedlearningissowellsuitedtocultivate. The students in these examples would all benefit from a processof strong reflection, to help them avoid what T.S. Eliot (1943) oncedescribedashavingtheexperiencebutmissingthemeaning.Learning—and understanding learning processes—does not happen maximallythroughexperiencealonebut ratherasa resultof thinkingabout—re-flectingon—it.AsnotedbyStanton(1990),whenreflectiononexperi-enceisweak,students’“learning”maybe“haphazard,accidental,andsuperficial” (p. 185). When it is well designed, reflection promotessignificantlearning,includingproblem-solvingskills,higherorderrea-soning, integrative thinking,goalclarification,openness tonew ideas,abilitytoadoptnewperspectives,andsystemicthinking(Eyler&Giles,1999;Conrad&Hedin,1987). However,reflectionanditscentralroleinappliedlearningareoftenmisunderstoodorseenasunnecessary.Theworditselffrequentlycon-notesstream-of-consciousnesswriting,keepingadiary,orproducingasummaryofactivities. It caneasilybeassociatedwith“touchy-feely”introspection,toosubjectivetoevaluateinameaningfulwayandlack-ingintherigorrequiredforsubstantiveacademicwork.Dewey(1910),oneof theearlychampionsofexperiential learning,providesastrongfoundation for re-conceptualizing reflection,defining it as the“active,persistentandcarefulconsiderationofanybelieforsupposedformofknowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the furtherconclusions to which it tends” (p. 6). Schön (1983) emphasizes thelinkbetweenreflectionandaction;hedefinesreflectionas“acontinualinterweavingofthinkinganddoing”andsuggeststhatwhathecallsthereflectivepractitionerisonewho“reflectsontheunderstandingswhichhave been implicit in [one’s] action, which [one] surfaces, criticizes,restructures, and embodies in further action” (p. 281). The reflectionrequiredifappliedlearningpedagogiesaretobemaximizedaslearningopportunities is best understood in these terms, as a process ofmeta-cognitionthatfunctionstoimprovethequalityofthoughtandofactionandtherelationshipbetweenthem. Whenunderstoodin this lightanddesignedaccordingly, reflectionbecomes “critical reflection.” It generates learning (articulating ques-tions, confronting bias, examining causality, contrasting theory withpractice, pointing to systemic issues), deepens learning (challengingsimplistic conclusions, invitingalternativeperspectives, asking“why”iteratively),anddocumentslearning(producingtangibleexpressionsofnewunderstandingsforevaluation)(Ash&Clayton,2009aand2009b;Whitney&Clayton, inpress). Asweunderstandit,criticalreflection
28 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
isanevidence-basedexaminationofthesourcesofandgapsinknowl-edgeandpractice,withtheintenttoimproveboth.Designingreflectioneffectively so as to make applied learning educationally meaningfulfirstrequiresthatwemakeclearitsmeaningasanintegrative,analyti-cal, capacity-building process rather than as a superficial exercise innavel-gazing (Ash & Clayton, 2009b; Whitney & Clayton, in press;Zlotkowski&Clayton,2005). Acriticalreflectionprocessthatgenerates,deepens,anddocumentslearningdoesnotoccurautomatically—rather,itmustbecarefullyandintentionallydesigned.Welch(1999)pointsoutthatitisnotenoughtotellstudents“itisnowtimetoreflect”(p.1).Eyler,Giles,andSchmiede(1996)notethatreflection“neednotbeadifficultprocess,but itdoesneedtobeapurposefulandstrategicprocess”(p.16).Especiallygivenhow unfamiliar most students are with learning through reflection onexperience(Clayton&Ash,2004),theyneedastructureandguidancetohelpthemderivemeaningfullearningwhentheyareoutsidethetradi-tionalclassroomsetting,otherwisereflectiontendstobelittlemorethandescriptiveaccountsofexperiencesorventingofpersonalfeelings. Thisarticleexploresprinciplesofgoodpracticeacrossthreestepsinthedesignofcriticalreflectioninappliedlearning: 1) determiningthedesiredoutcomes:learninggoalsandassociated objecives, 2) designingreflectionsoastoachievethoseoutcomes,and 3) integratingformativeandsummativeassessmentintothere- flectionprocess.
Itthenpresentsamodelforcriticalreflection—theDEALmodel—thathas been explicitly designed to embody these principles and refinedthroughseveralyearsofresearch. Thediscussionhereisgroundedintheconvictionthatfacilitatorsofstudentlearninginappliedlearningpedagogiesareinstructionaldesign-ers;theymakechoicesthroughoutthedesignprocessthatareinfluencedbytheirgoalsandconstraintsandbytheirstudents’abilitiesaswellastheirown.Designingreflectionproceedsbestwhenframedinscholarlyterms: as a process of experimentation, of continual assessment andrefinement,oflearningwithandalongsidethestudents.Inotherwords,the designer of applied learning opportunities is best understood as areflective practitioner herself—one who engages in the same criticalreflection that sheexpects fromher students—thereby improvingherthinkingandactionrelativeto theworkofgenerating,deepening,anddocumentingstudentlearninginappliedlearning.
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 29
DETERMInInGDESIREDLEARnInGouTCoMES Just as with any other intentional design process, designing criti-cal reflection requires beginning with the end in mind (Covey, 1989;Wiggins&McTighe,1998).Specifically,itbeginswiththeidentifica-tionofdesiredlearningoutcomes.Itthenproceedswiththeexpressionoflearninggoalsintermsofassessablelearningobjectivesandcontin-uestothedesignandimplementationofteachingandlearningstrategies(suchasreflection)alignedwiththoseobjectives,allthewhiledevelop-ingassessmentstrategiesthatarewell-matchedtotheobjectivesandtotheteachingandlearningstrategiesandthatcanbeusedtoinformfuturerevisionsofeitherorboth. Instructors,aswellastheprogramsthatsupportthem,havearangeof desired learning outcomes that underlie their use of any particularappliedlearningpedagogy(orcombinationofthem).Figure1providesa conceptual framework for articulatinga categorizationof theseout-comesandtheroleofcriticalreflectioninadvancingthem,usingservice-learningasanexample.Most instructorsuse service-learning tohelptheir students engage more effectively with the content of the courseor the perspective of the discipline while also learning about citizen-shipandaboutthemselvesasindividuals.Inotherwords,theyuseser-vice-learningtohelpstudentslearnatleastinthegeneralcategoriesofacademic enhancement,civic learning,andpersonal growth.Thesecat-egories can apply toother applied learningpedagogies aswell, alongwithadditionalonessuchasintercultural learning(particularlyrelevant
SERVICE-
LEARNING
Components
academic material
relevant service
critical reflection
personal growth
civic learning
academic enhancement
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for the Role of Reflection in Achieving Categories of
Learning
Goals (service-learning example)
Learning Goal Categories
critical thinking within all categories
SERVICE-
LEARNING
Figure1:ConceptualFrameworkfortheRoleofReflectioninAchievingCategoriesofLearningGoals(service-learningexample)
30 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
instudyabroad),professional development(especiallyforinternships),and research skill development (in undergraduate research). Critical thinkingmightbeseenasitsowncategoryofoutcomesorasadimen-sionofothercategories;additionalmeta-leveloutcomesrelatedtolearn-ingprocessesmightincludeemotional intelligenceortheabilitytomakeconnectionsbetweenideas. Given thepublicpurposesofhighereducation (Boyer,1996;Salt-marsh, Hartley, & Clayton, 2009; O’Meara & Rice, 2005; Saltmarsh,2005),designersofanyappliedlearningpedagogymightwellconsidercivic learningasarelevantcategoryoflearning.Battistoni(2002)offersthirteenconceptualframeworksforunderstanding“civic”thatarelinkedtovariousdisciplinesandtherebysuggestsawidevarietyofwaysitcanbedefined,suchasintermsofparticipatorydemocracy,socialjustice,oranethicofcare.Specificlearninggoalsinthiscategorymightrelatetosuchissuesaschangeagency,power,privilege,leadership,economicandpoliticalsystems,governmentalprocesses,communityorganizing,andpublicproblem-solving.Inlightofthemulti-facetednatureofthiscategory,appliedlearningopportunitiesofalltypescanbedesignedtoincludeit.Forexample,studentsinvolvedinundergraduateresearchcanconsider the social drivers for and implicationsof both their researchquestionsandtheirprocessofinquiry;thosestudyingabroadcanfocusattentionontheinterconnectionsbetweenlocalandglobalissuesandonthewayscultureshapesnotionsofcitizenship;internscanexploretherolesofcorporationsascitizensandtherangeofopportunitiestointe-gratetheirprofessionalandciviclives. Similarly, applied learning pedagogies often involve interactionswith others—classmates, mentors, community members, lab partners,officemates—and therefore lend themselves readily to learning in thegeneralcategoryofcollaboration.Associatedlearninggoalsmightin-cludedevelopingstudents’abilitiestocommunicatewithdiverseothers,makedecisionsasagroup,assessgroupmembers’strengthsandweak-nessesandallocateresponsibilityaccordingly,handleinterpersonalcon-flicteffectively,holdthemselvesandothersaccountabletogroupnorms,developsharedvisions,andmonitorprogress towardcollectiveobjec-tivesandreachconsensusonappropriatechangesintheirapproach. Asthepreviousexamplesuggests,learninggoalswithinanyonecat-egoryoflearningcanoftencrossintoanothercategory—collaborationcouldalsobeunderstoodasanelementofdiversitylearning,profession-aldevelopment,personalgrowth,orciviclearning.Itisthereforeuptoinstructors,programadministrators,and/orstudentstodecidehowbesttoexpressthecategoriesoflearningandtheassociatedlearninggoalsfortheirparticularsituation.Becausethesecategoriesarelikelygoingtobe-comeheadingsin,forexample,assessmentreports,particularattentionshouldbepaidtowhatbestrepresentsthekeyarenasoflearningthatare
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 31
tobecultivatedthroughthepedagogy.Towardthatend,itmaybehelp-fultobeginbylistingmorespecificgoals(suchastheonesgivenaboveforcollaboration)andthendetermininghowbesttoorganizethemintomoregeneralcategories.Suchanactivitymaybeparticularlyimportantwhenagroupofinstructorsundertakesinstructionaldesigntogetheraspartofaprogramorcurriculum,soastomakesurethateveryoneisinagreementwithandworkingtowardsthesamedesiredoutcomes. Figure 2 provides an example of the use of Venn diagrams to ex-press the learninggoalsassociatedwithvariouscategoriesof learningthatmightbedevelopedforinternships.AstheuseoftheVenndiagramssuggests, learning outcomes are often conceptualized as the intersec-tionoftwoormorecategories.ANonprofitStudiescurriculumatNorthCarolinaStateUniversitythatisdesignedwiththreadedservice-learning,forexample,articulateslearningoutcomesattheintersectionofacadem-icenhancementandciviclearningintermsoflearninggoalsincluding:aligningmission,methods,andresources;balancingindividualinterestsandthecommongood;movingbeyondcharitytosystemicchange;capi-talizingonopportunitiesassociatedwithdiversity;andearningthepub-lictrust(Jameson,Clayton,&Bringle,2008).
Components of Internships
Learning Goals of Internships
(critical thinking within all categories)
academic discipline
critical reflection
work experience
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework for the Role of Reflection in Achieving Learning Goals
(internship example)
Professional development:
• teamwork
• business etiquette
• dynamics and skills of
business networking
Personal growth: • communicating
across difference
• assessing strengths
and weaknesses
• exploring relationship
between personal
values and business
values
Civic learning: • corporations as local
and global citizens
• power dynamics within
organizations
• organizational
leadership
•
Figure2:ConceptualFrameworkfortheRoleofReflectioninAchievingLearningGoals(internshipexample)
32 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Whetherstartingwith thegeneralcategoriesandworkingdown tomorespecificlearninggoalswithinthemorstartingwithlearninggoalsandthendeterminingthemostusefulwaytocategorizethem,developingthisbroadstructuretoexpressandorganizedesiredlearningoutcomesiskeytoundertakinganintentionalinstructionaldesignprocess,tocom-municatingtherationalesforappliedlearningtostudentsandcolleagues,andtostructuringassessmentstrategiesandsharingresultantdata.Thisstructure for thinking about learning outcomes provides an importantfoundationfordevelopingstrongapproachestocriticalreflection.
FRoMLEARnInGGoALSToLEARnInGoBJECTIVES
Oncethegeneralcategoriesoflearningandtheirassociatedlearninggoalshavebeendetermined,theinstructionaldesigner’snexttaskistoexpressthelearninggoalsasassessablelearningobjectives.Goalssuchas“studentswilllearnaboutprojectmanagement”(internship),“studentswillunderstandthechallengesfacingschoolsintheirattemptstoimple-mentstateandfederaleducationpolicies”(service-learning),“studentswillappreciatethesimilaritiesaswellasthedifferencesbetweentheirhome and host cultures” (study abroad), or “students will understandthedifferencesbetweenquantitativeandqualitativeresearchmethods”(undergraduate research) are difficult to translate into effectivepedagogicalpractice. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956) provides afoundationforturninglearninggoalsintoassessablelearningobjectives,whichthendrivetherestofthedesignprocess.Thetaxonomyincludeslearning in threedomains: cognitive, affective, andpsychomotor; thisdiscussion refers to the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in theCognitiveDomain.Althoughmodifiedandre-orderedbysomescholarsinrecentyears,Bloometal.originallyidentifiedsixlevels,eachwithas-sociated—andassessable—learningbehaviors,assummarizedinTable1.Acentralandwidelyshared,althoughnotuniversal,tenetofourread-ingofthetaxonomyisitshierarchicalnature—eachlevelbuildstoward
Table 1: Bloom’s Taxonomy and Associated Learning Behaviors
Bloom’s Classification Examples of Learning-Related
Behaviors
Knowledge
Identify, define, order
Comprehension Explain describe, restate
Application Apply, solve, choose
Analysis Analyze, compare, contrast
Synthesis Synthesize, develop, propose
Evaluation Evaluate, assess, judge, critique
Table1:Bloom’sTaxonomyandAssociatedLearningBehaviors
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 33
thenext, fromsimpler tomorecomplexdimensionsof reasoning.Forexample, applying an academic concept effectively requires having agoodunderstandingofit,whichitselfinvolveshavingbasicknowledgeoftheunderlyingfactsortheories. Table2providesanexample,drawnfromservice-learning,oftheuseofBloom’sTaxonomytomovefromgeneralcategoriesof learning tospecificlearninggoalsandthentoassessablelearningobjectives.
Using Bloom’s Taxonomy in this way, to achieve a high level ofclarityregardingdesiredlearningoutcomesandtoexpresstheminas-sessable language, enables instructors to design reflection that targetslearning objectives in developmentally-appropriate ways, buildingtoward thehighest level of learningdeemed appropriate in anygiveninstance.The learningobjectives thusbecomeboth the roadmap thatguides thedesignofreflectionactivitiesand thebasis fordeterminingwhether the intendeddestinationhasbeenreachedandadequatelyex-pressedintheproductsofreflection.
Table2:usingBloom’sTaxonomytoMovefromGeneralCategoriesofLearningtoSpecificLearningGoalstoAssessableLearningobjectives(service-learningexample)
Table 2: Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to Move from General Categories of Learning to Specific
Learning Goals to Assessable Learning Objectives (service-learning example)
Learning Objective
Level
Category: Personal Growth
Learning Goal:
Students will consider ways to refine their
skills
Category: Civic Learning
Learning Goal:
Students will become more effective change
agents
Category: Academic Enhancement
Learning Goal:
Students will understand the Stages of Change
model
LO 1: Identify
Identify a particular skill of
yours that you need to develop
further.
Identify the collective
objectives at stake and the
approach you or others took
toward meeting them.
Identify the Stages of Change
model.
LO 2: Explain
Explain the skill so that
someone who does not know
you can understand it.
Explain the objectives and the
approach you and / or others
took toward meeting them so
that someone not involved can
understand.
Explain the Stages of Change
model so that someone not in the
course can understand it.
LO 3: Apply
Apply your understanding of
this skill in the context of your
service-learning experience
and (as applicable) in other
areas of your life.
Apply your understanding of
the approach in the context of
the objectives at stake.
Apply your understanding of the
Stages of Change model in the
context of the experience.
LO 4: Analyze
Analyze the sources of this
skill in your life.
Analyze the approach in light of
alternatives.
Analyze the similarities and
differences between the Stages of
Change model as presented in the
text and as it emerged in the
community.
LO 5: Synthesize
Develop the steps necessary to
improve upon this skill in the
short term, in your service-
learning activities and (as
applicable) in other areas of
your life.
Develop the steps necessary to
make any needed improvements
in your / their approaches
(and/or in the objectives) in the
short term.
Develop an enhanced
understanding of the Stages of
Change model in light of the
experience.
LO 6: Evaluate
Evaluate your strategies for
refining your skills over the
long term.
Evaluate your / their
approaches in terms of the
prospects for long-term,
sustainable, and/or systemic
change.
Evaluate the completeness of
your understanding of the Stages
of Change model and of its use in
the community.
34 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
DESIGnInGREFLECTIonToAChIEVEDESIREDLEARnInG
Effectivelydesigningcriticalreflectioninvolvesmakingaseriesofchoices thatare informedby thedesired learningoutcomesaswellasbytheopportunitiesandconstraintsthatcomewiththespecificcontextinwhichappliedlearningisbeingimplementedandbytheabilitiesofthe participants. These choices produce an overall reflection strategyorover-archingstructurethatmaycombinevariousreflectionactivitiesor mechanisms—such as journal entries, online chat sessions, posterpresentations, worksheets, or discussion sessions. Questions suchas those in Table 3 can help guide the design of reflection strategiesandmechanisms. Theresultofsuchintentionaldesignworkisacustomizedplanthatintegratescriticalreflectionintothecoreofappliedlearningexperiences.Thisplanmaybemaximizedbydesigningthereflectionstrategysuchthatindividualreflectionmechanismsbuildononeanothercumulatively,sothatstudentslearnhowtolearnthroughreflectionaswellasimprovethequalityoftheirlearningandtheirpracticeovertime.Table4sum-marizesabodyofprinciplesofgoodpracticethathasemergedtosupporttheinstructionaldesignerinmakingthechoicesthatproducehighqual-ityreflectionstrategiesandmechanisms.
Table 3: Questions to Guide the Design of Reflection Strategies and Mechanisms
Reflection Strategies
When and how often will reflection occur?
Before, during, and after the experience?
Will students reflect iteratively such that reflection builds on itself over time?
Where will reflection occur?
In or outside the classroom?
Who will facilitate and/or particpate in reflection?
Instructors, members of the community or workplace, peers?
How will feedback be provided and/or reflection products graded?
What is the relationship between amount of feedback and level of expected outcomes?
What is the relationship between the reflection products and the overall grade?echanisms
Reflection Mechanisms
Toward what specific learning goals and objectives will the particular activity be guided?
What medium will be used for the activity: written assignments, worksheets, spectrum activities,
photographs, videos, games, drawings, online forums, in-class discussion, out-of-class reflection
sessions, concept maps, etc.?
What prompts will be used to guide the activity?
What products will demonstrate the learning the activity generates: essays, PowerPoint or poster
presentations, oral exams, etc.?
Note that in a critical reflection process, the products used to demonstrate learning are in
many cases the same as the medium used to generate it
What criteria will be used to assess the learning so demonstrated ?
Table3:QuestionstoGuidetheDesignofReflectionStrategiesandMechanisms
ReflectionStrategies
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 35
Eachofthesesetsofcharacteristicsofhighqualitycriticalreflectionincludesexplicitlinkagetodesiredlearningoutcomes,andBloom’sTax-onomyprovidesastructuretofacilitatethedesignofreflectionaccord-ingly.TheexamplereflectionactivityprovidedinFigure3demonstratesthedesignof reflectionprompts—for the learninggoalofunderstand-ingstrengthsandweaknesses,inthecategoryofpersonalgrowth—thatguidestudents step-by-step toever-higher levelsof reasoning throughprompts thatareexplicitly structured inaccordancewith the levelsofthetaxonomy. Afocusoncriticalthinkingisakeycharacteristicofcriticalreflec-tion.ThereflectionguidedbythepromptsinFigure3canprogresstoever-higherlevelsofreasoningbutdosopoorly,inanillogical,unclearway that is uninformedby considerationofmultipleperspectives andthatfailstoengagewiththetruecomplexityoftheissues.Criticalthink-ing,asoutlinedbyPaulandElder(2002),isbasedonuniversalintellec-tualstandardsthatincludeaccuracy,clarity,relevance,depth,breadth,logic, significance, and fairness. Many of the potential shortcomingsof reflection described in the introduction—reinforcing stereotypes,generalizing inappropriately on the basis of limited data, missing themostsignificantlearninginanexperience—areindicativeofandresultfrom poorly developed critical thinking abilities. Providing guidancein thisarea is, therefore,anecessarycorollary to theuseofhierarchi-callearningobjectivesinthedesignofcriticalreflection(Ash,Clayton,&Atkinson, 2005).Table 5 provides anoverviewof the standardsof
Table 4: Characteristics of High Quality Reflection
High Quality Reflection …
is continuous (ongoing)
is connected (with assignments and activities related to and building on one
another and including explicit integration with learning goals and academic
material)
is challenging (including in terms of the expectation that students take
responsibility for their own learning)
Eyler et al. (1996)
is contextualized (to the community setting and broader public issues and
to the students’ own particular roles)
links experience to learning
is guided
occurs regularly
involves feedback to the learner to enhance the learning
Bringle & Hatcher
(1999)
helps clarify values
is oriented toward specific learning objectives
is integrative
is assessed in terms of critical thinking
includes goal setting
Zlotkowski &
Clayton (2005)
generates change in the learner’s life
Table4:CharacteristicsofhighQualityReflection
36 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
critical thinking (with the addition of integration and writing quality),alongwithpromptingquestionsthatcanbeusedbystudentsthemselvestoimprovethequalityoftheirreasoningandbypeersand/orinstructorsasfeedbackonreflectionproducts. Using these tools together—designing reflection mechanismsthrough the use of hierarchical learning objectives and improving thequalityofthinkingateachofthelevelsofreasoningthroughtheuseofcriticalthinkingstandards—willhelpto generateanddeepenlearninginanappliedlearningenvironment.Theproductsofsuchintentionallyde-signedreflection,inturn,documentlearningforpurposesofgradingorresearchaswellasforstudentuseinguidingfuturethinkingandaction.
InTEGRATInGFoRMATIVEAnDSuMMATIVEASSESSMEnTInToThEREFLECTIonPRoCESS
Designing an intentional approach to critical reflection in appliedlearningalsoinvolvesthedevelopmentofanassessmentstrategy.Justasreflectionismuchmoreeffectivelyimplementednotonlyattheendofanappliedlearningcourseorprojectbutthroughout,sotooisassess-mentmorevaluablewhenitisdesignedfromthebeginningandisitselfevaluatedandmodifiedasneededthroughout.
Figure3:SampleBloom-basedReflectionMechanism(undergraduateresearchexample)
Figure 3: Sample Bloom-based Reflection Mechanism (undergraduate research example)
According to Parker Palmer (2000), “limitations and liabilities are the flip side of our
gifts … a particular weakness is the inevitable trade-off for a particular strength.”
There is nothing “wrong” with us that we need to “fix,” he suggests. Rather, we are
who we are; sometimes our personal characteristics serve us well (and we think of
them as strengths), and sometimes they serve us ill (and we think of them as
weaknesses) The attempt to “fix” our liabilities will inevitably alter their “flip side”
gifts as well. (pp. 52-53).
Individually and in writing …
Identify and explain a personal characteristic that you tend to think of as a weakness
in your role as a researcher
Apply Palmer’s distinction to this characteristic: What gift or strength could be the
“flip side” of this “weakness”?
Discuss with a partner …
Compare and contrast a research-related situation in which the “weakness” emerged
and one in which its “flip side” strength emerged. Why do you think each
emerged as it did and what were the consequences?
If Palmer is correct regarding the relationship between our gifts or strengths and our
limitations or liabilities, what do you think are the implications for your
approach to personal and professional development as a researcher?
Individually and in writing …
Critique Palmer’s distinction: Do you agree with him? Why or why not? What, if
anything, would you change in his thinking?
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 37
Table
5:
Cri
tica
l T
hin
king S
tandard
s
Cri
tica
l
Th
ink
ing
Sta
nd
ard
Des
crip
tion
Ass
oci
ate
d Q
ues
tion
s to
Ch
eck
you
r T
hin
kin
g
Inte
gra
tio
n
Ser
vic
e ex
per
ien
ce c
lear
ly r
elat
ed t
o t
he
lear
nin
g.
Hav
e I
clea
rly
sh
ow
n t
he
con
nec
tio
n b
etw
een
my
ex
per
ien
ce
and
my
lea
rnin
g?
Cla
rity
E
xp
and
s o
n i
dea
s, e
xp
ress
id
eas
in a
no
ther
way
,
pro
vid
es e
xam
ple
s o
r il
lust
rati
on
s w
her
e ap
pro
pri
ate.
Did
I g
ive
an e
xam
ple
?
Is i
t cl
ear
wh
at I
mea
n b
y t
his
?
Co
uld
I e
lab
ora
te f
urt
her
?
Acc
ura
cy
All
sta
tem
ents
are
fac
tual
ly c
orr
ect
and
/or
sup
po
rted
wit
h e
vid
ence
.
Ho
w d
o I
kn
ow
th
is?
Is t
his
tru
e?
Ho
w c
ou
ld I
ch
eck
on
th
is o
r v
erif
y i
t?
Pre
cisi
on
S
tate
men
ts c
on
tain
sp
ecif
ic i
nfo
rmat
ion
.
Can
I b
e m
ore
sp
ecif
ic?
Hav
e I
pro
vid
ed s
uff
icie
nt
det
ail?
Rel
evan
ce
All
sta
tem
ents
are
rel
evan
t to
th
e q
ues
tio
n a
t h
and
; al
l
stat
emen
ts c
on
nec
t to
th
e ce
ntr
al p
oin
t.
Ho
w d
oes
th
is r
elat
e to
th
e is
sue
bei
ng
dis
cuss
ed?
Ho
w d
oes
th
is h
elp
us/
me
dea
l w
ith
th
e is
sue
bei
ng
dis
cuss
ed?
Dep
th
Ex
pla
ins
the
reas
on
s b
ehin
d c
on
clu
sio
ns
and
anti
cip
ates
an
d a
nsw
ers
the
qu
esti
on
s th
at t
he
reas
on
ing
rai
ses
and
/or
ack
no
wle
dg
es t
he
com
ple
xit
y
of
the
issu
e.
Wh
y i
s th
is s
o?
Wh
at a
re s
om
e o
f th
e co
mp
lex
itie
s h
ere?
Wh
at w
ou
ld i
t ta
ke
for
this
to
hap
pen
?
Wo
uld
th
is b
e ea
sy t
o d
o?
Bre
adth
C
on
sid
ers
alte
rnat
ive
po
ints
of
vie
w o
r h
ow
so
meo
ne
else
mig
ht
hav
e in
terp
rete
d t
he
situ
atio
n.
Wo
uld
th
is l
oo
k t
he
sam
e fr
om
th
e p
ersp
ecti
ve
of…
.?
Is t
her
e an
oth
er w
ay t
o i
nte
rpre
t w
hat
th
is m
ean
s?
Lo
gic
T
he
lin
e o
f re
aso
nin
g m
akes
sen
se a
nd
fo
llo
ws
fro
m
the
fact
s an
d/o
r w
hat
has
bee
n s
aid
.
Do
es w
hat
I s
aid
at
the
beg
inn
ing
fit
wit
h w
hat
I c
on
clu
ded
at
the
end
?
Do
my
co
ncl
usi
on
s m
atch
th
e ev
iden
ce t
hat
I h
ave
pre
sen
ted
?
Sig
nif
ican
ce
Th
e co
ncl
usi
on
s o
r g
oal
s re
pre
sen
t a
(th
e) m
ajo
r is
sue
rais
ed b
y t
he
refl
ecti
on
on
ex
per
ien
ce.
Is t
his
th
e m
ost
im
po
rtan
t is
sue
to f
ocu
s o
n?
Is t
his
mo
st s
ign
ific
ant
pro
ble
m t
o c
on
sid
er?
Fai
rnes
s
Oth
er p
oin
ts o
f v
iew
are
rep
rese
nte
d w
ith
in
teg
rity
(wit
ho
ut
bia
s o
r d
isto
rtio
n).
Hav
e I
rep
rese
nte
d t
his
vie
wp
oin
t in
su
ch a
way
th
at t
he
per
son
wh
o h
old
s it
wo
uld
ag
ree
wit
h m
y c
har
acte
riza
tio
n?
Mo
dif
ied
so
urc
e: P
aul,
R &
Eld
er,
L.
20
01
. T
he
Min
iatu
re G
uid
e to
Cri
tica
l T
hin
kin
g.
Th
e F
ou
nd
atio
n f
or
Cri
tica
l T
hin
kin
g.
San
ta R
osa
, C
A.
ww
w.c
riti
calt
hin
kin
g.o
rg
Mod
ified
sou
rce:
Pau
l,R
.P.&
Eld
er,L
.200
1.T
heM
inia
ture
Gui
deto
Cri
tica
lThi
nkin
g.T
heF
ound
atio
nfo
rC
riti
calT
hink
ing.
San
taR
osa,
CA
.ww
w.c
riti
calt
hink
ing.
org
Table5:CriticalThinkingStandards
38 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Assessment can be designed for summative purposes and used attheendofaprocesstomeasureanddocumentoutcomes,anditcanbedesignedfor formativepurposesandusedduringaprocessasawaytocontinuouslyimproveboththeprocessandtheoutcomes.Asummativeassessmentprocessthatisgroundedinwell-articulatedlearningobjec-tivescanbeusedbothtogradestudentproductsandtoreportoutcomesatprogramorcurriculumlevels.Summativeassessmentintheformofgradinggenerally involves judging thedegree towhich studentshavemet the learning objectives. Such assessment can be standards basedand therefore measure the ultimate attainment of an objective at theendoftheexperience,oritcanbebasedonimprovementandthereforemeasurechangeovertime.Arelateddesignchoicethatoftenemergesat theprogramor curriculum level iswhether theultimate attainmentorthechangeovertimeistobeassessedwithinasinglecourseorap-pliedlearningproject,acrossasequenceofcoursesorprojects,orboth.Instructorsand/oradministratorsneedtodecideontheformsummativeassessmentreportsshouldtake, in lightof theuses towhichtheywillbeputandtheaudiencesforwhomtheyareintended.Forexample,willthe assessment be expressed quantitatively, such as the percentage ofstudentswhosereflectiononexperiencedemonstratesfulfillmentofthedesiredoutcomes,orwillthereportprovidequalitativeinformationwithexamplesofstudentlearningoutcomes,orboth? Facultyandstudentsusingappliedlearningpedagogieswillfindval-ueinformativelyassessingbothlearningandtheteachingandlearningprocessandprogramsthatgenerateit.Formativeassessmentisincreas-inglyrecognizedaskeytoeffectivelydesigningteachingandlearning.AsnotedbytheNationalResearchCouncil(2001),“Studentswilllearnmoreifinstruction[inthiscase,reflectioninappliedlearning]andas-sessment are integrally related. [P]roviding students with informationaboutparticularqualitiesoftheirworkandwhattheycandotoimproveit is crucial for maximizing learning” (p. 258). Feedback combinedwith opportunities to apply it (e.g. through revision of their work) isanapproachtoformativeassessmentthathelpsstudentslearnnotonlycontent,butmeta-cognitiveskillsaswell—inthiscase,learninghowtolearnthroughtheoftenunfamiliarprocessofcriticalreflection. Formativeassessmentcanalsobeusedtocheckthereflectionprocessagainstthelearningoutcomesitgeneratessoastorefineboththelearn-inggoals andobjectives and the reflection strategies andmechanismsdesignedtomeetthem.Instructorsmightreviewstudentproductscriti-callynotonlyinordertoprovidehelpfulfeedbacktoimprovestudents’thinkingbutalsotogaugetheeffectivenessoftheirowndesign(e.g.,theclarityofthereflectionprompts)andtoprovidethemselveswithfeed-back to improve it.Such formativeassessmentalsoprovidesvaluablefeedback to instructors regarding, for example, concepts or skills that
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 39
provedifficultforstudentstograsp;suchinformationcaninformdiscus-sionofhowtheseconceptsorskillsaretaughtinthecoursesorprogramsassociatedwithorprerequisitetotheappliedlearningactivity. Havingsorted through thevariouspurposesofassessment, thede-signer of applied learning pedagogies faces additional choice pointsrelated tohowassessment is implemented, includingthenatureof theproductsorevidencethatwillbeexamined.Willassessmentinvolveex-traactivitiesthatarenotrelatedtothelearningprocess(forexample,preandpostquestionnaires)or assignments andproducts that are alreadypartofthecourseorproject(forexample,reflectionproductsoressays)?Inaquestionnaire, studentsmightbeasked towhatdegree they thinktheyhavemet thelearningobjectivesof theirappliedlearningexperi-ence;inacourse-embeddedassignment,studentswouldbeaskedtore-spondtoapromptorprompts,andtheresultantproductwouldbeevalu-ated against the objectives. Practitioner-scholars such as Eyler (2000)suggestthattheformeroftenconfusesstudentsatisfactionwithstudentlearningandthereforecallforthedevelopmentofapproachesthatsup-portstudentsindoingthelatter.Inaddition,acourse-embeddedprocessisgenerallylesstime-consuming,forbothstudentsandinstructors,thanthe interview, focus group, or portfolio methods often used (Eyler &Giles,1999;Gelmon,Holland,Driscoll,Spring,&Kerrigan,2001)andrequiresmoreintentionalintegrationofassessmentwiththeteachingandlearningprocess. Anotherissueisthedeterminationofcriteriathatwillbeusedtoeval-uate theproducts thatdemonstrate learning. Inotherwords,whatwillbetheindicatorsofthedegreetowhichthestudenthasmetthelearningobjectivesorofthequalityoflearningoutcomes?Thecreationofaru-bricthatexpressesvaryinglevelsofqualityormastery,fromnovicetoexpertorfromunder-developedtoexcellent,canbeextremelyhelpfulinguidingthisprocess.Forexample,iftheobjectiveisforinternstobeabletodeterminetheappropriateapproachtoaparticularworkplacesituation(e.g.,ateammembernotpullingherweight),arubricinwhichresponsesarecategorizedbydegreeofsophisticationand/orefficacycouldbeusedforassessment.Ifanobjectiveismeta-cognitiveand/orisuniquetothestudents as individuals and their particular experiences (for example,thatstudentsareabletoevaluateapersonalstrengthorweaknessinlightoftheirprofessionalgoals),thenarubricbasedonBloom’sTaxonomythat expresses levels of reasoning may be in order. The Standards ofCriticalThinkingdescribedearliercanalsobeturnedintoarubric(seeTable6,forexample)thatcanbeusedtoassessqualityofreasoning. Anintegratedapproachtoassessmentandreflectionincludesusingthesamesetofobjectivesandstandardsandtoolstogeneratelearning(throughreflectionprompts),todeepenlearning(throughformativeas-sessmentor feedback), and todocument learning (throughsummative
40 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
assessment or grading and reporting outcomes). Reflection promptsbasedonBloom’sTaxonomycanbothguidestudentstodesiredlevelsofreasoninganddeterminethelevelofreasoningtheyhaveattained.Criti-calthinkingstandardscanbeusedasbothaformativeguidetoimprovestudentreasoningandasummativetooltoevaluateitsqualityintheend.Makingvisiblesuch integrationofreflectionandassessment iskey inhelpingstudentsbecomeincreasinglyawareofandresponsiblefortheirownlearningprocesses. Thecreationofanassessmentstrategyisasimportantasthearticula-tionof the learninggoalsandassociatedobjectives,andall shouldbedevelopedinparallelduringthedesignofthereflectionactivities.Tryingtoassessalearninggoalthathasnotbeenarticulatedasanassessableobjective(e.g.,“studentswillunderstand…,”“studentswillappreciate…,”“studentswilllearnabout…”)isusuallyanexerciseinfrustration.Areflectionmechanismthatisnotmappedtolearningobjectivesisoftenamissedopportunityformaximizedlearningaswellasahindrancetousing reflectionproducts toassess learning.Andanobjective thatex-pressesdesiredlearningthatcannotbeachievedthroughthepedagogyinquestion,muchlessassessed,should,likealloftheabove,sendthedesignerbacktothedrawingboard.
Table 6: Critical Thinking Rubric [excerpts]
completely lacking (1) under-developed (2) good (3) excellent (4)
Accuracy
Consistently makes
inaccurate statements
and/or fails to provide
supporting evidence for
claims
Makes several
inaccurate statements
and/or supports few
statements with evidence
Usually but not always
makes statements that
are accurate and well-
supported with evidence
Consistently makes
statements that are
accurate and well-
supported with evidence
Clarity
Consistently fails to
provide examples, to
illustrate points, to define
terms, and/or to express
ideas in other ways
Only occasionally
provides examples,
illustrates points, defines
terms, and/or expresses
ideas in other ways
Usually but not always
provides examples,
illustrates points, defines
terms, and/or expresses
ideas in other ways
Consistently provides
examples, illustrates
points, defines terms,
and/or expresses ideas in
other ways
Depth
Fails to address salient
questions that arise from
statements being made;
consistently over-
simplifies when making
connections; fails to
consider any of the
complexities of the issue
Addresses few of the
salient questions that
arise from statements
being made; often over-
simplifies when making
connections; considers
little of the complexity
of the issue
Addresses some but not
all of the salient questions
that arise from statements
being made; rarely over-
simplifies when making
connections; considers
some but not all of the
full complexity of the
issue
Thoroughly addresses
salient questions that arise
from statements being
made; avoids over-
simplifying when making
connections; considers the
full complexity of the
issue
Breadth
Ignores or superficially
considers alternative
points of view and/or
interpretations
Gives minimal
consideration to
alternative points of
view and/or
interpretations and
makes very limited use
of them in shaping the
learning being
articulated
Gives some consideration
to alternative points of
view and/or
interpretations and makes
some use of them in
shaping the learning
being articulated
Gives meaningful
consideration to
alternative points of view
and/or interpretations and
makes very good use of
them in shaping the
learning being articulated
Fairness
Consistently represents
others’ perspectives in a
biased or distorted way
Occasionally represents
others’ perspectives in a
biased or distorted way
Often but not always
represents others’
perspectives with
integrity
Consistently represents
others’ perspectives with
integrity (without bias or
distortion)
[Modified source: Paul, R & Elder, L. 2001. The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking. The Foundation for Critical Thinking. Santa Rosa, CA. www.criticalthinking.org]
Table6:CriticalThinkingRubric[excerpts]
[Modifiedsource:Paul,R.P.&Elder,L.2001.The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking.TheFoundationforCriti-calThinking.SantaRosa,CA.www.criticalthinking.org]
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 41
ThEDEALMoDELFoRCRITICALREFLECTIon Anexampleofanapproachtocriticalreflectionexplicitlydesignedin accordancewith theprinciplesofgoodpracticediscussedabove istheDEALModelforCriticalReflection(Ash&Clayton,2004;Ash&Clayton, 2009a, 2009b)—the product of a multi-year scholarship ofteachingandlearningprojectinvolvingstudentsandfacultyfromava-rietyofdisciplines.Originallydevelopedinthecontextofservice-learn-ing,DEALhasbeenusedacrossarangeoftraditionalandexperientialpedagogies;inK-12,undergraduate,andgraduatecoursesandcurricula;andinco-curricularaswellasprofessionaltrainingsettings.TheDEALmodelconsistsofthreesequentialsteps(seeFigure4): 1. Descriptionofexperiencesinanobjectiveanddetailedmanner; 2. Examinationofthoseexperiencesinlightofspecificlearning goalsorobjectives;and 3. ArticulationofLearning,includinggoalsforfutureactionthat canthenbetakenforwardintothenextexperienceforim- provedpracticeandfurtherrefinementoflearning.
Figure 4: Schematic Overview of the DEAL Model for Critical Reflection
Category #1 Goals &
Objectives
Category #3 Goals &
Objectives
Engage in experience
Engage in experience and
test learning and/or
implement goals
Examine
per learning goals/objectives in each category of learning
Describe experience objectively
Articulate Learning including setting goals
in each category
Category #2 Goals &
Objectives
Figure4:SchematicoverviewoftheDEALModelforCriticalReflection
42 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Eachstepofthismodelrequiresspecificprompts,whichprovidetheguidancenecessaryforstudentstoengageintheoftentimescounter-nor-mativeactivityofdevelopingtheirownlearningratherthanreproducingwhattheirinstructorshavetaughtthem(Clayton&Ash,2004;Howard,1998).ThediscussionthatfollowssummarizeseachstepintheDEALmodelandprovidessampleprompts.
DESCRIBE Objective, detailed description of an experience provides a strongfoundationformeaning-makinginthecriticalreflectionprocess;itisawaytomaketheexperiencepresentandtoensurethatstudentshaveac-cesstoallrelevantaspectsofitastheyengageinreflection.Thisstepisnotassimpleasitmightappear,asstudentsoftenprefertojumpstraightintointerpretation.Itisalsoeasytooverlookorunder-valuethedetailsthatareoftenmostsignificant,soenhancedskillsofmindfulnessandat-tentivenessareoftenrequiredfor—anddevelopedby—thisstep.Reflec-tionpromptsassociatedwiththeDescribestepaskstudentstoaddresssuch issuesaswhenandwhere theexperience inquestion tookplace,whowasandwasnotpresent,whattheyandothersdidanddidnotdo,whattheysawandheard,andsoon.
ExAMInE The DEAL model is explicitly designed to move students beyondsummarizing their experiences,whichall toooften resultswhena re-flectionactivityisassigned,intomeaning-making.InthesecondstepofDEAL,promptsthathelpstudentsExaminetheirexperiencesarelinkedtothedesiredlearningoutcomes—whetherexpressedaslearninggoalsor, in a more assessable fashion, as learning objectives—within eachcategoryoflearning.Table7providesexamplesofpromptsdrawnfromlearninggoals in thegeneralcategoryofcivic learning; someinstruc-torsmayprefertodevelopExaminepromptsfromlearninggoalssuchastheseratherthanfromassessableobjectiveswhen,forexample,theintent is tostimulatequestionsorsurface issuesfor furtherdiscussionratherthantoevaluatestudents’reasoning.ARTICuLATELEARnInG
The third step of the DEAL model supports students inArticulating the Learning that the two previous steps have begun togenerate,whileprovidingfurtherguidanceincontinuingtoexpandanddeepenthatlearning.Ithelpsthemcapturetheirlearninginsuchawayastobeabletoactonitandtherebyimprovethequalityoftheirlearn-
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 43
ingandtheirfutureactions.Itconsistsoffourprompts:(a)What did I learn?;(b)How did I learn it?;(c)Whydoesitmatter?;and(d)What will I do in light of it? TheDEALmodelthusdoesnotbeginbutratherends with the question “What did you learn,” in accordance with theunderstanding of reflection as the component of applied learning thatgenerateslearning. ThegeneralstructureprovidedbytheDEALmodelcanbeusedtoguidecriticalreflectiononline,inanoraldiscussion,inawrittenjournalentryoressay,orinanycombinationofmechanisms.Forexample,De-scriptionmightbedoneonlinebyeachstudentindividually,Examina-tionorallybyagroupofstudents,andArticulationofLearningasawrit-tenessay.TheDEALmodelcanbeusedtostructure“light”reflection,asina30minutein-classactivityoranonlinechatthatproducessimple(e.g.,foursentence)ArticulatedLearnings.
ABLooM-BASEDuSEoFDEAL DEAL can also guide more in-depth critical reflection that targetshigher order reasoning and critical thinking through prompts that aretieddirectlytohierarchicallearningobjectives.Suchanapproachmightbeusednotmerelytostimulatequestionsandsurfaceissuesforfurtherdiscussion,as in thegoal-basedexampleinTable7above,butalsotosupportstudentsexplicitlyindevelopingreasoningabilitiesandtoassessthequalityoftheirreasoning. InaparticularlycomprehensiveversionoftheDEALmodel(Ash&Clayton,2009a,2009b),designedtofacilitatestudentreasoningallthewayuptothelevelofevaluationinBloom’sTaxonomy,theExamine
Table 7: DEAL Model Sample “Examine” Prompts Based on Learning Goals in the
General
Category of Civic Learning
Learning Goals Sample Examine Prompts
What was I / someone else trying to accomplish?
In taking the actions I / they did, was the focus on symptoms of problems
or causes of problems?
Was the focus (symptom or cause) appropriate to the situation?
Students will explore
the dynamics of change
agency
How might I / they focus more on underlying causes in the future?
In what ways did differentials in power and privilege emerge in this
experience?
What are the sources of power and privilege in this situation?
Students will learn
about power and
privilege
Who benefits and who is harmed?
What is in the interest of the common good in this situation? What is in
the interest of (whose) individual interests or rights?
In what ways is the individual good (mine / others) linked to and/or
contrary to the common good?
Students will appreciate
the tension between
individual interests and
the common good
What trade-offs between them are involved? Who made the trade-offs?
Were the trade-offs made appropriate or inappropriate and why?
Table7:DEALModelSample“Examine”PromptsBasedonLearningGoalsintheGeneralCategoryofCivicLearning
44 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
and theArticulateLearning steps eachhave twoparts.After studentsDescribeanexperience,theysurfaceoneormorekeyideasforfurtherthoughtinExaminePartIandthentakeoneofthoseideasfromidenti-ficationandexplanationthroughapplicationandtoanalysisinExaminePartII.InPartIoftheArticulateLearningsteptheysynthesizeanewunderstandingofthekeyideaandevaluatechangesintheirthinking,andinPartIItheyevaluatethewrittenexpressionofthatthinkingandreviseitasneeded. For example, in the category of personal growth, Examine Part ImightincludesomeorallofthepromptsinTable8,whichareorientedtowardthelearninggoalsthatcomprisethiscategoryandwhichencour-agestudentstofocusontheirownparticularpersonalcharacteristics. ThenPartIIoftheExaminestepmightusepromptssuchasthoseinTable9—specificallymappedtoBloom-basedlearningobjectivesuptothe levelofanalysis—tosupportstudents indeveloping their thinkingaboutthatcharacteristicfurther. TheArticulateLearning step then supports students in re-thinkingand extending the thinking from the Examine step, to create a moremeaningfulandfullythoughtoutreflectiveessay,movingthemthroughSynthesis and Evaluation with additional sub-prompts and supportingthemindocumentingallsixlevelsofreasoninginBloom’sTaxonomy.Continuingwiththeexampleinthecategoryofpersonalgrowth,PartIofthisstepincludestheexpandedpromptsrepresentedinTable10.
Table 8: Bloom-based Version of DEAL: Sample “Examine” Part I Prompts (Personal
Growth
Category)
Examine Part I (Personal Growth): Sample Prompts to Surface a Personal
Characteristic
What assumptions or expectations did I bring to the situation? How did they affect what I
did or didn’t think, feel, decide, or do? To what extent did they prove true? If they did not
prove true, why was there a discrepancy?
How did this experience make me feel (positively and/or negatively)? How did I handle
my emotional reactions? Should I have felt differently? Why or why not?
How did I interpret the thoughts, feelings, decisions, and/or behaviors of others What
evidence do I have that my interpretations were or were not accurate?
In what ways did I succeed or do well in this situation (e.g., interacting with others,
accomplishing tasks, handling difficulties) and what personal characteristics helped me to
be successful (e.g., skills, abilities, perspectives, attitudes, tendencies, knowledge)? In
what ways did I experience difficulties (e.g., interacting with others, accomplishing tasks)
and what personal characteristics contributed to the difficulties (e.g., skills, abilities,
perspectives, attitudes, tendencies, knowledge)?
How did this situation challenge or reinforce my values, beliefs, convictions (e.g., my
sense of right and wrong, my priorities, my judgments)? My sense of personal identity
(e.g., how I think of myself in terms of gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status,
age, education level, ethnicity, nationality, mental/physical health)?
Table8:Bloom-basedVersionofDEAL:Sample“Examine”PartIPrompts(PersonalGrowthCategory)
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 45
InPartIIoftheArticulateLearningstep,studentsareaskedtoevalu-atetheirwrittenproductsusingachecklist,whichincludesthestandardsof critical thinking, and to rewrite their “I learned that” statement asneededtoensurethatitexpressesthehighestleveloflearningtheyhaveachieved.
Table 9: Bloom-based Version of DEAL: Sample “Examine” Part II Prompts (Personal
Growth
Category)
Examine Part II (Personal Growth): Prompts to Develop Understanding of a Personal
Characteristic Using Bloom’s Taxonomy
Identify What personal characteristic are you coming to understand better as a result of
reflection on your applied learning experiences?
Explain Explain the characteristic so that someone who does not know you would
understand it.
Apply How does / might this characteristic positively and/or negatively affect your
interactions with others, your decisions, and/or your actions in your applied
activities and (as applicable) in other areas of your life?
Analyze What are the possible sources of / reasons for this characteristic? How does
your understanding of these sources / reasons help you to better understand
what will be involved in using, improving, or changing this characteristic in the
future?
Table9:Bloom-basedVersionofDEAL:Sample“Examine”PartIIPrompts(PersonalGrowthCategory)
Regardlessofhowitisimplemented—writtenororal,individualorcollaborative,lightlyorin-depth—theDEALmodeloffersstudentstheopportunity to use writing or speaking as vehicles for learning ratherthan as expressionsof learningafter it has alreadyoccurred (Clayton&Ash,2004).Generatingtheirownlearninginthiswayisyetanothercounter-normativeaspectofcriticalreflectiononexperienceand,assug-gestedinthesetofcharacteristicsofhighqualityreflectioninTable4,students will benefit from feedback on their thinking, with associatedopportunitiestorevisitandrevise(e.g.,throughapplicationoftheStan-dardsofCriticalThinkingpresentedinTables5and6)tomaximizethequalityoftheirlearning. Inaddition, thedevelopmentof a critical reflectionmodel suchasDEALfacilitatesscholarlyworkrelativetoteachingandlearninginanappliedlearningpedagogy,helpinginstructorsimprovetheformertoen-hancethelatter.Forexample,DEALanditsassociatedrubrics(includ-ingthecriticalthinkingrubricinTable6)wereusedtoexaminechangesinstudents’criticalthinkingandhigherorderreasoningabilitiesacrossdraftsofasinglereflectionproductandoverthecourseofasemester,aswellasacrossthecategoriesofacademicenhancement,civiclearning,andpersonalgrowthinseveralservice-learningenhancedclasses(Ashetal.,2005).Buildingonthiswork,Jamesonetal.(2008)modifiedtheDEALreflectionpromptsandrubricsforapplicationacrossthecoursesequence of a Nonprofit Studies minor, investigating changes in stu-dents’criticalthinkingandreasoningabilitiesacrossthelearninggoals
46 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
offiveleadershipchallengesfacingthenonprofitsector.McGuireetal.(2009)examinedcriticalthinkingdemonstratedinArticulatedLearningsproducedbystudentsinmultipledisciplinesusingavarietyofassign-mentandfeedback-revisionformats. TheDEALmodeland its associated rubrics thereforedemonstratethe intentionaldesignofcritical reflection: identifyingdesiredstudentlearningoutcomes,articulatingthemasspecificgoalsandasassessablelearningobjectives,andthencraftinganintegratedreflectionandassess-mentapproacharoundthem. Inadditiontoprovidingtoolsneededtogenerate,deepen,anddocumentstudentlearning,DEALfacilitatesin-vestigationofthelearningprocesses(Clayton,Ash,&Jameson,2009).
ConCLuSIon
Itisourhopethatourworkcanserveasamodelforfaculty,staff,andstudentsastheyseektodesignreflectionassociatedwithappliedlearn-ingopportunities,courses,andprograms.Ourindividualandcollectivelearningaspractitioner-scholarsacrossthefieldofappliedlearningcanbeenhancedthroughascholarlyapproachtotheinstructionaldesignpro-cess.Inturn,itcancontributetoadvancingtheacademy’sunderstandingofbothhowourstudentsthinkandhowwecansupporttheminlearningtothinkmoredeeplyandwithgreatercapacityforself-directedlearning.
Table 10: Bloom-based Version of DEAL: “Articulate Learning” Part I Prompts (Personal
Growth Category)
1. What did I learn?
• Identify and explain (so that someone who doesn’t know you can understand it) a
personal characteristic that you are beginning to understand better
• Express the learning in general terms, not just in the context of the experience, so
that it can be applied more broadly to other areas of your life (personally or
professionally) and help you in your ongoing personal growth process
• Introduce a judgment regarding whether the characteristic serves you well (and
thus needs to be capitalized on) or poorly (and thus needs to be changed) – or both
2. How did I learn it?
• Clearly connect the learning to your specific applied learning activities so that
someone who was not involved would understand, including discussion of the
positive and negative impacts of the personal characteristic
3. Why does it matter?
• Consider how the learning has value over the short and long term, both in terms of
your applied learning activities and in terms of your life more generally
4. What will I do in light of it?
• Set specific goals and assessable goals (that you could come back to and check on
to see if they are being met) relative to this learning over the short and long term
• Consider the benefits and challenges associated with fulfilling these goals,
especially in light of the sources of or reasons for the characteristic
Table10:Bloom-basedVersionofDEAL:“ArticulateLearning”PartIPrompts(PersonalGrowthCategory)
Ash,Clayton/CRITICALREFLECTIONINAPPLIEDLEARNING 47
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49
examining the Development of the Victorian Certificate of Applied
Learning and Its Implications for Schools and teacher
education in Australia
DAmIAn BLAKeDeakinUniversity,Australia
DAVID GALLAGheRVictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority(VCAA),Australia
The Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (VCAL) is a very successful senior second-ary school qualification introduced in the Australian state of Victoria in 2002. Applied learning in the VCAL engages senior students in a combination of work-based learning, service-learning, and project-based learning and aims to provide them with the skills, knowledge, and attitudes to make informed choices regarding pathways to work and further education. The program has enjoyed rapid growth and its system-wide adoption by Victorian secondary schools, Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institutions, Registered Training Organizations (RTOs), and Adult and Community Education (ACE) providers has broadened significantly the range of senior schooling pathway options for young people. This paper will examine reasons for developing an applied learning senior secondary certificate and its rapid growth in Victoria since 2002. The authors draw on a number of case studies to profile the unique nature of applied learning in the VCAL, includ-ing its dimensions of service learning, work-based learning, and project-based learning. These case studies are also used to discuss a number of implications that have emerged from the use of applied learning in the VCAL, including approaches to teaching and as-sessment that will support applied learning and the development of new partnerships be-tween VCAL providers and community partners. Finally, the paper considers significant implications the VCAL has created for teacher education in Victoria by discussing the new Graduate Diploma of Education (Applied Learning) developed by Deakin University.
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducationVol.1,Fall200949-71©2009MissouriWesternStateUniversity
50 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Improvingtheeducationparticipationratesofyoungpeoplehasbe-comeasignificantsocialandeconomicgoal forsuccessiveAustralianand internationalgovernments (OECD,2001).Sucha strategy isnowwidely understood to improve a nation’s economic competitivenessaswell as address issuesof social inclusion and reductionofpoverty(Access Economics, 2005; Billett & Seddon, 2004; Considine, 2006;Lamb&Rice,2008).Toachievetheseincreasedparticipationratestherehas emerged demand for new policies and practices in education andtrainingemphasizingtheneedtoincreasethequalityandrelevanceoflearning to the livesofyoungpeople,particularly in theirmiddleandpost-compulsoryyearsofschooling(UNESCO,2008).Educationinsti-tutionsinmanycountriesnowplacemuchmoresignificanceontheneedforhighqualityalternativeeducationopportunities(Aron,2006),suchasthe“hands-on”or“applied”approachestostudents’learning.Alongsidethesenewdirectionsineducationtherealsoemergenewquestionsforeducatorsinsecondaryschoolsandhighereducation:(1)Whatdothesehighqualityprogramslooklikeandwhatisthenatureoftheirappliedlearning?and (2)Whatare the implications for teachers’professionalpracticeandhowcanappliedlearningbeusedinhighereducationtopre-parethenew“appliedlearningteachers”requiredinsecondaryschools? This paper explores these questions in two stages. In the first in-stance, the authors draw on current education participation trends inAustralia to examine the development of the Victorian Certificate ofAppliedLearning(VCAL)currentlybeingofferedtoseniorhighschoolstudents in Victoria, Australia. They then provide an outline of theVCALinitscurrentformanddrawontwocasestudiestodiscussthenatureof the applied learning in theprogram.The secondpart of thepaper discusses implications for higher education programs targetingthepreparationofpre-serviceteachersinVictoria.TheauthorsdrawontherecentdevelopmentofaGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)whichseekstoutilizeappliedlearninginhighereducationtopreparepre-serviceteachersforteachingintheVCAL.
AUTHORNOTE:Damian Blake, Ph.D., senior lecturer in applied learning in the School of Education, Deakin University Waurn Ponds Campus, Geelong Victoria Australia; David Gallagher, Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Au-thority (VCAA), East Melbourne Victoria Australia. Correspondence concern-ing this article should be addressed to: Damian Blake, School of Education, Deakin University Waurn Ponds Campus, Geelong Victoria Australia 3217 (email: [email protected]) or David Gallagher, Senior Manager for the Vic-torian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA), 41 St Andrews Place, East Melbourne Victoria Australia 3002 (email: [email protected])
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 51
LInkInGEDuCATIonToThEEConoMy
Since the early 1990s many governments around the world havelinkededucationpolicytoeconomicreform.InAustralia,forexample,some have argued: “Education is increasingly becoming the ‘engineroom’ofmoderneconomies…Amoreeducatedworkerisamorepro-ductiveworker, and investment in educationprovides apoolofmoreskilled labor” (Access Economics, 2005, p. 8). Like other countries,much of the Australian education policy reform agenda has aimed toincreasetheproportionofyoungpeoplewhocompleteatleast12yearsofschooling. Eachyearapproximately80%ofyoungAustralianscompletealevelofeducationandtrainingequivalentto12yearsofschooling(AustralianBureau of Statistics, 2007). Research conducted by the OrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)estimatesthistobelowerthanotherOECDcountries,suchas88%intheUnitedStatesandCanada,91%inGermany,and94%inKorea(OECD,2008).Mod-eling based on Australian rates of participation in education suggeststhatboosting theproportionofyoungpeoplecompletingschooloranapprenticeshipto90%by2010wouldincreaseworkforcenumbersby65,000,boosteconomicproductivity,andexpandtheeconomybymorethanninebillionAustraliandollars(AccessEconomics,2005;AppliedEconomics,2002).ItisthereforenotsurprisingthatlikeotherstatesinAustralia,theVictorianGovernmenthassetthegoalthatby2010itex-pects that 90%of all youngpeoplewill have achievedYear12or itsequivalent(Kirby,2000;Kosky,2002;Lamb&Rice,2008).
ADISCouRSEoFRISkAnD“EARLySChooLLEAVERS”
Adiscourseof“risk”hasnowemergedalongsidetheremaining20%of“earlyschoolleavers”andstudentswhoremaininschoolconsideredtobe“at risk”of leaving.Contributing to thisdiscourseof risk is thebroaderrealizationthatcompleting12yearsofschoolingsignificantlyimproves life transitionsbeyondschooland reducesayoungperson’schancesoffallingintolong-termunemployment(DSF,2006;Lamb&Rice,2008;Woods,2007). Students who do not complete Year 12 or its equivalent are more likely to become unemployed, stay unemployed for longer, have lower earnings, and over the course of their lives, accumulate less wealth, a problem that will only increase with time as employers seek a more highly skilled workforce. The connection is simple –retention, engagement and higher levels of education open up broad- er opportunities that lead to better personal, social and economic outcomes.
(Lamb&Rice,2008,p.2)
52 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
However, thisdiscourseofrisk isnot limitedto thepersonalrisksfacedbyyoungpeoplewhoare“early school leavers”and is also re-flectedinperceivedriskstowidersociety.IntheAustralianstateofNewSouthWales (NSW), for example, theBureauofCrimeStatistics andResearchargues:“Iflongtermunemployedmalesagedbetween15-24,continuedtotheendofseniorhighschoolthereductioninbreak,enterandstealingover thecourseofayearwouldamounttoalmost15percent”(Chapman,Weatherburn,Kapuscinski,Chilvers,&Roussel,2002,p.10). Policyaimedatimprovingparticipationinthesenioryearsofschool-ingthereforeaddressesthesocialrisksassociatedwithpotentialexclu-sionofyoungpeoplefromthe important institutionsofwidersociety,andthepotentialpoliticalriskscreatedbyperceptionsofdisenfranchisedyouth.Thestakesareconsideredtobehighforboth“earlyschoolleav-ers”andtheircommunities,creatinganewmoralimperativeforschoolsto improve further young people’s participation in the senior yearsofschooling.
ADEMAnDFoRnEW“ALTERnATIVES”AnDThEVCAL
IncreasingretentionratesinAustralianschoolssincethe1990s(Aus-tralianBureauofStatistics,2007)havealreadycreatednewchallengesfor schools and teachers as they attempt to accommodate the greaterdiversity of senior students’ pathway interests and adjust to changing“learningtemperaments”intheirclassrooms(Henry&Grundy,2003).Schools and teachers are now being challenged to confront the manyreasonsyoungpeoplegiveforleavingschoolearly,including:alackofperceivedrelevanceofschool;adesire toworkandpursuevocationalpathways; limitedexperiencesofsuccess inacademicprograms;a re-ducedtolerancefortypicalschoolrules;andproblematicrelationshipswithteachers(Blake,2007). Despite the rapid expansion of Vocational Education and Train-ing (VET) options in Australian secondary schools encouraged byAustralia’sMinisterialCouncilonEmployment,Education,TrainingandYouthAffairs(MCEETYA,2004), thereremainsastruggletoachievethe90%target forparticipation.Thecontinuing issue forschoolsandgovernments is that for many students in their senior years, a seniorschool certificate and pedagogical approaches to student learning thatdonotaccommodatethesestudents’broaderinterestsandlearningtem-peramentsmaynotmeet theirneeds.Thesearealso themes thathaveemergedintheGoing for GrowthreportreleasedbytheOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:“Thehighshareofthelowskilledinunemploymentandinactivity,especiallyearlyschoolleavers,suggeststhattheupper-secondaryeducationsystem’semphasisonprep-
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 53
arationforuniversityistoonarrow,hamperinginnovativeactivitiesandproductivitygrowth”(OECD,2007,p.2). These issues were first identified in Victoria in 2000 by theMinisterial Review of Post Compulsory Education and Training Path-ways in Victoria (Kirby, 2000). This review indicated that a broaderrangeofprogramswasrequiredtomeet theneedsof themanyyoungpeoplewhochoosetoleaveschoolearlybecausetheywerediscouragedbythelimitedcurriculumchoicesofferedbytheexistingVictorianCer-tificateofEducation(VCE).Thereportalsoidentifiedtheneedfornewwaysofthinkingaboutseniorschoolpedagogyandthesocialcontextsofschoolingintheseyears.Thereportstatesthat: Thosewhohavedifficultieswithcurrentarrangementswilltypically needdifferentlearningcontexts.(p.10) Thoseyoungpeoplewho leave school before completingYear 11 haveexperienceddifficultiesmoreoftenandhavenotadjustedwell eithertotheVCEortoschoolasasocialsetting.(p.53)
In a context of increasing retention rates,manyyoungpeople feltconstrained by the current education system because their individuallearning,personaldevelopmentandtransitionneedscouldnotbefullymetbythetraditionalapproachestoteachingandlearningintheuppersecondaryyearsofschooling.Asaresult,manydidnotachievetheirbestresultsandothersleftschoolearly,inadequatelypreparedforworkandfuturelearning.
ADEMAnDFoRAPPLIEDLEARnInG
The VCAL was therefore developed in Victoria as a state-widesenior school credential through which participating students re-ceive recognition for their achievements in programs that have tradi-tionally not provided credit within a senior secondary school quali-fication. Applied learning is central to the VCAL and students canachieveformalrecognitionoflearningthatoccursinadiverserangeofnon-traditionallearningsettings,includingstructuredworkplacelearn-ingplacements,part-timework,locallydevelopedprograms,communi-typrojects,andparticipationinyouthdevelopmentprograms.Evidenceofthestrongdemandforsuchanappliedlearningcertificatebeingmadeavailable to senior school students is found in the very rapid growthof theVCALsince its initial trial in2002,as summarized inTable1. ItisalsoworthnotingthattheVCALisdeliveredbyarangeofdif-ferentproviders,including:government,CatholicandIndependentsec-ondary schools; Technical and Further Education (TAFE) Institutions;
54 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
and Adult and Community Education (ACE) organizations. In manycasesastudent’sVCALmaybetheproductofpartnershiparrangementsbetween several of these organizations to allow students to achieve acombinationofschool-basedstudiesandvocationally-basedstudiesand
theeventualcompletionofallfourcurriculumstrandsoftheVCAL.TheoverallcurriculumdesignoftheVCALhasbeensummarizedinFigure1. TheVictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthoritysupportsteach-ers’useofappliedlearningintheVCALbyencouragingthecontext-basedintegrationoftheoryandpracticethrougha“hands-on”andreal-life approach to learningand teaching.Keyprinciples supporting this“appliedlearning”approachinclude:(1)Startwherethelearnersare;(2)Negotiatethecurriculum.Engageinadialoguewiththelearnersabouttheir curriculum; (3) Share the knowledge. Recognize the knowledgelearnersbringtotheirlearningenvironment;(4)Connectwithcommuni-tiesandreal-lifeexperiences;(5)Buildresilience,self-confidence,self-worth–consider thewholeperson;(6)Integrate learning– thewholetaskandthewholeperson(inlifeweusearangeofskillsandknowl-edge.Learningshouldreflecttheintegrationthatoccursinreal-life);(7)Promotediversityoflearningstylesandmethods(everyonelearnsdif-ferently-acceptthatdifferentlearningstylesrequiredifferentlearning/teachingmethods,butvalueexperiential,practicaland“hands-on”waysoflearning);and(8)Assessappropriately.Usetheassessmentmethodthatbest“fits”thelearningcontentandcontext(VictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority,2006).APPLIEDLEARnInGFoRRE-EnGAGEMEnT Longitudinal research investigating the post-school destina-tions of young Victorians notes that “some 87.8 percent of VCAL
Table 1: Growth in VCAL since 2002 (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority,
2009)
Year Enrollment Number of Providers
2002 546 22 Pilots
2003 5,127 239
2004 8,125 322
2005 10,692 380
2006 12,326 401
2007 14,093 418
2008 15,641 423
Table1:GrowthinVCALsince2002(VictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority,2009)
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 55
students agreed or strongly agreed that the opportunity to enroll inVCAL was an important factor in their staying at school” (Teese,Clarke, & Polesel, 2007, p. 7). Students expressed a deep apprecia-tion for theexperientialnatureof theVCALwhenasked to rateonafive-pointscalewhattheylikedmostabouttheprogram(seeTable2). ManyofthestudentsundertakingtheVCALhaveexperiencedsomelevelofdisengagementfromschoolingandmayhavebeenconsideredatriskofleavingschoolearly.AppliedlearningintheVCALhasthereforebecomeaverysignificantfactor inre-engagingtheseyoungpeople inschoolingthroughitsemphasisonahands-onapproachtolearningand
Figure 1: VCAL Design
VCAL Program Design
The Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning is accredited at three levels: Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning – Foundation Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning – Intermediate Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning - Senior
VCAL learning programs are comprised of four curriculum strands and teachers are encouraged
to work with students to organize applied learning initiatives that will integrate across these
strands. The four strands are:
• Literacy and Numeracy Skills
• Work Related Skills
• Industry Specific Skills
• Personal Development Skills.
Literacy and Numeracy Skills (LN) Strand: Purpose Statement
The purpose of literacy curriculum selected for this strand is to enable the development of skills,
knowledge and attitudes in literacy that allow progression in the main social contexts of family,
employment, further learning and citizenship.
The purpose of the numeracy curriculum is the ability to use mathematical skills in order to carry
out purposes and functions within society related to designing, measuring, constructing, using
graphical information, money, time and travel, and the underpinning skills and knowledge for
further study in mathematics or related fields.
Work Related Skills (WRS) Strand: Purpose Statement
The purpose of the Work Related Skills strand is to develop employability skills and knowledge
and attitudes valued within the community and work environments as a preparation for
employment.
Industry Specific Skills (ISS) Strand: Purpose Statement
The purpose of the Industry Specific Skills strand is to enable the development of skills,
knowledge and attitudes related to one or more vocational contexts in preparation for
progression to further learning or employment.
Personal Development Skills (PDS) Strand: Purpose Statement
The purpose of the Personal Development Skills strand is to develop skills, knowledge and
attitudes that lead toward:
• social responsibility
• building community
• civic responsibility, for example through volunteering and working for the benefit of others
• improved self-confidence and self-esteem
• valuing civic participation in a democratic society.
Figure1:VCALDesign
56 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
aconceptionofeducationthatgoesbeyondthemoretraditionalschoolclassroom.Theextent towhich this is thecase isalsoreflected in thesteadily increasing percentages of eligible students who successfullycompletedaVCALcertificatesince2004(seeTable3). Finally, current national data indicate steady improvement in theYear12(orequivalent)completionrates,withanincreasefrom81.8%in2000to88.7%in2008(inVictoria).ThesefigureshavebeensourcedfromtheAustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS,2009)andsummarizedinTable4.Australia’saveragecompletionrateforallstatesis84.2%(seeTable5).Victoriaisthereforemakingprogresstowardsthe90%target,andtheVCALhasbecomeasignificantstrategyforachievingthisgoal,alongwitharangeofrecentlyannouncedreformsthatnowguaranteeatrainingplaceforall15to19yearoldsand20to24yearoldswhoareup-skilling.
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 26
Table 3: Completion rates by gender for VCAL units and completion rates for students
eligible to receive a VCAL certificate
Year Satisfactory
completion of
VCAL units (males)
Satisfactory
completion of
VCAL units
(females)
Total satisfactory
completion of
VCAL units
(males and
females)
Percentages of eligible
students who completed a
VCAL certificate at any
level
2004 No data available No data available 70.5% 58.7%
2005 73.7% 72.2% 73.1% 63.8%
2006 81.0% 79.7% 80.6% 68.7%
2007 79.2% 77.7% 78.7% 69.4%
2008 78.4% 78.5% 78.4% 70.0%
Table3:CompletionratesbygenderforVCALunitsandcompletionratesforstudentseligibletoreceiveaVCALcertificate
Table 2: Students’ rating of different aspects of the VCAL program
Agree In relation to your VCAL program, which aspects
of your study did you like the most?
(N= 1907) % Strongly agree % Agree % Total agree
Workplace experience 48.0 43.9 91.8
The opportunity to do Vocational Education and
Training (VET) subjects 35.4 52.4 87.8
The hands-on approach to learning 56.8 39.4 96.2
The opportunity to complete your studies at your own
pace 46.7 47.1 93.8
Table2:Students’ratingofdifferentaspectsoftheVCALprogram
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 57
InTERnATIonALGRoWThInSChooL-BASEDAPPLIEDLEARnInG
The significant potential for applied learning to underpin a seniorhighschoolqualificationhasalsobeenrecognizedinothercountries,in-cludingtheUnitedKingdom,wherethenewappliedlearning“Diploma”qualificationwasrecentlyintroducedinschools(QualificationsandCur-riculumDevelopmentAgency,2009).Thisqualificationalsotargets14to19yearoldstudentsand,liketheVCAL,itrepresentsanewvisioninseniorsecondaryschoolingthatadoptsappliedlearningasthecorner-stoneofitspedagogicalfoundations.
Motivationandachievementareincreasedwhentaskshavepurposesthat are relevant to the individual and ‘real-world’ contexts, includ-ingtheworkplace,andwhenlearnersareactivelyinvolved,andsup-ported,inshapingtheirlearningexperience…ThecollaborativenatureofDiplomadeliveryisintendedtosecureacoherentexperienceforthelearnerthatspansschool,college,communityandworkplaceenviron-ments.Theemphasisisnotonlyonthedevelopmentofknowledge,butontheabilitytoapplythatknowledgepurposefullytovariouscontextsrelatedtoreal-worldsituationssuchasworkplaces.Byparticipatingina‘communityofpractice’associatedwithaparticularsectororsub-ject,learnersgainexperiencesofdifferentactivitiesandgroups,anddeveloptheattitudes,aswellasknowledgeandskills,whichareapre-conditionforprogression.(QualificationsandCurriculumAuthority,2008,pp.2-4)
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 27
Table 4: Percentage of persons aged 20-24 who have completed Year 12 or equivalent in
Victoria, Australia
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Percentage
of persons
aged 20-24
who have
completed
Year 12 or
equivalent
81.8% 82.1% 82.8% 84.9% 84.7% 83.9% 85.5% 86.1% 88.7%
Table4:Percentageofpersonsaged20-24whohavecompletedyear12orequivalentinVictoria,Australia
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 28
Table 5: Percentage of persons aged 20-24 who have completed Year 12 or equivalent in
2008 for all states and territories of Australia
State/Territ
ory
New
South
Wales
Victoria Queenslan
d
South
Australia
Western
Australia
Tasmania Northern
Territory
Australian
Capital
Territory
Australia
(average)
Percentage
of persons
aged 20-24
who have
completed
Year 12 or
equivalent
for 2008
83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 28
Table 5: Percentage of persons aged 20-24 who have completed Year 12 or equivalent in
2008 for all states and territories of Australia
State/Territ
ory
New
South
Wales
Victoria Queenslan
d
South
Australia
Western
Australia
Tasmania Northern
Territory
Australian
Capital
Territory
Australia
(average)
Percentage
of persons
aged 20-24
who have
completed
Year 12 or
equivalent
for 2008
83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%
Table5:Percentageofpersonsaged20-24whohavecompletedyear12orequivalentin2008forallstatesandterritoriesofAustralia
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 28
Table 5: Percentage of persons aged 20-24 who have completed Year 12 or equivalent in
2008 for all states and territories of Australia
State/Territ
ory
New
South
Wales
Victoria Queenslan
d
South
Australia
Western
Australia
Tasmania Northern
Territory
Australian
Capital
Territory
Australia
(average)
Percentage
of persons
aged 20-24
who have
completed
Year 12 or
equivalent
for 2008
83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 28
Table 5: Percentage of persons aged 20-24 who have completed Year 12 or equivalent in
2008 for all states and territories of Australia
State/Territ
ory
New
South
Wales
Victoria Queenslan
d
South
Australia
Western
Australia
Tasmania Northern
Territory
Australian
Capital
Territory
Australia
(average)
Percentage
of persons
aged 20-24
who have
completed
Year 12 or
equivalent
for 2008
83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 28
Table 5: Percentage of persons aged 20-24 who have completed Year 12 or equivalent in
2008 for all states and territories of Australia
State/Territ
ory
New
South
Wales
Victoria Queenslan
d
South
Australia
Western
Australia
Tasmania Northern
Territory
Australian
Capital
Territory
Australia
(average)
Percentage
of persons
aged 20-24
who have
completed
Year 12 or
equivalent
for 2008
83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 28
Table 5: Percentage of persons aged 20-24 who have completed Year 12 or equivalent in
2008 for all states and territories of Australia
State/Territ
ory
New
South
Wales
Victoria Queenslan
d
South
Australia
Western
Australia
Tasmania Northern
Territory
Australian
Capital
Territory
Australia
(average)
Percentage
of persons
aged 20-24
who have
completed
Year 12 or
equivalent
for 2008
83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 28
Table 5: Percentage of persons aged 20-24 who have completed Year 12 or equivalent in
2008 for all states and territories of Australia
State/Territ
ory
New
South
Wales
Victoria Queenslan
d
South
Australia
Western
Australia
Tasmania Northern
Territory
Australian
Capital
Territory
Australia
(average)
Percentage
of persons
aged 20-24
who have
completed
Year 12 or
equivalent
for 2008
83.4% 88.7% 84.3% 82.1% 80.0% 72.0% 64.9% 90.4% 84.2%
58 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
ThegrowinginternationalinterestinappliedlearningprogramsforseniorhighschoolstudentsalsoextendstoChinaandothercountriesintheMiddleEastandSoutheastAsia.IntheUnitedArabEmirates(UAE),forexample,anappliedlearningprogrambasedontheVCALhasbeenintroducedforseniorhighschoolstudentsasastrategytoimprovestu-dents’engagementinlearningandtoaddressidentifiedskillshortagesanticipatedinthatregionoftheworld.Itisapparentthatappliedlearningisincreasinglyvaluedinhighschoolsforitsintrinsiccapacitytoengageyoungpeople in authentic learning andmeaningful social integration,whilealsocontributingtoanation’seconomicgrowth.
CASEExAMPLESoFAPPLIEDLEARnInGInThEVCAL
ThefollowingcasesprovideexamplesofspecificVCALprogramsthathavebeenundertakenbystudentsinVictoriansecondaryschools.Thecaseshavebeenselectedbecause theydemonstrate theuseofef-fectiveappliedlearningprojectswhichhavebeenusedbystudentsandteachers to complete the requirements of the different strands of theVCAL.Theyalsodemonstratehowfarappliedlearningextendsacrossarangeoflearningcontextsinthecommunity. AppliedlearningintheVCALsharesmanyofthepedagogicaltra-ditionsofexperientiallearning(Beard&Wilson,2006;Dewey,1938;Kolb,1984;Luckner&Nadler, 1997)whichhavebeenblendedwiththe principles of adult learning (Knowles, 1990; Mezirow, 1991) andadaptedforsecondaryschoolcontexts.Theappliedlearningthatisfun-damentaltotheVCALprogramoftenrequiresstudentstoassembletheirVCALfromavarietyof“hands-on”learningexperiencesderivedfromadiverserangeofeducationalsettingsandcommunitycontexts.Tocom-pleteappliedlearningprojectsVCALstudentsoftencrossorganization-alboundaries thathave remainedhistoricallydifficult tobridge in thecommunity.Theseboundariesincludethetraditionaldivisionsbetweenschoolsasyouth-basedlearninginstitutions,adultandvocationaleduca-tioninstitutions,workplaces,andcommunityorganizations. InthecaseofJohn,forexample,oneofhisappliedlearningprojectsinvolvedthedevelopmentofaFire-Wisetrailertoeducatethelocalcom-munityabouttherisksofwildfire.BushfireisaverysignificantissueformanyAustraliancommunitiesthreatenedbyfireeverysummer.Thisverymeaningfulaspectofhisappliedlearningwasreflectedinhismoti-vationtoundertaketheproject.John’sappliedlearningprojectrequiredhim to complete traditionally adult-based Certificate II and III cours-esrelatedtofirefighting,aswellasworkingcloselywithhisteachersfromhisschool,thelocalCountryFireAuthority(CFA)andthewidercommunity.
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 59
John’sappliedlearningprojectthereforerequiredhimtoworkacrossthe traditional boundaries between secondary schools, adult learningenvironments,communityserviceorganizations(CFA)andworkplaces.John’s experience of applied learning involved his personalized inte-gration of service-learning, work-based learning, and more traditionalschool-based learning as well. The flexible framework for the VCALallowedJohntoactivelyconstructanddemonstratehisknowledgeandskillsrelatedtoeachofthedifferentstrandsbyusinghisappliedlearningproject.ThetransferablenatureofhisacquiredknowledgeandskillswasalsodemonstratedbyJohn’sabilitytoworkcompetentlyineachofthedifferentcontextsthatwereusedtoassemblehisappliedlearningproj-ect.TheknowledgeandskillsthatemergedfromJohn’sappliedlearningprojectweretrulymultidisciplinaryandhadaveryclearconnectiontohisrealworld. ThecaseoftheRiver-ConnectprojectalsodemonstratestheuniquenatureofappliedlearningintheVCAL.LikeJohn,the26studentsfrom
Figure2:VCALCase1,JohnandCountryFireAuthority
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 9
Figure 2: VCAL Case 1, John and Country Fire Authority
“John” is 16 years old and is studying to complete his VCAL in a small town in regional Victoria. In
addition to his study he is a volunteer fire fighter in his local community with the Victorian Country
Fire Authority (CFA). To complete his VCAL John is blending study at school with the applied
learning included in his accredited wild-fire training offered by the CFA, and his work in the local
community advising residents how to protect their home from a fire.
His involvement in protecting the local community from bush fires not only makes a valuable
contribution to the community but also allows him to complete his VCAL by drawing on meaningful
applied learning activities linked to Australia’s National Training Packages. Examples of applied
learning activities that John undertakes to assemble his VCAL from the different strands include:
Certificate II in Fire-fighter Operations; Certificate II/III in Public Safety (Fire-fighting Operations);
Certificates for Occupational Health and Safety; Level II First Aid Training; organizing media
coverage and public presentations to the community; initiating, planning and implementing
fundraising activities for a ‘”Fire-Wise” trailer to be used to educate the local community about
managing the risks of bush fire.
The combination of these applied learning activities allows John to complete key elements of his
VCAL strands. Much of his learning undertaken for the normally adult-based Certificate II and III
courses allow John to meet the Industry Specific Skills and Work Related Skills strands, while his
community service role contributing to the education of the local community about bush fire
contributes to his Personal Development Skills and Literacy and Numeracy Skills strands.
Industry Specific Skills
Strand
Work Related Skills
Strand
Literacy and
Numeracy Skills
Strand
Personal
Development Skills
Strand
Adult-based certificate
courses in fire-fighting
Work-based learning
in fire-fighting with the
CFA
Authentic publications
developed for media
and local community
presentations
Plan and conduct
fund-raising activities
for the development of
‘Fire-Wise’ Trailer to
be used to education
the local community
about bush fire.
60 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
NotreDameCollegewhoparticipatedintheRiver-Connectprojectwererequired toassemble theirapplied learningbydrawingonameaning-fulprojectandarangeofrichlearningcontextsthatarerarelybroughttogetherforsecondaryschoolstudents.AppliedlearningfortheRiver-Connect project involved students crossing the organizational bound-ariesbetween theirschool, localgovernment,environmentalagencies,andthewidercommunity.Intheprocessstudentsblendedtheirschoollearningwithservice-learning,adultlearningandwork-basedlearning.Thestudents’ service-learningcontributed tomeetingallof the learn-ingoutcomesforthePersonalDevelopmentSkills(PDS)strandoftheVCAL,whichwasultimatelyassessedthroughthestudents’demonstra-
Figure3:VCALCase2,notreDameCollegeandtheRiver-ConnectProject
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 10
Figure 3: VCAL Case 2, Notre Dame College and the River-Connect Project
Notre Dame College, a Catholic secondary school in regional Victoria combined with the Goulburn
Broken Catchment Management Authority, The Greater Shepparton City Council, Department of
Primary Industries, Parks Victoria, Goulburn Murray Landcare Network, and Goulburn Valley
Water to undertake an innovative conservation program known as the River-Connect project.
The River-Connect project was part of a larger plan, developed by these local government and
community agencies, to revitalize Reedy Swamp on the Goulburn River in the heart of the City of
Shepparton. Twenty-six VCAL students and two teachers worked closely with the local
government and community agencies involved in the project to develop an innovative VCAL
Personal Development Skills unit. The project enabled the objectives of the River-Connect project
and the outcomes for the VCAL students to be simultaneously met.
The VCAL students worked closely with the government and community agencies to undertake
systematic audits and surveys at Reedy Swamp. These were done using GPS technology and
were used to assess the infestation of noxious weeds such as arrowhead and willows, the growth
of red gum seedlings in the swamp and the giant rush that is used by water birds for breeding.
The students were also involved in rubbish clean ups, poisoning willows and the planting of native
trees in culturally significant areas of the sand dunes at Reedy Swamp.
This program won a 2007 VCAL Achievement Award in the category of VCAL Partnerships. The
school was also invited to present at the 9th International Partnership Conference: Interpreting the
Present to Influence the Future in Helsinki, Finland. The VCAL program, involving the seven
partners, received an honorable mention in the Global Awards presented at the conference.
Industry Specific Skills Strand
Work Related Skills Strand
Literacy and Numeracy Skill Strand
Personal Development Skills Strand
Adult-based VET certificate courses in volunteering and conservation and land management
Work-based learning in conservation activities (e.g., tree planting, removal of noxious weeds)
Researching and writing about the impact of noxious weeds in Australia (literacy)
Presentation to community groups on activities to restore Reedy Swamp (literacy)
Mapping of the distribution of noxious weeds in Reedy Swamp (numeracy)
Restoration of Reedy Swamp utilizing community engagement and community service
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 61
Suchknowledgeandskillsarebestacquiredanddemonstratedinthecontextoftheirapplicationandlesslikelytobemeasuredinanabstractsetting.Thestudents’processoflearningsuchknowledgeandskillsin-volvesworkingwithpeoplewhosecorebusiness isnot educationbutwhostillhaveasignificantinvestmentinlearning.SuchpeopleincludetheteamsoffirefighterswhoworkedwithJohn,andwhosecommunityofmindsandbodies represent the“library”ofknowledgeandskill tobelearnedbyhim.InthissettingVCALstudentsarelikelytodiscern
tionoftheminanauthenticcontext.TheblendingofthedifferenttypesormodesoflearningintheVCALcanberepresentedbyFigure4below. AkeyfeatureoftheappliedlearningessentialtotheVCAListheuseof“real-world”projectsthatallowstudentstobecomeactivelyinvolvedinconstructingnewknowledgeandskillswhicharegivenmeaningandpurposebythecontextof theirapplication.Thisprocessusuallytakesthe studentsbeyond the schoolgates and, asdemonstrated in the twocasestudies,appliedlearningprojectsintheVCALrequirestudentstocrossinstitutionalboundariesandtopersonallyassembletheirlearningfromarangeofdifferentlearningcontexts.Thisfeatureofappliedlearn-ingintheVCALmeansthatstudentsarealsolikelytobeconfrontedbythedifferingassumptionsaboutlearningthatareheldineachofthesesettings. Inworkplaces, forexample, thestudentsare likely toexperi-encevaluebeingplacedonpracticalformsofknowledgeandskillsthathaveveryspecificcontextsofapplication.Fire-fightingandimprovingtheenvironmentalmanagementofthelocalswampareexamplesofsuchcontextsfromthecasestudiesabove.
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 34
Figure 4: Blended Nature of Applied Learning in the VCAL
Figure4:BlendednatureofAppliedLearningintheVCAL
62 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
thatthe“best”formsoflearningarehighlysituatedandthat“valuable”knowledgeoftenresidesinteamsorcommunitiesofpeople.Assessmentoftheknowledgeandskillacquiredbythestudentsisthereforeassoci-atedwiththestudents’contributiontothecommunityandevidenceofitsimpactonthecommunity. Students are likely to experience different messages about whattypesofknowledgeandskillsare“mostvaluable”insecondaryschoolsettings (Blake, 2007). In this highly controlled educational contextgreateremphasisisplacedonknowledgeandskillsthataregeneraliz-able,canbeabstractedfromthecontextsofapplication,andthentaughtandmeasuredinaclassroomsituation.Suchknowledgeisalsolikelytobelocatedinbooksorthemindsofeducationalexperts.Theprocessoflearninginatraditionalsecondaryschoolsettingandassociatedwiththecompletionofamoreconventionalseniorschoolcertificate,maythere-foretypicallyberepresentedbythetransmissionofabstractinformationfromthemindsandbooksofteachersintothemindsofstudents.Inthissituationstudentsarelikelytoexperience“valued”learningasbeingtheacquisitionandstorageofgeneralizableformsofknowledgeintheirin-dividualminds.Assessmentisusuallyfocusedonthestudent’scapacitytoreproducetheknowledgeunderexamconditions.ThereisclearlythepotentialforVCALstudentstoreceiveconflictingmessagesaboutlearn-ingandvaluableformsofknowledgeastheymovebetweenthedifferentlearningcontextsfortheVCAL.
IMPLICATIonSFoREDuCATInGTEAChERSInhIGhEREDuCATIon
TheappliedlearningprocessintheVCALrequiresofteachersnewtypes of knowledge and skills that are responsive to the process bywhichtheirstudentscrossboundariestoassembletheirdifferentmodesoflearning.Suchpedagogicalknowledgeandskillsexistinadditiontoteachers’ knowledge of their subject disciplines and share similaritieswitheffectiveprojectmanagement,including:(1)anabilitytoidentifyandlinkcurrentcommunityissuesthatarelikelytobehighlyrelevantto senior secondary school students anduseful sourcesofmeaningfulappliedlearningprojects;(2)anabilitytodevelopandsustaincreativepartnershipsbetweenschoolsandotherorganizationsinthewidercom-munitywhoalsohaveaninterestinlearning(suchorganizationsincludeadultlearninginstitutions,workplaces,andcommunityserviceorganiza-tions);(3)abroadconceptionoflearninganddeepappreciationofthedifferenttypesoflearningthatstudentsarelikelytoencounterastheybecome actively involved in their applied learning projects and crossinstitutionalboundaries in the community; (4) an ability to assist stu-dentsastheysynchronizeandassembletheirownpersonalizedexperi-
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 63
encesofmulti-disciplinarylearningfromeachofthedifferentsettingsinvolvedinanappliedlearningproject;(5)anabilitytoassessstudents’knowledge,skillsandcompetenciesrelatedtoappliedlearningandassiststudents’continualdevelopmentinthisregard;(6)acapacitytosynchro-nizestudents’assessmentinappliedlearningprojectsbyaccessingandevaluatinginformationaboutthestudents’contributionstothelearningcontextsandcommunitiesbeyondschool;and(7)anabilitytobuildef-fectiverelationshipswithseniorschoolstudentsthatreflecttheprinci-plesofadultlearningandtheirstatusasyoungadultswhilemaintainingtheappropriate“dutyofcare”expectedofaschoolteacher. Ultimately VCAL teachers are required to overcome many of thedichotomousdivisions thathavetendedtodominateeducationinstitu-tions,resultinginthetransmissiveapproachesthatareoftenassociatedwithseniorschoolingandthemanyreasonsstudentsgiveforwantingto leave school early. Applied learning projects in the VCAL requireteacherstovaluelearningthatencouragesgreaterlinksbetween:“learn-ingwithhandsandlearningwiththemind”;learningasindividualsandlearningasteamsandcommunities;propositionalknowledgethatcanbelearnedfrombooksandtacitknowledgethatisacquiredthroughsituated“hands-on”experiences.
ThEGRADuATEDIPLoMAoFEDuCATIon(APPLIEDLEARnInG)
In 2005 Deakin University established the Graduate Diploma ofEducation(AppliedLearning)inresponsetotherapidlyincreasingde-mandforpedagogicalknowledgeandskillsrequiredtosupporttheexpan-sionofappliedlearninginsecondaryschools.Themostimmediatechal-lengeforthecoursedeveloperswastheuseofappliedlearninginhighereducationtoprepareteachersforappliedlearninginsecondaryschools.Theimmediateriskforcoursedeveloperswasthatfiscalconstraintsinhighereducationwouldtypicallypressuredeliveryofacourseonappliedlearningintotheseeminglycosteffectiveuseofweeklylecturesandtu-torials.Thismodeofdeliverywouldhavebeenepistemologicallyincon-sistentwiththeappliedlearningcontentofthecourse,whichcannotallbereduced to a series of lectures. The course developers were, in fact,facing many of the same pedagogical challenges being faced byVCALteachers. The course team developed a very strong relationship with theGeelong region’s Local Learning and Employment Network (LLEN),anorganizationfundedbytheVictorianStategovernmenttobuildef-fectivelocalcommunitypartnershipsdesignedtobetterunderstandandimprovepathwaysandtransitionsforyoungpeopleintheregion.Thereisadiverse rangeofcommunitypartners includedasmembersof the
64 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 6
Table 6: Learning and Employment Organizations
Learning and Employment
Organizations
Potential contribution for applied learning in
teacher education
Secondary Schools
(Government, Catholic, and Independent)
Technical and Further Education Institutions (TAFE)
Adult and Community Education (ACE) organizations
Contexts for the Graduate Diploma of Education
(Applied Learning) teacher-education students to
complete their own work-based learning and service-
learning to better understand the current contexts in
which young people are learning.
Source of different communities of professional
practice to facilitate grounded development of
students’ understanding about young people and
applied learning in different “formal” learning
contexts.
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority
Department of Education, Employment and Early
Childhood (DEECD)
Important source of knowledge and information about
current developments in applied learning in schools
and other youth education settings.
Local government and community organizations
Provide important contexts for teacher education
students to become involved in local community
issues relevant to young people and to complete
service-learning oriented towards youth engagement in
learning.
Employers and industry reference groups
A context for teacher education students to better
understand work-based learning in workplace settings,
and consequently the significance of work-based
learning for students in the VCAL.
Table6:LearningandEmploymentorganizations
regionalLLEN(seeTable6),meaningthatthecourseteamhadaccesstomanyorganizationswithinthecommunitythatwouldallowthedevelop-mentofsubstantialcomponentsofwork-basedandservice-learninginthecourse.MuchofthecoursedevelopmentoccurredfromconsultationbetweentheDeakinUniversityteamandmembersoftheLLEN,result-inginaprogramthatcouldbegroundedinmanyoftheimportantlocalissuesaffectingyoungpeople. The team decided that a “mixed-mode” approach to the coursewouldbethebeststrategytobalancetheneedforface-to-facelecturesand workshops with the applied learning dimensions of the GraduateDiploma of Education (Applied Learning). Mixed-mode is also de-scribedasaformof“blendedlearning”(Hicks,Reid,&George,2001)thatutilizesface-to-faceteachingwithothermodesoflearning,typicallyincludingon-linelearningtechnologies.TheGraduateDiplomaofEdu-cation(AppliedLearning)wasdevelopedusingfourdifferentmodesoflearningthatwouldprovidethehighereducationstudentswithacombi-nationoflearningexperiencesandcontextsthatwouldalsodemonstratecongruencewithappliedlearningintheVCAL.Thefourdifferentmodesoflearningare:intensiveface-to-faceworkshopsdeliveredattheuniver-sity and in school/industry-based contexts; on-line learning (off-cam-pus);work-basedlearningundertakeninschools,TAFEsorACE;andservice-learningcontributingvaluetocommunity-basedinitiativesthatare oriented towards improving youth engagement in education andtraining(seeTable7).
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 65
EachofthefiveintensiveteachingblocksintheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)runsfor twoweeksdurationandoc-curas:SummerSchool;AutumnSchool;WinterSchool;SpringSchool;andafinaloneweekblockundertakeninNovember.Thework-basedlearningmodeintheprogramiscompletedasblocksofprofessionalex-perienceplacementsundertakeninschools,TAFEs,orACEsettingsandduringtheperiodsbetweentheintensives,providingatotalof45days
Table7:SummaryofMixed-ModeLearningintheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)
Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning 30
Table 7: Summary of Mixed-Mode Learning in the Graduate Diploma of Education (Applied
Learning)
Mode of
Learning
Graduate Diploma of Education (Applied Learning)
Face-to-face Five intensive on-campus teaching blocks conducted for two weeks at a time in February
(Summer School), April (Autumn School), July (Winter School), September (Spring
School) and November (Final block).
On-line Students participate in on-line study using ‘Blackboard’ while they are “off-campus” in
between study blocks and during their work-based learning placements
Work-based
Learning
Students complete 45 days of work-based learning under the supervision of a suitably
qualified mentor in secondary schools, TAFE institutions, and ACE settings.
Service-learning Students undertake 15 days of negotiated service-learning requiring them to add value to
their service-learning context. These days can be completed as small blocks of three and
four days at a time or as a commitment to one more significant community
initiative/project, depending on the nature of the activity.
professionalexperiencefortheyear.The15daysofservice-learningcanbecompletedbystudentsatanytimethroughoutthecourse,withmanystudentselectingtocompletemostoftheirservice-learningbysupport-ing initiatives andprograms in the local community thatbenefit fromtheirprior industryknowledgeandskills.Finally, theon-line learningelementscommence immediatelyafter thefirst intensive iscompletedin February and continue to be undertaken by students in the periodsbetween the intensive face-to-face study blocks. The on-line mode ofdeliveryallowsthestudentstocontinuetodrawfromandcontributetothecourse’scommunityoflearnersduringtheperiodsoff-campus. ThesequenceoftheeightcurriculumunitsfortheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)isintendedtocatertostudents’devel-opingknowledgeandskillsastheyprogressthroughthecourse,aswellastosynchronizetheirneedtolearnnewcontentthatwillbothsupportandutilizetheirwork-basedandservice-learningprojects.Thestudentsareencouragedtobecomeactively involvedinauthenticschool-basedappliedlearningprojectsaskeydimensionsoftheirwork-basedlearn-ingandservice-learning.Althougheachoftheeightunitshasitsowndiscretestudydesignand“learningfolder”ontheDeakinStudiesOn-line(DSO)Blackboardweb-site,thecourseteamdeliberatelyattemptsto integrate the content and assessment of units as much as possible,particularlyduringtheface-to-faceteachingsessions.Theintendedaimof thisstrategy is toemphasize thestudents’wholecourseexperience
66 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
andtoavoidtheperceptionthatanyofthecourseunitsareoverlydis-creteandunrelatedtotheothers. In2008apilotstudy(Blake&Nolan,2008)wasconductedtoin-vestigate thehigher education students’ response toblending the fourdifferentmodesoflearningbeingusedintheGraduateDiplomaofEdu-cation(AppliedLearning)andtheBachelorofEarlyChildhoodEduca-tionofferedatDeakinUniversity.Inparticular,significantnumbersofthe41studentswhoparticipatedintheresearcheitheragreedorstronglyagreed(78%) thatusing themixed-mode learningallowsgreaterbal-ance between learning theory and practice. Additionally, a significantproportionof thestudentseitheragreedorstronglyagreed(81%) thattheknowledgeandskillstheylearnedthroughmixed-modedeliverywaseasilytransferablebetweenthedifferentmodes.ConTInuInGChALLEnGESFoRThEVCALAnDPREPARATIonoF“nEW”TEAChERS ManyofthechallengesfacingtheVCALreflectchallengesassoci-atedwithitsrapidgrowthandsuccessoverthelasteightyears.ThesechallengesalsoaffectthedeliveryoftheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning)andinclude:
• Thechallengetobroadenmanysecondaryteachers’conceptionoflearningandhowlearningcanbeassessed.Inparticular,theneedtocorrect theviewheld insomesecondaryschools thatappliedandvocationallearningisa“secondclass”wayoflearningonlyofferedto“at-risk”studentsasaformof“therapy.”Thisviewisinconsistentwiththeuseofappliedlearninginhighereducation,whereitismorelikelytobevaluedasbestpractice(Wolff&Tin-ney,2006)andastrategy to improvegraduationrates.The“ap-plied-learning-as-therapy” view held by some secondary schoolteachersfailstorecognizehowmoretransmissiveapproachestoteachingcontributetomanyyoungpeople’searlydeparturefromschool(Blake,2004,2006).
• ThechallengetomeetthegrowingdemandforappliedlearningteachersinresponsetotheincreasingdemandfortheVCALtobedeliveredinthediverserangeofyouthlearninglocations,includ-ingsecondaryschools,TAFEs,andACEorganizations.Simulta-neously,thedemandfortheseteachersisreflectedintheneedforexperiencedteacherswhocanaddvaluetothework-basedlearn-ingandservice-learningarrangementsrequiredbythepre-serviceteachersintheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning).
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 67
• Thechallengetobecreativeinthesynchronizationofthediffer-entmodesofappliedlearningessentialtoboththeVCALandtheGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearning).Thisincludesusinghighlyeffectiveappliedlearningprojectsthatwillencour-age the contextualized development of transferable knowledgeandskills.
• Thechallengetoequipteacherswiththecapacitytofacilitatehigh-valueappliedlearningpartnershipsbetweenschools,universities,VETproviders,employers,andmembersofthewidercommunity.
• ThechallengefortheVCALtoberesponsivetotherapidlycon-tractingyouthemploymentmarketcreatedbythecurrenteconom-icclimate,andtheneedtodiversifypost-schoolstudyoptionsforVCALgraduates.ThisalsoincludesrecognizingthepotentialfortheVCALtobeapathwayofchoiceforstudentsaffectedbysocialdisadvantageaswellasstudentswhosimplypreferappliedlearning.
ConCLuSIon
The Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning was created inVictoria,Australiaasaresponsetoincreasingparticipationratesinse-nior secondary schooling throughout the 1990s and early 2000s. Theprogram isofferedasa“hands-on”alternative to themore traditionalVictorian Certificate of Education and has enjoyed strong enrollmentgrowthsinceits introductionin2002.It isnowunderstoodtoplayanimportant role in theachievementofyoutheducationpolicy targeting90%completionofYear12oritsequivalent.TheVCALhasemergedinapolicycontextlinkingeducationtoeconomicgrowthandagrowingawarenessofthepersonal,social,andeconomicriskscreatedbyyoungpeopleleavingschoolearly. Applied learning in the VCAL utilizes community-oriented proj-ects to achieve a unique blend of work-based learning, service-learn-ing,school-basedlearning,andadultlearning.Studentsareencouragedto use their “hands-on”projects to personally assemble their learningacrossadiverserangeofauthenticlearningcontexts.Thisrepresentsasignificantshift in thinkingforsecondaryschools,where transmissiveapproaches to teachinghave tended todominate the senior secondarycurriculumsincetheearlieryearsoflowerYear12completionrates. TheVCALhasalsocreatedtheneedtore-thinkhowappliedlearningcanbeusedinhighereducationtobetterpreparepre-serviceteachers.Thisarticlehasprofiled themixed-modeapproachoffered tostudentsinDeakinUniversity’sGraduateDiplomaofEducation(AppliedLearn-ing).Thismodelalsoemphasizes theuseofapplied learningprojects
68 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
andattempts toachievebestpracticebyblending theuseof intensiveface-to-faceworkshopswithelementsofwork-basedlearning,service-learning,andon-linelearningundertakenwhenstudentsareoff-campus.
GLoSSARyAdultandCommunityEducation(ACE):Acommunitybasedorga-nizationthatmaybearegisteredtrainingorganizationand/oranautho-rizedVCEorVCALprovider.Department of Education Employment and Early Childhood(DEECD):AVictorianGovernmentdepartmentresponsibleforlearn-ing,development,healthandwell-beingof allyoungVictorians frombirthtoadulthood.Local Learning and Employment networks (LLEn): CommunitynetworksestablishedacrossVictoriatosupportyoungpeople’sconnec-tions with local education and training organizations, employers, andcommunitygroups.Middleyearsofschooling:Studentswhoareinthefifthtoninthyearofschooling.nationalTrainingPackages:Nationaltrainingpackagesarethefoun-dationofAustralia’snational training system.Theyareflexible train-ingproductsdesignedanddevelopedbyAustralianindustrytosupporttraining pathways in current and emerging vocational skill needs. Alltrainingpackagesincorporatenationalunitsofcompetency,assessmentguidelines,andnationalqualifications.Post-compulsoryyearsofschooling:Schoolingthatiscompletedafterstudentshavereachedtheminimumschoolleavingage.Thisageistypi-cally16to17inAustralianstates.Secondaryschools:SchoolsthatprovideeducationfromYear7toYear12.Secondaryschoolsarealsofrequentlyreferredtoashighschoolsorsecondarycolleges.Seniorschoolstudents:Studentswhoarecompletingthelasttwoyearsoftheirsecondaryschooling.ThesesenioryearsareoftenreferredtoasYear11andYear12.Strands:TheVCALcontainsfourcurriculumstrands:literacyandnu-meracyskills, industryspecificskills,workrelatedskillsandpersonaldevelopmentskills.Structured workplace learning placement: Structured workplacelearningison-the-jobtrainingduringwhichastudentisexpectedtomas-terasetofskillsorcompetencies,relatedtoacourseaccreditedbytheVictorianRegistrationandQualificationsAuthority(VRQA).TechnicalandFurtherEducation:Publiclyfundedandadult-orientedtrainingorganizationswhichprovidearangeoftechnicalandvocationaleducationandtrainingcoursesandotherprograms.
Blake,Gallagher /VICTORIANCERTIFICATEOFAPPLIEDLEARNING 69
Victorian Certificate of Applied learning (VCAL): An accreditedsenior secondary school qualificationundertakenby students inYears11and12.VictorianCertificateofEducation(VCE):TheVCEisaseniorsec-ondaryqualificationthatisdesignedtobecompletedinYears11and12.VictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority(VCAA):Astatu-toryauthoritythatprovideshighqualitycurriculumandassessmentpro-gramsforVictorianstudents.Vocational Education and Training (VET): Nationally recognizedvocationalcertificate.ThiscertificatemaybeintegratedwithinaVCEorVCALprogram.
REFEREnCES
AccessEconomics(2005).The economic benefit of increased participation in education and training.Sydney:DusseldorpSkillsForum.Applied Economics (2002). Young persons’ education, training and employment out- comes with special reference to early school leavers: A report prepared for the Business Council of Australia and Dusseldorp Skills Forum.Retrieved January22, 2009,fromhttp://www.dsf.org.au/papers/151.htmAron,L.(2006).An overview of alternative education:ReportpreparedbyTheUrbanIn- stitute for theNationalCenteronEducationand theEconomy,U.S.Departmentof Labor,EmploymentandTrainingAdministration.AustralianBureauofStatistics(2007). Schools, Australia(No.4221.0).Canberra:Austra- lianBureauofStatistics.AustralianBureauofStatistics(2009).Australian social trends – education and training (No 4102.0).Canberra:AustralianBureauofStatistics.Beard,C.,&Wilson,J.(2006). Experiential learning: A best practice handbook for educa- tors and trainers(2nded.).London;Philidelphia:KoganPage.Billett,S.,&Seddon,T.(2004).Buildingcommunitythroughsocialpartnershipsaround vocational education and training. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 56(1),51-67.Blake,D.(2004).From risk to relationship: Redefining pedagogy through applied learn- ing reform.DeakinUniversity,Geelong.Blake,D.(2006,July).Re-engaging young people through applied learning pedagogy.Paper presented at Making teaching public: Reforms in teacher education. Proceeding of the34thAnnualConference,Frementle,WesternAustralia.Blake, D. (2007). Exploring the challenge of applied learning reform. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning,3(3),58-76.Blake,D.,&Nolan,A.(2008,Nov.-Dec.).Establishing a tool to investigate how and why students engage in mixed-mode learning in higher education.Paperpresentedatthe AustralianAssociationforResearchinEducation,Brisbane,Australia.Chapman,B.,Weatherburn,D.,Kapuscinski,C.A.,Chilvers,M.,&Roussel,S.(2002). Unemploymentduration,schooling,andpropertycrime.NSW Crime and Jusice Bul- letin, 74.Considine, M. (2006, Sept.). The power of partnership: States and solidarities in the global era.PaperpresentedattheGovernmentsandcommunitiesinpartnershipcon- ference,UniversityofMelbourne.Dewey,J.(1938).Experience and education.NewYork:CollierMacmillian.
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DSF(2006).How young people are faring 2006: Key indicators.RetrievedJune20,2007, fromhttp://www.dsf.org.au/papers/192.htmHenry,J.,&Grundy,S.(2003).Blurring the boundaries in education: Towards a more seamless system of post-compulsory education.Geelong:FacultyofEducation,Dea- kinUniversity.Hicks,M.,Reid,I.,&George,R.(2001).Enhancingon-lineteaching:Designingrespon- sive learning environments. The International Journal of Academic Development, 6(2),143-151.Kirby,P.(2000).Ministerial review of post compulsory education and training pathways in Victoria. Final report. Melbourne: Department of Education, Employment and TrainingVictoria.Knowles,M.(1990).The adult learner: A neglected species (4thed.).Houston:GulfPub- lishingCompany.Kolb,D.(1984).Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and devel- opment.NewJersey:Prentice-Hall.Kosky,L.(2002).Improved educational outcomes: A better reporting and accountability system for schools.Melbourne:CommunicationsDivisionoftheDepartmentofEdu- cationandTraining,StateofVictoria.Lamb,S.,&Rice,S. (2008).Effective strategies to increase school completion report: Report to the Victorian Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. Melbourne:DepartmentofEducationandEarlyChildhoodDevelopment.Luckner,J.,&Nadler,R.(1997).Processing the experience: Strategies to enhance and generalize learning.Dubuque,IA:Kendall/Hunt.MCEETYA(2004).National data on participation in VET in school programs & school- based new apprenticeships for the 2004 school year.Retrieved20July2007, from http://www.mceetya.edu.au/verve/_resources/vetdata2004.pdfMezirow,J.(1991).Transformative dimensions of adult learning.SanFrancisco:Jossey Bass.OECD(2001).Local partnerships for better governance.Paris:OrganisationforEconomic Co-operationandDevelopment.OECD(2007).Economic policy reforms: Going for growth 2007.Chapter 2 country notes. Paris:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment.OECD(2008).Education at a Glance 2008:OECD indicators.Paris:OrganisationforEco- nomicCo-operationandDevelopment.QualificationsandCurriculumAuthority(2008).The diploma and its pedagogy.Retrieved July 23, 2009, from http://www.qcda.gov.uk/libraryAssets/media/The_Diploma_ and_its_pedagogy.pdfQualificationsandCurriculumDevelopmentAgency(2009).The diploma.RetrievedJuly 23,2009,fromhttp://www.qcda.gov.uk/5396.aspxTeese,R.,Clarke,K.,&Polesel, J. (2007).The on track survey 2007 statewide report: The destinations of school leavers in Victoria.Melbourne:DepartmentofEducation andEarlyChildhoodDevelopment.UNESCO (2008). Education for all (EFA) international coordination. Retrieved July, 2008, from http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=46881&URL_ DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.htmlVictorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (2006). Applied learning. Retrieved June2,2007,fromhttp://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/vcal/Publications/Information_Sheets/ VCALinfoapplearn.pdfVictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority(2009).Enrolments in the Victorian Cer- tificate of Applied Learning.Melbourne,Australia:DataAnalysisandReportingUnit oftheVictorianCurriculumandAssessmentAuthority.
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Wolff, M., & Tinney, S. (2006, May). Applied learning as a best practice model: A strategy for higher education success. Paper presented at the Association of InstitutionalResearchNationalConference,Chicago.Woods,D.(2007).The role of VET in helping young people’s transition into work: At a glance.Adelaide,SouthAustralia:NCVER.
73
will they Recognize my Lecture in the Field?
the Juvenile Corrections Critical Assessment tour
Applied Learning experience
GReG LInDSteADt MissouriWesternStateUniversity
ReGInA wILLIAmS-DeCKeR
UniversityofMissouri—KansasCity
In the summer of 2008 a multi-disciplinary group of university students were provided an opportunity to tour on-site and observe facility staff in the course of their daily activities. Unlike the usual internship experience, the Juvenile Corrections Critical Assessment Tour allowed students access to nine juvenile facilities in four different states. Students were able to identify and evaluate personal preferences in system, facility, and mentor practices in a condensed four week period. Student-to-student and student-to-practitioner debrief-ings about specific observations in the facilities greatly enhanced the experience, creating a unique and effective workplace learning opportunity. By tightening the coupling between faculty in higher education and practitioners in the field, students were able to observe and explore lecture materials with the benefit of firsthand experience.
TheUSJuvenile JusticeSystem isnota system. It is adecentral-izedgroupofagenciesboundbyavaguecompositionofbeliefs,butsharingthetrendofbeingunsatisfiedwiththewaythingsare—thusinitiatingon-going reform.Despite demographic similarities, evenstateswhoshareborderspracticeanextremelydiversemenagerieoflegalresponsestoactsofyouth.
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducationVol.1,Fall200973-91©2009MissouriWesternStateUniversity
74 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
SobeginsmyinitiallectureinIntroductiontoJuvenileJustice.Be-ingaformerpractitioner,Ihavethebenefitofsupplementingsuchdrylectureswithfirsthandexperience,butIdolimitthispracticeforseveralreasons.First,myexperienceisrestrictedtoonlyahandfulofstatesintheUS.Second,studentsenteringthevastjuvenilejusticearenacouldonly be provided one aspect of the field: my experience in youth se-curecare.Butmoreimportantly,myexperienceissimplythat—filteredthroughmyownprocessing,bias,andevenselective recall.A lecturehall doesnot allow the events andcircumstances leading todecision-making to be fully demonstrated for students. This prevents studentsfromchallengingorprocessingthegivenclaims.Inaddition,thefoun-dationoftheindividualstudent’sknowledgeorthewidearrayofstudentlearningstylesmakesthistaskevenmoredifficultfortheinstructorina classroom. Providing students the opportunity to view firsthand thedilemmastheywillfaceintheirchosenfield,whilestillmaintainingasafeandeffectivelearningenvironment,isindeedadauntingendeavorbutextremelybeneficialincreatingtheacademicprofessionalneededinsuchchallengingfieldsascriminaljustice.
LEARnInGThRouGhAPPLIEDLEARnInG
Asanandragogicalmethod,appliedlearningexperiencesinhighereducationareviewedaspotentiallyeffectivemeansforstudentstoin-terpret,process,andretainclassroominstruction(Sims,2006;Wolff&Tinney,2006;Bailey,Hughes&Moore,2004).Studentswhoparticipateinthesenumeroustypesoflearningactivitiestendtotakelesstimetograduateandbemoresatisfiedinthetheirvocationoncetheyareem-ployed(Wimshurst&Allard,2007).Ifdonewell,thesecoursescanpro-videstudentscareerexploration, increasedskillsandvocationalsocialcompetence, aswell asmotivate students to complete the educationalentrance requirementsof theirfield (Hughes,Moore,&Bailey,1999;
AUTHORNOTE:Greg Lindsteadt, Ph.D., Criminal Justice and Legal Studies Department, Missouri Western State University; Regina Williams-Decker, Soci-ology and Anthropology Department, University of Missouri-Kansas City. The authors would like to thank the organizations that helped support this project financially: The Alumni Foundation and the Study Away Program at Missouri Western State University, State of Kansas KJA, State of Missouri-DYS, State of Nebraska - YRTCS, State of Iowa - DHS, and the businesses in the communities visited and especially the JCCAT student. Correspondence concerning this ar-ticle should be addressed to: Greg Lindsteadt, Criminal Justice and Legal Stud-ies Department, Missouri Western State University, 4525 Downs Dr., St. Joseph, MO 64507, e-mail: [email protected]
Lindsteadt,Williams-Decker/LECTURETOFIELD 75
Baileyetal.,2004).Studentswhoparticipateintheseexperiencesseemtohaveabetterunderstandingofwhatwillbeexpectedofthemintheirfieldofchoice,eliminatingmuchof the initial shock theirnewwork-placewillcreate(Sgroi&Ryniker,2002). Topreparestudentstointeractproperlyinthefield,facultymustbeawareofthedetailsoftheenvironmentwherethestudentwillbeplaced(Hughesetal.,1999;Baileyetal.,2004).Thecommunicationlinesbe-tween student and practitioner should be made as level as possible ifstudentsaretolearnfromtheenvironmenttheyareplacedin.“Ifdonewell,” these learning experiences can have the desired effect, but de-signmustbeaprimaryconsiderationof thedeveloper (Hughesetal.,1999).Educatorswhomakeuseofthesetypesoflearningexperienceshaveheardmuch about thedisjuncturebetweenhigher education andfieldexperience.Traditionaleducationalandworkplacelearningappearquitedifferentatfirstglance.Educationendorsesandrewardsindividualproblemsolving,whereasthisisrarelythecaseinaworkenvironment,especiallysocialservices(Baileyetal.,2004).Primarilythenecessityofbuildinggrouporsocialrelationstoaccomplishagiventaskisrarelyrewardedinhighereducation.Highereducationshouldfocusitseffortsonpreparingpeopletobegoodadaptivesociallearners,sothattheycanperformeffectivelywhensituationsareunpredictableandtaskdemandschange(Resnick,1987).Howtobettercoupleboththeworkplaceexpe-rienceandwhatthestudentstakefromtheireducationduringthesefieldexperiencesmaybeabetterfocusofresearchandcoursedevelopment. Aone-size-fits-allstyleofinstructiondoesnotsufficeintheclass-roomandwill limit thepossibilities for student engagement inwork-place-centeredcoursework.Learning stylesdiffer for students aswellas indisciplines.Using theLearningStyle Inventory (LSI),KolbandKolb(1999)foundstudentsandeventheirvocational/educationalareaofchoicetohaveidentifiabletendencies.Forinstance,Kolb,BoyatzixandMainemelis(2001)reportedthatstudentswhofavor thesocialservicevocationweremore apt to fall in adiverging style of learning, learn-ing best in a group or brainstorming type forum. Those scoring highin assimilating style were found to favor hard sciences and preferredindividualizedreadingassignmentsandlecture.Studentswith converg-ing stylespreferredsimulationsorexperimentsandweremorelikelytobeinthefieldsoftechnology.Finally,accommodating stylelearnersfa-voredhands-onexperienceandreliedmoreoninstinctthanlogic.Thesestudentswerefoundinmanagementorbusinessvocations.Developingeducational experienceswhichcan juxtaposedifferent stylesof learn-ingcanallowstudentstobecomeactiveproblemsolvers,havingbuilttheabilitytoutilizedifferentandsometimesuncomfortablemethodstoresolvetaskswhenintheirfield.
76 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Allowingstudentsinappliedlearningexperiencestoprocessalonewhattheyviewinthefieldisproblematic.Educatorstendtorelyontheoftenmisguidednotionthatallstudentswillbeabletorecognizetheuseoftheoriesorparadigmsdiscussedintheclassroom(Sgroi&Ryniker,2002;Baileyetal.,2004).KolbandKolb(2005)refertoa cycle of learn-ing,beingacombinationof“graspingandtransformingexperience”(p.194). Simplified, this cycle provides concrete examples, enriched byreflectiongivenmeaningbythinkingandtransformedbyaction.Ines-sence, thecycleof learningdescribedisnota typologybutaprocess.Learningbeginswiththestudentidentifyingcurrentbeliefsorpercep-tionsmaderealbyinteractionswithothers.Thesynergistictransactionbetweentheenvironmentandthestudentbeliefsorobservationisputinmotionwhenconversationoccurs.Inworkplacelearningthisshouldoc-curreflectively,bothinthefieldandintheclassroom.
APPLIEDLEARnInGInCRIMInALJuSTICEEDuCATIon Universitieshaveactivelypursuedthemissiontodevelopandmarketappliedlearningexperiencesforstudents(Baileyetal.,2004).Criminaljusticedepartmentshavealonghistoryofusinginternshipsandpracticato allowstudents to seefirsthand thediversefieldof criminal justice.Thisisoftendubbed“arealworldexperience”—asomewhatconcerningphrase—suggestingwhathighereducationdoesintheclassroomresem-blesnothingmorethanspoutingunusablefictiontoanaudience.Thisisaverydisturbingnotiontoonewhoremainspassionateaboutthefieldofjuvenilejustice.Helpingstudentsprocessanddevelopastheyexperi-encetheirchosenfieldshouldbetheessenceofatrueappliedlearningexperience,aswellasalecturehall.Maintainingavigilantwatchovertherelevancyoffactsprovidedthesefutureprofessionalsisaresponsi-bilityentrustedtoinstructorsbystudentsandbythepractice. Criminal justicehas received limited recognition inacademics fortheadvancementofsocialscienceknowledge,theory,ormethodswithpractice.Thefieldstruggleswithlegitimacyinthearenaofhighereduca-tion(Clear,2001;Best,2006;Finckenauer,2005).Anappliedlearningexperienceinthecriminaljusticefieldisnotviewedasanacademicallysoundexperienceequivalenttothecaliberofresidencies.Thismaybeduetoinaccurateperceptionsbyoutsiders,butcouldalsoresultasmuchfromourownmakinginthediscipline.Weoftenfailtotightlycoupleeducationwith thenumerousworkplace learningexperiencesourpar-ticulardisciplinehastooffer. Applied learning experiences in criminal justice programs are nottypicallyrepresentedbyanyonemodel.Commonmethodsusedtopro-videtheout-of-classroomexperienceahintofacademiainvolveperson-allogs,journals,orsummarypapers(Stichman&Farkas,2005;Bailey,
Lindsteadt,Williams-Decker/LECTURETOFIELD 77
etal.,2004).Fewoftheseclassesattempttopreparethestudentfortheirspecificworkplacelearningexperience.Thismaybeduetothemulti-tudeofsitesutilizedbycriminaljusticeacademicdepartments,requiringuniquepreparation.Theresponsibilitytopreparestudentstofacewhattheywillencounterinthefieldoftenfallsbythewayof“theywillseeitforthemselves”(Stichman&Farkas,2005,p.148-149).Infact,thestudent’sandthedepartment’scredibilitywiththeagenciesofferingtheappliedlearningexperiencehingesonhowwellthestudentispreparedtomeettheneedsoftheagency.FIELD’SEyEVIEW
Currentpractitionersseemtohavea love-haterelationshipregard-ingtheirinvolvementinhighereducationappliedlearningexperiences(Shaefer,1996;Biddinger-Gregg&Schrink,1997).Those in thefieldwhohaveexperienceda tag along or shadowknow thedifficulties inbalancingopportunitiesforasafelearningexperiencewithsimplyhav-ingtheinterndomenialtasksthatdonotposearisk.Few,ifany,caseshavebeen foundwhereanagencyhasbeen found liable for injury toaninternstudent,butthereexistsinthebackofanycoordinator’smindthepossibility that situationsmayarise resulting incivil ramifications(Stichman&Farkas,2005;Biddinger-Gregg&Schrink,1997). Thechanceforpotentialemployerstoshowcasewhattheyhavetoofferthenextgenerationofpoliceofficers,probationofficers,andcus-todystaff,tonameafew,isoftencitedasareasonforallowingintern-shipswithinanagency(Ross&Elechi,2002).Agenciesarealsoabletoscreenpotentialemployeesforaperiodoftimeatlimitedinvestmentorriskresponsibility, inthemeantimeprovidingafreshaudiencetocur-rentemployees(Baileyetal.,2004).Anyexperiencedfacultymemberiseasilyabletorecallaformerstudentwhosecareerjumping-offpointwasaninternshipexperience,butdetailsofhowrealandconsistentthesebenefitsare to thestudentoragencyare limited.Thevastmajorityofappliedlearningexperiencesthatareallottedinthecriminaljusticefieldprobablyhavemoreofafoundationinpublicrelationsandsenseofduty,thanrecruitmentofhumanresources.
JuVEnILECoRRECTIonSCRITICAL
ASSESSMEnTTouR(JCCAT)
Inthesummerof2008,anappliedlearningexperiencewasconductedwiththeassistanceofjuvenilefacilitymanagersinfourdifferentstates.TheJuvenile Corrections Critical Assessment Tour(JCCAT)coursewasdesignedtoallowstudents thechanceforguideddiscussionregardingone specific area of the juvenile justice system (juvenile corrections),
78 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
totourfacilities,andshadowveteranstaffmembersonthejobinninedifferent juvenilefacilities infourstates.Amultidisciplinarygroupofstudentsinterestedinworkingwithdelinquentyouthwererecruitedforthiscourse.Quitedifferentthantheusualcourseoffering,JCCATendedupbeingdubbedthe‘ShawshankTour’bynumerousadministratorsandsupportersattheuniversity. The initial perception that JCCAT would simply provide studentstoursoffacilitieswasnotcompletelyunexpected.Inmanywaysthegoalofthecoursewassimilartothegoalofthenumeroustoursoffereddur-inganyacademicyearincriminaljustice:toallowstudentstheopportu-nitytoviewtheinsideofafacility.Unlikethesimpletour,however,thiscoursealsoallowedstudentstocomparativelyevaluatekeydifferencesinstatecareofadjudicated(sentenced)youth.MissouriWesternStateUniversityprovidesauniquegeographiclocation(northwestMissouri)forstudentstoevaluatejudicial,administrative,andprogramdifferencesinthecareofyouthinfourdifferentstates.Usuallythisis leftforthenewprofessionaltolearnonlyafteracceptingajob,whichcanleadtodisenchantmentwith thefieldfor thegraduate,whomaynot realizeadifferentparadigmissimplyacrossastateline,afewmilesaway. Thesecondgoalof theJCCATcoursewastoallowthesestatefa-cilities the opportunity to “showcase” their program efforts for youthandattractqualityemployeeswhoareinterestedinworkingwithyouthwithin their particular area of expertise. Unlike a simple tour, theJCCATallowedfacilities todo thiswithinacademicdisciplinesorbystaff functions.Afterdiscussionwithfacilitymanagers itwasdeemedbest that a wide range of educational disciplines should be recruited,despite the course being offered through the Criminal Justice andLegalStudiesDepartment.Aninstitutionalenvironmentrequiresmanyservices and is essentially its own self-contained community needingnumeroustypesofprofessionalstooperatesuccessfully.Facilitymanag-ersplayedanactiveroleinthedevelopmentandorchestrationofJCCAT.Thefacilitymanagersandstateadministratorsapproachedinthesefourstateswereunanimously in favorofbeingapartof thiscourse.Theirinvolvementdidnot simplyendatprovidingaccess; theseyouthcareprofessionalsassistedinthedevelopmentoftheclass,adjustingfacilityscheduling,whilesomeevenprovidedfundingandmealsfortheclass.Mostimportantly,thesefacilitiesgave3-5hoursoftheirdayineachofthefacilitiesvisited. Recruitmentfortheclassoccurredintheearlyspringof2008.Duetoclassbudgetconstraintsandmaintainingafocusonfacilitysecurity,the class was limited to 12 students. After the initial interviews wereconducted, two simply did not attend any further preparatory meet-ingsandtwodroppedforpersonalreasonsjustprior(oneweek)tothecoursebeginning.Bydesign,nodepositsorcoercivemeanswereusedto
Lindsteadt,Williams-Decker/LECTURETOFIELD 79
guarantee a set number of participants. Willingness was viewed as anecessityfor thisproject tobeeffective.Theeightremainingstudentswere from four different disciplines and two were undecided, withthe majority (4) being from the Criminal Justice and Legal StudiesDepartment.Allstudentswereat leastsophomoreyearstatusandonestudentattendedadifferentcollegethantheothers. The course was designed to model a workplace applied learningexperience for students, incorporating a strong emphasis on reflectivemodelsofstudentlearning.Thiswouldallowstructuredlecturecontenttofillthenecessarybackgroundstudentsshouldhavepriortotheirfirstfieldexperienceinjuvenilecorrections,whilestillsupportingcontextualexplorationoftheexperiences.Severalofthesestudentswerefromdis-ciplinesoutsidecriminaljustice,soitwasimperativeageneralunder-standingofjuvenilejusticewasprovided.Techniquesofprogrammaticreview(audit)wereprovidedstudentsintheclassroomaswell.Afullweekofintensiveclassroominstructionwasprovidedonlecturetopicssuchas:historyofyouthcareintheUnitedStates,currentstatusofyouthcare, risk/needs assessments, ethics, treatment modalities, and on-the-jobstress. Inaddition, interviewskills,field-specific terminology,anddocumentationtrainingwerealsoaddedtoincreasetheperceivedcred-ibilityofthesestudentstopractitioners.Studentsweredividedbetweenthe four states (two per state) and responsible for developing a statehistory of youth care and an organizational description of the state’syouthservices. Prior to the class beginning, instructors predicted that the numer-oustourswouldruntogetherforstudentsandfaculty.Havingconductedinterviewsofstaffonsite,instructorsknewitwasimperativeforstudentstocapturetheirinitialthoughtsandfeelingsregardingtheirmentorandthefacilitypriortomovingontothenextsite.Impromptuconversationaltransactionsregardingfacilityoccurrenceswouldsurelybeforgottenormistakenbytheendofthecourse.Toremedythis,twoinstrumentsweredevelopedintheclassduringthefirstweekoflectureandtourprepara-tion.Thefirstwasreferredtoas“DescribeYourMentor.”Thisinstru-mentwastobefilledoutimmediatelyafterthestudentleftthefacility.EachJCCATparticipantwasaskedtoprovidethegeneraldemograph-ics and tenure information about the staff serving as their mentor. Inaddition, descriptive characteristics regarding their guide’s personal-ity,howtheytreatedthestudent(asapeer,mentee,know-nothing),andwhattheydidwiththeirmentorduringtheirtimeweredocumented.Indeveloping this tool the class was guided away from a ‘check sheet’format.Theywereencouragedtousetheirowndescriptiveabilitiesintheirdocumentationof theexperience.Theclasssettledona toolandmadeonlyminoradjustmentsafterthefirstJCCATexperience.
80 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Asecondinstrument,“DescribeYourFacility,”wasdesignedduringclasslecturepreparationaswell.Oneofthetwostudentrepresentativesofthestatethefacilitywaslocatedinwouldinterviewtheirclassmatesimmediately after a JCCAT site. Because travel took place after eachtour, students were usually interviewed en route to the next destina-tion—creating a 70 mph captive environment. Instructors driving thetravelvanswerecognizantofpeerimpact,sonothirdpartyinterruptionswere allowed until all interviews were completed. Student interview-ersasked their fellowJCCATstudents to identifywhat theyobservedregardingfacilityculture,todescribetheyouththeyobserved,aswellastheiropinionoffacilitysecuritylevel(low,medium,high).Oneofthemoretellingquestionsinthisinstrumentwassimply“Wouldyouworkhere?”Asimpleyesornotothisquestionwasnotaccepted.Interview-erswereencouragedtoprobeforreasoningbehindthestudent’sconclu-sion.Finally,thetwostateinterviewersalsointerviewedeachotherandsummarizedtheirfindingsintheirfinalproject,whichmergedthestate’sorganizationalmissionandhistorywiththeJCCATexperience. Inthesecondweekofthesummerclass,studentshadtheirfirstJC-CATatastatejuvenilemalefacility.Asdesigned,studentswereorientedbyafacilityadministratorpriortobeinggivenabout2.5hourstospendwithfront-linestaffmembersduringthecourseoftheirduties.Studentswerepairedwithgroupleaders,youthcareworkers,therapeuticprofes-sionals and someadministrators, dependingoneach student’s interestarea.Courseinstructorswereallowedtoobserveinteractions,butatleastone instructor remained in a central location for contact if necessary.Debriefingtookplaceafterthefacilityvisitwithfacilityadministratorsandthefollowingdayintheclassroom,asaclass.Thefirstmentorsum-maries and student interviews were conducted with the assistance oftheco-instructorsforthecourse,andminoradjustmentsweremadetotheinstruments. AdministratorshostingthefirstJCCATfollowedthedesiredcourseblueprintprecisely.ThisallowedJCCATstudents tohaveabetterun-derstandingofexpectationspriortoembarkingonasixday,sevenfacil-itywhirlwindtourofIowa,Kansas,andNebraskajuvenilecorrectionalfacilities,finishingtheirJCCATinMissouriduringthefinalweekoftheclass(seeFigure1).Theclassvisitedfiveall-male,twoall-female,andtwoco-edcorrectionalfacilitiesduringtheJCCATtour.Again,writtensummariesandgroupdebriefingstookplaceaftereachfacilityvisit.Twoofthesefacilitiesweremechanicallysecurewithafencedperimeter,butthemajorityoffacilitiesresembledmoreofanopencampus—oftenwithonly locked livingquartersbetween theresidentsandoffgrounds.AsstatedbyoneJCCATstudent:“Someoftheselookedlikehighschoolcampuses,notcorrectionalfacilities.”
Lindsteadt,Williams-Decker/LECTURETOFIELD 81
TheJCCATclassloggedover1600miles,visitedninefacilitiesinfourstates,andexperiencedatrulyuniqueandintensivelearningexperi-enceinafour-weekperiod.Theeffortsofthefacilitystaffinvolvedinthese tours fell consistentlyaboveexpectationsof instructorsandstu-dents.OpenpraiseforthestudentsandtheJCCATprojectwasreceivedfromfacilityandstaffbothduringandafterthecourse.Ingeneral,allfacilitiesfollowedthecourseblueprintwithonlyminoralterations.Ac-cesstofacilitystaffwaslimitedatonefacility,butprogramreview,ad-ministratorQuestionandAnswer(Q&A),aswellason-sitelunchwithyouthallowedadequatefacilityreviewforthestudents.ThemajorityoffacilitiesevenallowedJCCATstudentsaccesstoyouthduringmealtime,inQ&Asessions,andseveraltimesininstitutionalhearings.Accordingtostudentresponses,itwasthesecontactswithyouththattrumpedallotheraspectsofthetours.
EVALuATInGThEExPERIEnCE
Howtoevaluateandmeasuretheacademicpreparationforthisun-usual learningexperiencewasaconcern in itsdesign.After the tourswerecompleted,duringthelasttwodaysofclass,activitiesanddiscus-sionsummarizedtheoverallexperience.Thisincludedopendiscussionofstatesystemsandindividualfacilities(andtheiroccupants).Students
Will They Recognize 28
Figure 1: JCCAT Tour Map
KEY: In order of JCCAT: 1. St. Joseph, MO (male); 2. Toledo, IA (co-ed); 3. Eldora, IA (male); 4.
Atchison, KS (male); 5. Larned, KS (male); 6. Beloit, KS (female); 7. Kearney, NE (male); 8.
Geneva, NE (female); 9. Watkins Mill, MO (co-ed). MWSU-Missouri Western State University, St.
Joseph, MO.
MWSU
WSU
Figure1:JCCATTourMap
KEY:InorderofJCCAT:1.St.Joseph,MO(male);2.Toledo,IA(co-ed);3.Eldora,IA(male);4.Atchison,KS(male);5.Larned,KS(male);6.Beloit,KS(female);7.Kearney,NE(male);8.Geneva,NE(female);9.WatkinsMill,MO(co-ed).MWSU-MissouriWesternStateUniversity,St.Joseph,MO.
82 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
wereallowedtousetheirinterviewsheetstoassistintherecallofspe-cificfacilityandstaff.Afinalexamorpost-testwasprovidedattheendofthelastdayofclass.Testresponseswerenotfactoredintothecoursegradeandstudentswereagainallowedtousedocumentstoassistthemin recall when needed. The final test consisted of scenario questionssuchas:
Your potential employer’s interview committee sees Law 396JCCAT on your list of experiences that are job-related. They askyouhowcompletingacollegeclasswouldmakeyouamorequali-fiedemployeeinthejuvenilejusticesystem.Whatwouldyousay?
Overhalfofthestudentsusedthephrase“handson”directlyintheirresponse to this question. One studentwrote: ”I got to participate ineverydayhappenings…Ididn’t justget timewith staff...got timewithyouth:boysANDgirls.”Almostallusedphrasessuchas:“behindthescenes,”“behindthewalls,”or“whatreallyhappens”todescribetheirJCCAT experience, also focusing on what can be learned outside theclass and “textbooks.” But most impressive to the instructors of thecoursewasdiscussionofthedifferencesinprogramsthatwereidentifiedin thesestates. Fourstudentsdirectlyapplied their response tocareergoals,suchas:“Icouldseeformyself if itwas thecourseIwantmycareerpathtotake,”and“Iamwellawareofthetime[and]….additionaltrainingthatwillberequiredofme.” Basedonareviewofthestudentresponses,itisapparentthelearn-ing experience outside the classroom is what stood out most to thesestudents.Notsurprisingly,lectureorin-classpresentationsbyinstructorswerenotasmemorableintheresponsetothisquestion.Theworkwithprofessionals in thefieldaswell as timewithyouthwas the focusoftheirresponses. Asecondscenarioquestionchangedtheaudiencefor thestudents,askingthemtoidentifytoagraduateschooladvisorwhatJCCATwasandwasnot:
YourGraduateSchoolAdvisorseesLaw396JCCATonyourtran-scriptandisunsurewhatitshouldcounttowards.Youradvisorasksyoutodescribetheclass.Whatdoyousay?
JCCAT students framed their responses more to the practicum/in-ternshipexperience,focusingoneitherdifferencesinstatesystems,orstate philosophies of rehabilitation and security. One student stated:“WediscoveredhowMO,KS,NE&IAdifferedintheirfacilitiesandtheircourseofhowthejuvenileswerereleased”—focusingmoreonthesystems aspect, while another focused on her direct experience with“staff in thepsychology-relatedfields,”whichwasheracademicfieldofchoice.
Lindsteadt,Williams-Decker/LECTURETOFIELD 83
Studentswerealsoasked if theybelieved theywereproperlypre-pared for the tour componentof the class.Overall, students indicatedtheyfeltproperlypreparedandallindicateditwasaveryhelpfulcourseforthoseinterestedinthisfield.Twostudentsindicatedtheydidnotfeelproperlyprepared,butinafollow-upinterviewwiththesestudents,onestated: “It was more of a shock and awe than what could have beendoneinlecture.”Thesecondstudenttoldinstructors:“Idon’tthinkIwasmentallypreparedforthefacilities....Idon’tthinkthatIwasunpreparededucationallyastowhattoexpect,butitwasaprettydrainingexperi-ence.Definitelyworththework,though.”Thelastingeffectthiswork-placelearningexperiencehadonthesestudentswasencouragingtotheinstructors,tosaytheleast. A third student brought up an interesting point regarding the col-legiality of the class and stated it would have helped the tour to dis-cuss this more often. The instructor’s role in building the necessaryesprit de corps inaclassdependsgreatlyonthemakeupoftheclassandclassownershipofthetaskathand.Facultywereconsultedinitiallybystudents about other studentswhodidnot follow schedules or lackedinput. By the end of the class there was a distinguishable divide, butstudentsmaintainedacivilresponsethatdidnotinterferewithprojectgoals.Studentswereaskedtoself-ratetheircollegialityintheJCCATpost-test.Allself-ratedthemselvesasfairtogood,butnooneidentifiedpoororexcellent.Interestingly,“classmatecollegiality”wasratedover-allexcellentbyhalftheattendeesandonlyfairbyone. Post-tourinterviewsheetswerecopied,collectedandnotallowedtobealteredbystudents.Thedesignofthesetoolswastocapturetheinitialimpactofthetoursite.Severalstudentsvoicedtheirconcernaboutthisduring theprocess, due to their ability to “compare apples to apples”(studentcomment)astheysawmorefacilities.Thefinalclassroomdis-cussionallowed students to reviewallof these facilities and the statesystemsinhindsightinpreparationforthefinalexamgivenattheendof the lastday. Thequestion“whereyouwould likemost tobeem-ployed” was again asked in their final exam. Students were asked torankstatesystemsandfacilities.Thefacilitieswerealsodividedbygen-dertoevaluatepreferencesbystudents.Twostatesystemswererankedeither1or2(highest)byallexceptonestudent.Thissingleexceptionwasastudentfocusedmoreonacustodialapproachthanthemajorityofotherstudents.Interestingly,whenidentifyingwhichfacilitythestudentswouldchoosetoworkin(male,female,all),theseindividualfacilitiesdidnotalwaysfallintothesamestatesystemthestudentschoseastheirtoptwo.Onesuchfacility(female)appearedasaparticularfavoriteforJCCATparticipantsdespitethestateitoperatedinnotbeingrankedei-ther1or2byanystudent.Commentsofferedcompassionforthatpartic-ularfacility’splight:“Coulduse/neededmyhelp”and“Didmuchmorewithless…comparedtotheboysfacility.”
84 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Thefinalexamalsorequestedstudentinputon“Whoshoulddeter-minehowlongayouthshouldbecommittedtoafacility?”Thisques-tionwasdesigned to allow JCCATstudents theopportunity tomergetheir understanding of a system’s larger structure with those requiredto carry out the tasks of the job. Two states in the JCCAT made useofanindeterminatesentencingscheme,wherethefacilitystaffwasre-sponsibletodeterminehowlongayouthwascommitted.Theothertwostatesmadeuseofamoreformaldeterminatesentencingscheme,withjudicialandadministrative input intosentence length. This topicwasdiscussedinclasslecture,butitwasuncertainifstudentswereabletoseethedifferenceinreleasediscretionatthefacilitywhereayouthwascommitteduntildiscussingthebenefits/dangerswithstaffmentorsandadministratorsfromdifferentstates.Courseinstructorspredictedthatallstudentswouldsupportfacility-basedcontrolofrelease,butfordifferentreasons due to the student’s academic discipline. Instructors believedthat thecriminal justicestudentswouldsupportcontrolof releaseduetothebehaviormanagementbenefitsitprovides,whilethepsychology/sociology/socialworkdisciplinewouldsupportfacilitybasedreleasefortheindividualizedapproachtorehabilitativecare. Directlycontrarytothepredictedresults,nocriminaljusticeJCCATstudents supported releasecoming from facility staffwhere theyouthwascommitted.Weexpectedthatdiscretionwouldbeconsideredveryimportanttofutureprofessionals,butapparentlyajustice approach wasconsidered more desirable by this criminal justice group of students.OnlyJCCATstudentscomingfromthepsychology/socialworkperspec-tivewereunanimouslyinfavoroffacility-basedrelease,focusingmoreonan individualizedapproachtoreleasereadiness. ToassistfutureofferingsofJCCATorothersuchmulti-siteappliedlearningexperiences,studentswerealsoaskedtoranktravel,hotels,per-sonaltimeallotted,andfacilitypreparedness.Theservicesencounteredinthesemostlyruralcommunitieswherefacilitiesarelocatedwerefoundtobeextremelyhospitableandaccommodatingtothelimitedbudgetofthe trip.All students rankedmeals, hotels, and travel comfort “aboveaverage.”Onlyonestudentranked“facilitypreparedness”asfair,butallotheraspectsofJCCATorganizationand“comfort”wereranked“good”or“excellent.”ClassroomclimateinexperiencessuchasJCCATdoesinvolvemuchmorethanthetypicalcollegiatelecturehall.Thelearningenvironmentshouldnotbetoostrenuous,andconcernfor“downtime”forthesestudentstodigestthisexperiencewasconsideredveryneces-sary.Onestudentdirectlycommentedonherfearthat“overnightstayssoundslikeyoumayneverhavefreetime,butassoonasyou’reoutofthefacility[and]conversed[withotherpeople],yougottimetoyourself.” Studentswere asked in their initial interview (prior to the course)iftheyhadanyapprehensionsaboutenteringasecurefacility.JCCAT
Lindsteadt,Williams-Decker/LECTURETOFIELD 85
was,infact,severalstudents’firstexperienceinsideasecurefacility.Inthefinalexam,allstudentsidentifiedfeelingsofsafetybeing“excellent”duringtheJCCATexperience.Thisiscertainlyatestamenttothefacilitymentorsandmanagerswhowere involved in thiscourse,butone thatshouldnotbetakenforgrantedorassumedwhendevelopingworkplace-designated applied learning experiences. Specific attention should begiventohowstudentsviewtheirlearningenvironmenttoensuretherearenoroadblocks,realorperceived,tothisexperience.Reflective,on-goingcommunicationbetweeninstructorsandlearninggroupscanassistinachievingthisgoal.
LECTuREConTEnT
ToprovideJCCATstudentscredibilitywiththefacilitystaff,aswellastheabilitytoevaluatekeycomponentsoffacilityculture,itwasim-perativetheclasswasproperlyprepared.Inananalysisofthefirstweek’slecturecontent,studentswereaskedtoidentifylecturetopicstheyactu-allyheardbeingdiscussedinthefacilities.Onceagain,studentswereallowed toconsult their facilitynotes.The students identifiedeachofthelecturetopicsdiscussedinclasspreparationasbeingaddressedbystafforadministrationinthefacilitiesvisited(seeTable1).Interestingly,everystudent reported thatJob Stresswasdiscussedbystaffateveryfacilitytheyvisited.Othertopicsreportedasbeingdiscussedinthema-jorityof facilities (medianof3orhigher: overhalf butnot all facili-ties)were:Outside Regulating Agencies, Risk and Needs Assessments,Juvenile System, Responsivity, Sentencing, Outcome Measures, Dis-cretion, Difficulties of Reform, Treatment Modality, Rehabilitation,and Culture. Due to the relatively small class size, limited generalizations canbe made. What is important to faculty preparing to teach workplace-centeredcoursesistobeabletoidentifytopicsthatarealsosignificanttoemployers/employeeswherethestudentsaregoingtobeplaced(inthecaseofJCCAT,juvenilecorrectionalfacilitystaff).Thiswillensurecourseworkisgearedtocurrentpractice,allowingstudentstobeintunewithwhatisofmostconcernintheirdesiredoccupation.Forexample,basedontheseinteractionsbetweenstudentandfacilitystaff,jobstressisaveryrealissuetothoseworkinginthefield.Studentswereabletodiscussjobstressthatveteranandnewerstaffexperienceonadailybasisandhowtheygetthroughthesesituationstoshowupanotherday.Asdiscussedinlecture,studentsfoundthatitisrarelytheyouththatareinthestaffmember’scarethatcreatethemoststressonthejobforstaff.Itisinsteadtheirperipheralresponsibilitiesandroadblockstowhattheyviewisnecessarytohelptheyouth.
86 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Regarding lecture content: Please circle the
appropriate answer to the following lecture
topics you heard being discussed or
mentioned while in the facilities.
1
Not
discussed
in any
facility
2
Some
facilities
but not
over
half
3
Over
half
but not
all
facilities
4
All
facilities
this was
discussed
Median
Outside regulating agencies 0 1 4 2 3
Ethical dilemmas 1 3 3 0 2
Risk and needs assessment 0 0 2 5 4
Juvenile corrections history 0 4 2 1 2
Juvenile system as it relates to juvenile
corrections
0 2 3 2 3
Females in juvenile corrections
(difficulties, needs & response)
0 4 3 0 2
Responsivity 0 1 5 1 3
Sentencing (as it relates to facility goals &
practices)
0 1 1 5 4
Outcome measures 0 3 2 2 3
Discretion 1 2 4 0 3
Disproportionate Minority Confinement 0 5 2 0 2
Difficulties of reform 1 2 3 1 3
Treatment modality 0 1 3 3 3
Rehabilitation 0 1 4 2 3
Juvenile crime rates and victimization 0 0 5 2 3
Job stress 0 0 0 7 4
Culture 0 2 4 1 3
Table1:Students’recalloflecturetopicsdiscussedinfacility:n=7.Medianisreported(rightcolumn).
Somewhat concerning in these findings was the limited discus-sionofdisproportionateminorityconfinementby those in the facility.This issue remainscentral to introductorycoursework in juvenile jus-tice,butappearstobeconsideredlesspertinentbyfacilitystaff.Apos-sibleexplanationconsideredduringdebriefingwas itmaybe thestaffmember’swillingness toworkwithwhoever iscommitted thatmakesthedifference, taking little responsibility forhowtheyoutharrived in
Lindsteadt,Williams-Decker/LECTURETOFIELD 87
theircare. Inaddition, the fact that the racialmakeupof these facili-tieshaschangedlittleovermuchofthetenureofthestaffcouldleadtotheapplicationof“thatisthewayitis,hasbeen,andwillbe”tojustifythesetrends.JCCATstudentsquicklyidentifieddifferencesinstaffracialmakeuprelativetothepopulationofyouththeyserved. Interestingly,thispointseemedtoloseitsinitialeffectonstudentsasmoretoursiteswerevisited—desensitizationthatisnotsodifferentthanwhatisexperi-encedinthefieldordiscipline. Basedonstudentreflectionduringthefinalexam,thelectureprepa-rationwasoverallontopictothecurrentconcernsofthoseinthejuve-nilecorrectionalfield.Alltopicsdiscussedintheclassroomwereidenti-fied inat leastonefacilitybystudents.Notable to instructorswas thestudents’understandingoftermssuchasResponsivity orCulture,whichwouldbecomeevidentduringdebriefingsessions.Thesearenotalwayseasyconceptsforthestudent,butwhenthestudentcouldapplyeachideatoactiveinteractionswithstaffandfacilityobservations, theydemon-stratedtheabilitytotranslatethemeaningoftheacademictermintothepracticaleventsandcommonfacilitylanguage.Workplacelearningmaynotalwaysappearasadirectreflectionorinthecontextofaspecificex-ampleusedintheclassroom.Thestudent’sabilitytotranslateandutilizetheseconceptsisindeedaproudmomentfortheirinstructors.
DISCuSSIon
Allowingstudentstoviewandprocessthedifferenceinstatemissionsandjuvenilefacilitieswasthefocusofthisappliedlearningexperience.Toteachhowanorganization’smissionisreflectedintheperformanceof an individual facility is a point difficult to drive home to studentsvia textbook and lecture hall. Even if the student is fortunate enoughtohavefieldexperience,thisisusuallylimitedtoonesystem.Inaddi-tion,theabilitytocomparelikeexperiencesinthefieldwithpeersandfacultyenhancedthelearningprocess.Thisoftenoccurredviaagitationwithinthegroupofstudents.Forexample,duetothemultidisciplinarymakeupoftheclass,someviewedwithdisfavortheopencampusoffa-cilitieswhileotherschallengedtherazorwiresurroundingotherfacilitygrounds.Thisprovidedsomeinterestingexchangeswithinandoutsidetheclassroom,whichwouldoccasionallyrequirerefereeing. Studentswereencouragedtolookpasttheirinitialopinionsandimpressions,butnottoignorethem.Toprovideatruecriticalassessmentofafacility’smission,studentswerechallengedtoexaminewhatarethegoalsoftheorganizationfirst,beforetheydeterminedwhetherthefacilityismeet-ingthosegoals.Asseenfirsthandbytheclass,asystemthatfocusesoncustodyandprofessionalizationwillappeardifferentthanonethathasadynamicfocusonpeerinvolvementintreatment.Astudentmayfeel
88 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
morecomfortableworkinginonetypeofsystemortheother,butthisisnottosaythattheotherisperformingitsmissionpoorly. FewissuesraisedmorevocalconcernwiththeJCCATclassthanthedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalefacilities.Thefemaleyouthfacili-tieswereviewedbytheclassasinsufficientlyfundedandinpoorphysi-calcondition.Inaninterviewbyouruniversitymagazine,oneJCCATstudentstated:“Iwasupsetandshocked....Itwasspaceageforboysandpioneerforthegirls”(Holtz,2009,p.6).Theclassdebriefingofthisissueprovidedanopportunitytoexamineastate’swillingnesstofundaphilosophyofcommunityprotectionversusindividualyouthneed.Theperceivedsocialthreatoftheyoungmaledelinquentversustheneedtoprotectthefemaledelinquentwasdiscussed,asitisinmostIntroductionto Juvenile Justice/Delinquency textbooks.Unlike traditional lectures,theclasswasabletousepersonalobservationsasreferencetothisdilem-ma.ForseveralJCCATstudents,thesefacilityfundingdifferencesledtoachangetowardcommitmenttoworkwithgirlsifgiventheopportunity,evendespitethevastmajorityofstaffinmale,female,andcoedfacilitiesidentifyingdelinquentgirlsasbeingmore“difficult”and“challenging”toworkwiththanmaleyouth.DEVELoPInGLEARnInGSPACE
Thispaperwouldbeincompletewithoutaddressingthenecessityoftimelydebriefing and creating thenecessary learning spaces inwork-placeexperiencessuchastheJCCAT(Kolb&Kolb,2005;Baileyetal.,2004).Issuessuchasfacilitystaffdemeanor,youthbehavior,andsome-whatchallengingethicaldecisionmakingbystaffwereconsideredandreviewedwithinashortperiodof timebetweenstudents,studentsandfaculty,andalsowithpractitioners.Studentswereinstructedtoremainfocusedontheirtask,buttodiscusstheseincidentswithcourseinstruc-torswhowouldthenpresenttheincidenttofacilityadministrators.ThreesuchincidentsdidoccurduringJCCAT. The benefit of immediate processing of student observations andconcernswasevidentintheconfidencetheclassdisplayedintheirin-teractionswith facility staffandeachotheras the JCCATprogressed.Studentsevenbeganrequestingadditionaldebriefingsessionstodiscusstheirobservations,indicatingapersonalcommitmenttotheproject.Thiswasalsoevidentinthefinalexamcomments:“moretimededicatedtointerviews”and“groupmeetings(class,notinstitutional)weregoodbutshouldbeusedmoreoften.’’Coursesthatapplyactivefieldparticipationforthefutureprofessionalshouldconsiderthepositionofthesestudents.Thestudentislefttodisentangleethicallychallengingexperienceswith-outassistancefromfacultyorpeers. Inaddition, relyingsolelyon thepractitioner’sperceptionofhowdailyactivitiesmergeintotheoverall
Lindsteadt,Williams-Decker/LECTURETOFIELD 89
organizationalmissionwillmostlikelylimitthegrowthofthestudent’sunderstandingoftheirfuturevocation(Sgroi&Ryniker,2002).Thiscanresult in the student developing an overall negative perception of theagencyandfield,wheninfactitmaybesimplyanisolatedexperience(Jordan,Burns,Bedard,&Barringer,2007).JCCATSuMMARy
Inhindsight, thisclasswasanexhaustingendeavor for instructorsandstudents.Thesetypesofexperiencesaboundwiththepossibilityofpitfallsinplanning,student(faculty)personalityclashes,andfacilityin-cidents threatening theadvancementof theproject. In thiscase, thesetypesofproblemsfailedtoreartheiruglyheads,makingtheresultfullyworththeeffort.Itwasrefreshingtoseetheexcitedundergraduatestu-dentknowledgablydiscussingissueswithprofessionalsinthefield.Stu-dentsintriguedbywhattheyhear,viewinthemedia,orreadoftenhaveanalmostuncontrollabledesiretobeapartofsomethingtheyhaveonlyobservedhaphazardly.Bycouplingknowledgeofthesystemwithactualobservation, these JCCAT students were able to develop an informedoutlookoftheimpacttheindividualfacilitystaffcanhaveonachievinganorganization’smission.Thisisespeciallyimportantforstudentsen-teringafieldwheresubsystemsexistwithinasystem,buteachmaintainsadiverseandsometimescompetinggroupofactivities.Forexample,thejuvenilejusticesystemhasjudges,police,andcorrectionalworkersallparticipating inageneralmission,buthavingspecificduties that tendtooverlapandconflict(Leiber,Schwarze,Mack,&Farnworth,2002).Teachingearlythateffortsofcooperationdomatterasawaytoreachthemissionofanorganizationisanecessityforeducators. TheJCCATclassshouldbecommendedforimprovingtherelation-ship between academia and current practitioners in this specific field.Onefacilitymanagerwrote:“Thiswasagreatday...manyof thestaffinvolvedappreciatedbeingableto‘showoff’theirtalentsandeducateothers.Itwasawin/winsituationforeveryone.”Theaccoladesgivenstudents by facility representatives were numerous and seemed to fo-cusclearlyonthelevelofunderstandingoftheJCCATclassofsystemmechanics,or“howpreparedtheywereforwhatwedo”and“thefeed-back I received frommystaff is thatyour studentsweregreat..Theyseemed real interested and asked good questions. My people enjoyedyourpeople,comebackANYtime.”Thepost-tourQ&Awithadminis-tratorswouldoftenresembleapeerdiscussionmorethanaclassroomortrainingsession.BytheendoftheJCCATtours,facilitystaffandthestu-dentswereopenlycomparingprogramandsystemsfromdifferentsiteswherethesepractitionershadalsotraveled.Theseexperiencesserveasconfirmationtothevalueemployersplaceonthosewithcollegedegrees,easingthetransitionfromstudenttopractitioner.
90 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Althoughtheco-instructorswerehappywiththestudentturnoutandeffortsforthiscourse’sinauguralrun,futureJCCATtypecoursescouldbegreatlyenhancedbyexpandedrecruitmentanddevelopingmethodstoeasetheburdenforstudentstoparticipate.Thesemethodscouldincludestudent travel funding, scholarship opportunities, or simply makingspaceavailableincurriculumrequirementstoallowstudentsthechancetopersonalizetheirowneducation.Inthisclass,havingmalestudentsinvolvedmayhaveprovidedasignificantlydifferentperspectivetotheinformationgleanedfromthoseonthetour.Facilityadministratorsalsocommentedopenlyon theneed foryoungermale rolemodels for theyouthintheircare,apoolhighereducationcanprovidethesefacilitieswhichareoftenfoundinremote,ruralareas. Applied learning experiences in the workplace provide faculty auniqueway for students to remainbonded to theirfieldof interest.Athorough understanding of organizational needs will greatly increasethecourseplanner’sability todevelop these typesofapplied learningexperiences(Jeffords,2007).Earlyinthecourseplanning,facilityad-ministratorsdiscussedtherealityofoneacademicdisciplinenotbeingsufficienttoproduceaneffectiveenvironmenttochangetroubledyouth.Inretrospect,thetensionproducedinmixingacademicdisciplinesfur-therenhancedthelearningexperienceand,intheend,servedtobetterpreparethesefutureprofessionalsforthischallengingvocationandthewiderangeofindividualstheywillbeworkingwith.Academicsmustbewillingtocrosstheoftenwellguardedacademicboundariestodevelopthe typesofworkplaceopportunities thatwillbenefitboth thestudentandthefield.
REFEREnCESBailey,T.,Hughes,K.,&Moore,D.(2004).Working knowledge: Work-based learning and education reform.NewYork,NY:RoutledgeFalmer.Best,J.(2006,April14).Fromfadtoworse.Chronicle of Higher Education, 52(32),p.6-7.Biddinger-Gregg, S., & Schrink, J. (1997). Legal ramifications of student internships. Justice Professional, 10(1),61-74.Clear,T.(2001).Presidentialaddress:Hasacademiccriminaljusticecomeofage?Justice Quarterly, 24,709-726.Finckenauer,J.(2005).Thequestforqualityincriminaljusticeeducation.Justice Qua- terly, 24,413-426.Holtz, D. (2009, Winter). Summer corrections. Western: The Magazine of MWSU, p. 6. Retrieved April 1, 2009: http://www.missouriwestern.edu/magazine/docu- ments/MWMagazineWinter09.pdfHughes,K.,Moore,D.,&Bailey,T. (1999).Work-based learning and academic skills. ColumbiaUniversityInstituteonEducationandtheEconomy(IEEBriefNo.27).Jeffords,C.(2007).Gainingapprovalfromajuvenilecorrectionalagencytoconductex- ternalresearch:Theperspectiveofagatekeeper. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5(1),88-100.
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Jordan,W.,Burns,R.,Bedard,L.,&Barringer,T.(2007).Criminaljusticeinterns’obser- vationsofmisconduct:Anexploratorystudy.Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 18(2),298-310.Kolb,D.,Boyatzis,R.,&Mainemelis,C.(2001).Experientiallearningtheory:Previous researchandnewdirections.InR.J.SternbergandL.F.Zhang(Eds.),Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (pp.227-247).Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErl- baum.Kolb,A.,&Kolb,D.(2005).Learningstylesandlearningspaces:Enhancingexperien- tial learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4(2),193-212.Leiber,M.,Schwarze,K.,Mack,K.,&Farnworth,M.(2002).Theeffectsofoccupation andeducationonpunitiveorientationsamongjuvenilejusticepersonnel.Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(4),303-316.Resnik,L.,(1987).Learninginschoolandout:Presidentialaddress.Educational Research- er, 16(9),13-20.Ross,L.,&Elechi,O.(2002).Studentattitudestowardsinternshipexperiences:Fromtheo- rytopractice.Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 13(2),297-312.Sims,B.(2006).Creatingateachingandlearningenvironmentincriminaljusticecourses that promoteshigherorder thinking.Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 17(2), 336-357.Sgroi,C.,&Ryniker,M.(2002).Preparingfortherealworld:Apreludetoafieldwork experience.Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 13(1),187-190.Shaefer,J.(1996).Learningbyliving:Studentinternships.Corrections Today, 58(4),12-15.Stichman,A.&Farkas,M.(2005).Thepedagogicaluseofinternshipsincriminaljustice programs:Anationwide study. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 16(1), 145- 165.Wimshurst,K.,&Allard,T.(2007).Criminaljusticeeducation,employmentdestinations, andgraduatesatisfaction.The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 40(2),218-235.Wolff,M.,&Tinney,S.(2006,May).Applied learning as a best practice model: A strategy for higher education student success.Paperpresentedat theAssociationof Institu- tionalResearchNationalConference,Chicago,IL.
93
Student motivation and Assessment of Applied Skills in an equine
Studies Program
K.I. tumLIn MidwayCollege
R. LInAReS MidwayCollege
m.w. SChILLInG MississippiStateUniversity
Student motivation is a universal teaching challenge. A holistic approach to assessment was developed for cognitive and psychomotor tasks in equine studies. First-year students (n=55) were either randomly provided (PR) or not provided (NP) a rubric 3 weeks prior to skills testing. The PR students earned lower total scores (p < 0.05) than NP students (12.8 and 17.1 ± 5.3, respectively). In individual categories, PR and NP students had similar (p > 0.05) pass superior scores. Third-year students (n = 7) self-rated task performance us-ing an affective rubric and reflection exercises. Although the original goal was to promote standardization of hands-on skills, these data indicate that students are more goal-oriented than process-oriented; furthermore, use of affective rubrics for self-assessment promoted a learner-centered approach to motivation.
Midway College held a virtual monopoly on equine programs inKentuckywhenitsprogramwasstartedover20yearsago.Asstudentandindustrydemandforequineacademicshasincreased,approximately185 institutions in theUnitedStateshave launchedprogramswithdi-verseofferingsasdegrees, concentrations,or coursework focusingonthehorseindustry(NationalAssociationofEquineAffiliatedAcadem-
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducationVol.1,Fall200993-108©2009MissouriWesternStateUniversity
94 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
ics,2009).ThisdemandhasfollowedthegrowthoftheequineindustryintheUnitedStates.TheAmericanHorseCouncil(2005)reportedinanationalstudytargetedathorseownersthatthereareapproximately9.2millionhorses,whichishigher(3.6million)thantheuntargetedstudybytheUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture,NationalAgricultureSta-tisticsService(USDA,2002).Inadditiontohorsenumbers,theAmeri-can Horse Council concluded that the equine industry has a dramaticimpactontheUnitedStateseconomy.IntermsoftheGrossDomesticProduct (GDP), this industry contributes a total of $39 billion, whichisgreaterthanthemotionpictureindustry,railroadtransportation,fur-nituremanufacturingandtobaccoproductmanufacturingservices(TheAmericanHorseCouncil,2005).InKentuckyalone,theequineindustryhasareportedeconomicimpactofmorethanonebilliondollars(CenterforBusinessandEconomicResearch,2004).Forthefirsttime,the2010WorldEquestrianGameswillbehostedintheUnitedStatesinLexing-ton,Kentucky.Thiseventwillcreatejobsandinternshipopportunitiesinseveralaspectsoftheindustry.Recently,asagreaterpercentageofstudents fromurbanizedcommunitieshaveenrolled inappliedanimalscienceprograms(Brittetal.,2008;Hoover&Marshall,1998;Reilingetal.,2003),developmentofstandardizedcurriculumandassessmenttomeettheneedsofstudentswitheitherextensiveornon-existentanimalhandlingskillsisnecessitated. Althougheducationalopportunitiesintheequineindustryhavein-creasedoverthelast20years,thereisnouniversallyadoptedskillsetrequired for graduates of existing equine programs. Potential careerpathsrequiremasteryofbothhands-onskillsandbusinessknowledge(Conners&Brady,2009;Houge-Davies,2004;Kretler,1995).Forin-stance,anequineprofessionalhavingdirectcontactwithhorsesshouldbeable toassess thehealthandwelfareof thehorse, senseand inter-pretphysicalchangeswiththeirhandsandvisualinspections,interpretbehavior, perform training of the horse for a specific purpose, assessandmanagefeedingandnutritionalneeds,communicatewithclientsandmedical professionals, and perform accounting tasks plus many morebusinessmanagementactivities(Conners&Brady,2009;Houge-Davies,
AUTHOR NOTE: Kimberly I. Tumlin, Ph.D., Assistant Professor at Midway College; Rachel Linares, M.B.A., School for Career Development, Midway Col-lege; Wes Schilling, Ph.D., Dept. of Food Science, Nutrition, and Health Pro-motion, Mississippi State University. The authors would like to thank all of the students for their participation in this project and for their valuable feedback on the teaching and learning process. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Kimberly I. Tumlin, 512 E. Stephens St, Midway, KY 40347, e-mail: [email protected]
Tumlin,Linares,Schilling /STUDENTMOTIVATIONANDASSESSMENT 95
2004;Landers,2002).Clearly,thewidearrayofskillsnecessitatedforsuchcareersconfoundsdevelopmentofacademicstandardsforteachingequinestudies. The Equine Studies Program at Midway College consists of twoBaccalaureatedegreesandoneAssociatedegree.TheBaccalaureatede-greesareBachelorofScienceinEquineStudieswithConcentrationinEquineHealthandRehabilitationandBachelorofArtsinEquineStudieswith Concentration in Applied Equine Management. All degree pro-gramsrequiremasteryofhands-onskillsinadditiontospecificcognitiveandassessmenttasks. Atentry,themajorityofstudentsdisplaysomelevelofequineexperience,butthereisneitheracommonlevelofpro-ficiencynorasimilartrainingbackgroundamongstudents.Toaddressthesedifferences,afourcoursesequenceofPracticumclassesisrequiredofallequinestudiesstudentsatMidwayCollege. Hands-onskill learning isoftenevaluatedonlybyachievementoftheassigned taskafter repetitivepractices. Similar to rotememoriza-tionoffacts,thisrepetitiveperformancecanbeperceivedasboringorinsignificant,therebydecreasingintrinsicmotivationtolearnanewskill(Char,2009).Further,pre-existingknowledgeofequinehandlingdoesnotcorrelatetore-learningskillsinasafemethod(Meeketal.,2005).Whenstudentsdonotperformaskillfollowingthein-housemethod,itismoredifficulttoreducepotentialsafetyhazards.Besidessafety,thelearningprocess isoftendisruptedbecause inexperiencedstudentsareinitiallynotascomfortablehandlinghorsesandlookforguidancefromexperiencedstudents(Meeketal.,2005).Appliedlearningwithhorsesisunlikechemistryexperimentswheremixingofspecificchemicalspro-videsapredictablereaction(ornoreaction).Horsesareunpredictableanimals that react to the environment to satisfy basic survival needs.Therefore, this unpredictability poses a problem in standardizing theteachingandlearningprocessandcanpresentinterferenceaslesscon-fidentstudentsexpresslowermotivationinsituationsthatareperceivedtobeunsafe.Inconsiderationofthesechallenges,ateachingtoolwasinvestigatedasameanstolinktheprocessofcriticalthinkingtoaction. Generally,rubricsarepartofateacher’sdailyroutineinwhichru-bricsarecreatedandutilizedtoaccuratelyachieveagradingstandard.Rubricsareaformofauthenticitysettoguidebothstudentsandteach-ers inassignmentevaluationandareoftensubjective innature. Theyarecommonlyseeninwritingcoursesandusedforassessmenttestinginprimaryschools(Andrade,2000;Andrade&Du,2005;Char,2009;Loveland,2005). AccordingtoLoveland(2005),rubricsarevitalbe-causeoftheneedforcleardescriptionsofprojectexpectations,anduponreview,rubricsprovideaclearlydelineatedpathforstudentstoimprovetheirwork.Lovelandalsostatedthebenefitsofawell-plannedandthor-ough rubric for teachers. Development of an original rubric requires
96 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
instructorstotakearetrospectiveviewofataskforwhichtheyarewrit-ing the rubric (Leonhardt, 2005). Other authors echoed the need forrubricstobeclearandconcise(Andrade,2005;Andrade&Du,2005;Issaacson&Stacy,2009).Ifstudentsdonothavepriorknowledgeofthecategoriesdefinedonarubric,thenrubricusagecancreatefrustra-tion,bedismissed,orbeusedonlyinapartialformat(Andrade&Du,2005).Toincreaseeffectiveuseofrubrics,studentsshouldpracticeus-ingtheassessmenttool(Andrade,2000;Hafner&Hafner,2003;Tan&Towndrow,2009).Oftenstudentswillusearubricasastudyguideoroutlinefordevelopingwrittenprojects(Andrade&Du,2005),medicaltaskperformance (Brownetal.,2006),and formativedevelopmentofmusicskills(Leonhardt,2005)indicatingthatsuchanassessmenttoolisusefulintheteachingprocess. Forthisresearchproject,arubricwaschosenasateachingandas-sessmenttoolbecauseeachhands-ontask,orpsychomotorskill,couldbesubdividedintopartsandperformancemeasurescouldbeevaluated;therebytheprocessofteachingandlearningthetaskwouldbestandard-ized.Intheory,providingtheassessmenttoolpriortoataskshouldim-provestudentscores;therefore,theobjectiveofPhaseIwastodetermineifpriorknowledgeoftheassessmenttoolwouldincreaseoverallscoresaswellasscoresonindividualstepsascomparedtogroupsthatdidnotreceivetherubric.BasedonresultsfromPhaseI,asecondobjectivewasdevelopedtodetermineifstudentmotivationtoperformhands-onskillsisenhancedwhenprovidedwithanaffectiverubricforself-assessment.
METhoD
PhASEI
Afaculty-derivedrubricwasdevelopedforashowmanshippattern,whichisaskillcommonlyfoundinshowinghorsesforcompetitionandsale.Thistaskisuniversalinthatallbreedsanddisciplinesinthein-dustryuseshowmanshipformarketingtheirhorsesand/orservicebusi-nesses.Althoughsomevariationsinhorsepresentationandhandlerdressexist,effortsweremadetopreparearubricwhichwouldbeapplicableacrossbreedsanddisciplines.Theshowmanshipskillinvolvesthestu-dentmakingpreparationswithahorseseveralweekspriortocompletingthetask;therefore,studentswouldrequireadequatetimetoprepareforassessment. Steps to create an original rubric were modified using apreviouslydescribedmethod(Leonhardt,2005).Therubricwassubse-quentlyrevised,basedonstudentandfacultyfeedbackfollowinganini-tialreviewaspreviouslysuggested(Murthy&Etkina,2005).First-yearstudents(n=55)wereeitherrandomlyprovided(PR)ornotprovided(NP)therubricthreeweekspriortoskillstesting.Inthisinstance,the
Tumlin,Linares,Schilling /STUDENTMOTIVATIONANDASSESSMENT 97
taskwasdesegregatedinto11categorieswithapasssuperior,pass,orfail scoring category worth 2, 1, and 0 points, respectively (Table 1).Once the studentswereassessedusing the rubric,datawereanalyzedbytheProcGLMprocedureofSASwithjudgeandwhetherornottherubricwasprovidedastestvariables.Significancesweredeterminedatp<0.05withtendenciesnotedbetweenp=0.05andp=0.10. PhASEII—PILoTSTuDy As the equine industry incorporatesnon-invasiveperformanceen-hancingtechniquessuchashydrotherapy,massage,andwatertreadmillexercise,thereisincreaseddemandforindividualswithbothknowledgeandtheabilitytosynthesizeandevaluatehealingandphysicalconditionvisually and through tactile sensations. Unlike human rehabilitation,horsesdonotprovidereliablefeedbackonhowthestudentisapplyingtouch;furthermore,educatingstudentstohave‘thinkinghands’presentsa challenge. A holistic approach to teaching sensory perception wasimplemented inaseriesofmanual integrationcourses. Theactivitiesweredesignedinasequentialformattopromotemovementthroughallsixcognitivelevels(Bloom,1956),andusingmethodsfromanexperien-tiallearningmodelpreviouslyappliedinalarge-animalpracticalcourse(Reilingetal.,2003).Toolsforteachingtouchinotherfields,suchasnursing,wereusedinconjunctionwithlecturematerials.Further,labo-ratoriesweredevelopedusingheatingpacksandfalsehairsamples tosimulateheatandcoldperception.Duringatouchlaboratorystudentswere expected to apply self-massage techniques on the arms, hands,shoulders,andheadtoexplorefeeling.Studentswerealsoassignedtoapplymassagetechniquesonaprojecthorseforthecourseoftwosemes-ters. Studentswererequiredtoself-assessaffectivecharacteristicsof“comfort”and“feeling”(Table2)immediatelyfollowingcompletionofaforementionedexercises.Studentswerethenaskedtoreflectontheex-perienceinawrittenformatandwereledinaninformalgroupdiscussionregardingtheaffectiverubrictodetermineusefulnessandmotivationtolearnthenoveltasks.
RESuLTSPhASEI
Sampletasksandassessmentstandardsincludedameasurableout-comeformanyoftheshowmanshipsteps(Table1).Forexample,thetaskofpivotingahorse90degreesismeasurablebytheamountofpivot.However,sometaskswereconsideredmoresubjectivebytheratersthanthosewithaclearlyquantifiablevalue.Foreachtaskcategory,students
98 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Stu
den
t M
oti
vat
ion a
nd A
sses
smen
t
22
Tab
le 1
: R
ubri
c fo
r th
e sh
ow
man
ship
tas
k
Task
P
ass
Su
per
ior
Pass
F
ail
Sta
nd h
ors
e at
cone
1;
read
y a
nd w
aiti
ng
to b
e ju
dged
Hors
e is
sta
ndin
g q
uie
tly i
n t
he
pro
per
stan
ce f
or
the
bre
ed/t
ype
show
n.
Hors
e's
should
er i
s at
the
cone.
Han
dle
r is
show
ing i
n t
he
appro
pri
ate
quar
ter,
exhib
itin
g a
pre
cise
show
stan
ce.
Hors
e is
sta
ndin
g q
uie
tly i
n t
he
pro
per
stan
ce f
or
the
bre
ed/t
ype
show
n.
Hors
e's
should
er i
s nea
r th
e co
ne.
Han
dle
r is
show
ing i
n t
he
appro
pri
ate
quar
ter,
exhib
itin
g a
loose
but
tech
nic
ally
corr
ect
show
sta
nce
.
Hors
e is
not
stan
din
g i
n t
he
pro
per
stan
ce f
or
the
bre
ed/t
ype
show
n.
Hors
e's
should
er i
s unev
en w
ith t
he
cone.
H
andle
r is
not
show
ing i
n t
he
appro
pri
ate
quar
ter.
H
andle
r is
not
exhib
itin
g a
pro
per
show
sta
nce
.
Wai
t fo
r th
e ju
dge
to
nod i
n
acknow
ledgm
ent
of
the
han
dle
r
Han
dle
r w
aits
for
the
judge
to n
od.
Aft
er t
he
nod, th
e han
dle
r m
oves
pro
mptl
y i
nto
the
pat
tern
.
Han
dle
r w
aits
for
the
judge
to n
od.
Ther
e is
a s
light
hes
itat
ion b
efore
the
han
dle
r m
oves
into
the
pat
tern
Han
dle
r does
not
wai
t fo
r th
e ju
dge
to
nod. T
her
e is
an o
bvio
us
hes
itat
ion
bef
ore
the
han
dle
r m
oves
into
the
pat
tern
.
Wal
k f
rom
fir
st t
o
seco
nd c
one
Lin
e of
trav
el i
s st
raig
ht.
H
ors
e
moves
off
wit
hout
hes
itat
ion w
ith a
bri
sk f
orw
ard m
oti
on. H
andle
r
mai
nta
ins
a pro
per
dis
tance
aw
ay
from
the
hors
e an
d e
ven
wit
h t
he
hors
e's
ear.
Lin
e of
trav
el i
s fa
irly
str
aight.
H
ors
e
moves
off
wit
h s
ligh
t hes
itat
ion w
ith
forw
ard m
oti
on. H
andle
r m
ainta
ins
a
pro
per
dis
tance
aw
ay f
rom
the
hors
e
and e
ven
wit
h t
he
hors
e's
ear.
Lin
e of
trav
el i
s not
stra
ight.
H
ors
e
show
s obvio
us
hes
itat
ion i
n s
tart
ing
forw
ard. H
ors
e m
ay e
xhib
it
bac
kw
ard m
oti
on. F
orw
ard m
oti
on i
s
sluggis
h a
nd l
acks
ener
gy. H
andle
r
does
not
mai
nta
in p
roper
posi
tionin
g
in r
elat
ion t
o t
he
hors
e.
Hal
t; P
ivot
90
deg
rees
to t
he
right
at c
one
2
Hors
e hal
ts s
quar
ely w
ith s
hould
er
even
at
cone
2. N
o b
ackw
ard
movem
ent
is o
bse
rved
. H
ors
e m
oves
smooth
ly i
nto
the
piv
ot,
kee
pin
g
forw
ard m
oti
on w
ith t
he
front
feet
and l
eft
hin
d f
oot,
and p
lanti
ng t
he
right
hin
d f
oot.
T
he
hau
nch
turn
is
exac
tly 9
0 d
egre
es.
Hors
e hal
ts s
quar
ely w
ith s
hould
er
even
to c
one
2. N
o b
ackw
ard
movem
ent
is o
bse
rved
. H
ors
e sh
ow
s
slig
ht
hes
itat
ion m
ovin
g i
nto
the
piv
ot,
kee
pin
g f
orw
ard m
oti
on w
ith
the
front
feet
, an
d p
lanti
ng o
ne
of
the
hin
d f
eet.
T
he
hau
nch
turn
is
exac
tly
90 d
egre
es.
Hors
e does
not
hal
t sq
uar
ely. H
ors
e's
should
er i
s not
even
wit
h c
one
2.
Bac
kw
ard m
ovem
ent
is o
bse
rved
.
Hors
e sh
ow
s obvio
us
hes
itat
ion
movin
g i
nto
the
piv
ot
and s
how
s
bac
kw
ards
moti
on w
ith t
he
front
feet
.
The
hau
nch
turn
is
not
equal
to 9
0
deg
rees
.
Tro
t/jo
g f
rom
cone
2
to c
one
3
Lin
e of
trav
el i
s st
raig
ht
to t
he
judge.
Hors
e m
oves
off
wit
hou
t hes
itat
ion
wit
h a
bri
sk f
orw
ard m
oti
on. H
andle
r
mai
nta
ins
a pro
per
dis
tance
aw
ay
from
the
hors
e ev
en w
ith t
he
hors
e's
ear.
Lin
e of
trav
el i
s fa
irly
str
aight
to t
he
judge.
H
ors
e m
oves
off
wit
h s
light
hes
itat
ion w
ith f
orw
ard m
oti
on.
Han
dle
r m
ainta
ins
a pro
per
dis
tance
away
fro
m t
he
hors
e ev
en w
ith t
he
hors
e's
ear.
Lin
e of
trav
el i
s not
stra
ight
to t
he
judge.
H
ors
e sh
ow
s obvio
us
hes
itat
ion i
n s
tart
ing f
orw
ard. H
ors
e
may
exhib
it b
ackw
ard m
oti
on.
Forw
ard m
oti
on i
s sl
uggis
h a
nd l
acks
ener
gy. H
andle
r does
not
mai
nta
in
pro
per
posi
tionin
g i
n r
elat
ion t
o t
he
hors
e.
Table1:Rubricforthesh
owmanshiptask
Tumlin,Linares,Schilling /STUDENTMOTIVATIONANDASSESSMENT 99
Stu
den
t M
oti
vat
ion a
nd A
sses
smen
t
23
Han
dle
r an
d h
ors
e
hal
t at
co
ne
3;
han
dle
r st
and
s h
ors
e
Ho
rse
hal
ts s
qu
arel
y w
ith
sh
ou
lder
even
at
con
e 3
. N
o b
ack
war
d
mo
vem
ent
is o
bse
rved
. H
ors
e is
stan
din
g i
n t
he
pro
per
bre
ed s
tan
ce
wit
hin
6 s
eco
nd
s o
f th
e h
alt.
H
and
ler
is s
ho
win
g i
n t
he
app
rop
riat
e q
uar
ter,
exh
ibit
ing
a p
reci
se s
ho
w s
tan
ce.
Ho
rse
hal
ts s
qu
arel
y w
ith
sh
ou
lder
even
at
con
e 3
. N
o b
ack
war
d
mo
vem
ent
is o
bse
rved
. H
ors
e is
stan
din
g i
n t
he
pro
per
bre
ed s
tan
ce
wit
hin
15
sec
on
ds
of
the
hal
t.
Han
dle
r is
sh
ow
ing
in
th
e ap
pro
pri
ate
qu
arte
r, e
xh
ibit
ing
a l
oo
se b
ut
tech
nic
ally
co
rrec
t sh
ow
sta
nce
.
Ho
rse
do
es n
ot
hal
t sq
uar
ely
. H
ors
e's
sho
uld
er i
s n
ot
even
wit
h c
on
e 3
.
Bac
kw
ard
mo
vem
ent
is o
bse
rved
.
Ho
rse
is n
ot
stan
din
g i
n t
he
pro
per
bre
ed s
tan
ce.
Han
dle
r is
no
t sh
ow
ing
in t
he
app
rop
riat
e q
uar
ter.
H
and
ler
is
no
t ex
hib
itin
g a
pro
per
sh
ow
sta
nce
.
Han
dle
r p
rese
nts
ho
rse
in q
uar
ters
Han
dle
r co
nsi
sten
tly
sta
nd
s in
th
e
app
rop
riat
e q
uar
ter
in r
elat
ion
to
th
e
jud
ge.
M
ov
emen
t in
fro
nt
of
the
ho
rse
is p
reci
se a
nd
qu
ick
, u
sin
g a
min
imu
m o
f st
eps.
Han
dle
r co
nsi
sten
tly
sta
nd
s in
th
e
app
rop
riat
e q
uar
ter
in r
elat
ion
to
th
e
jud
ge.
M
ov
emen
t in
fro
nt
of
the
ho
rse
is s
mo
oth
, b
ut
lack
s p
reci
sen
ess
and
en
erg
y.
Han
dle
r d
oes
no
t st
and
in
th
e
app
rop
riat
e q
uar
ter
in r
elat
ion
to
th
e
jud
ge.
M
ov
emen
t in
fro
nt
of
the
ho
rse
lack
sm
oo
thn
ess
and
lo
ok
s
stil
ted
an
d a
wk
war
d.
Han
dle
r tu
rns
ho
rse
27
0 d
egre
es t
o t
he
rig
ht;
wal
ks
to l
ine
up
are
a
Ho
rse
mo
ves
sm
oo
thly
in
to t
he
piv
ot,
kee
pin
g f
orw
ard
mo
tio
n w
ith
th
e fr
on
t
feet
an
d l
eft
hin
d f
oo
t, a
nd
pla
nti
ng
the
rig
ht
hin
d f
oo
t.
Th
e h
aun
ch t
urn
is e
xac
tly
27
0 d
egre
es.
Ho
rse
dep
arts
smo
oth
ly i
nto
a f
orw
ard
, en
erg
etic
wal
k.
Ho
rse
sho
ws
slig
ht
hes
itat
ion
mo
vin
g
into
th
e p
ivo
t, k
eep
ing
fo
rwar
d
mo
tio
n w
ith
th
e fr
on
t fe
et,
and
pla
nti
ng
on
e o
f th
e h
ind
fee
t.
Th
e
hau
nch
tu
rn i
s ex
actl
y 2
70
deg
rees
.
Ho
rse
dep
arts
fai
rly
sm
oo
thly
in
to a
forw
ard
wal
k.
Ho
rse
sho
ws
ob
vio
us
hes
itat
ion
mo
vin
g i
nto
th
e p
ivo
t an
d s
ho
ws
bac
kw
ard
s m
oti
on
wit
h t
he
fro
nt
feet
.
Th
e h
aun
ch t
urn
is
no
t eq
ual
to
27
0
deg
rees
. H
and
ler
turn
s h
ors
e th
e
wro
ng
dir
ecti
on
. H
ors
e sh
ow
s
hes
itat
ion
at
the
wal
k a
nd
do
es n
ot
exh
ibit
an
en
erg
etic
gai
t.
Han
dle
r li
nes
up
an
d
rem
ain
s sh
ow
ing
ho
rse
Ho
rse
is s
tan
din
g q
uie
tly
in
th
e p
rop
er
stan
ce f
or
the
bre
ed/t
yp
e sh
ow
n.
Han
dle
r is
sh
ow
ing
in
th
e ap
pro
pri
ate
qu
arte
r, e
xh
ibit
ing
a p
reci
se s
ho
w
stan
ce.
Ho
rse
is s
tan
din
g q
uie
tly
in
th
e p
rop
er
stan
ce f
or
the
bre
ed/t
yp
e sh
ow
n.
Han
dle
r is
sh
ow
ing
in
th
e ap
pro
pri
ate
qu
arte
r, e
xh
ibit
ing
a l
oo
se b
ut
tech
nic
ally
co
rrec
t sh
ow
sta
nce
.
Ho
rse
is n
ot
stan
din
g i
n t
he
pro
per
stan
ce f
or
the
bre
ed/t
yp
e sh
ow
n.
Han
dle
r is
no
t sh
ow
ing
in
th
e
app
rop
riat
e q
uar
ter.
H
and
ler
is n
ot
exh
ibit
ing
a p
rop
er s
ho
w s
tan
ce.
Ov
eral
l -
Han
dle
r's
atti
re
Han
dle
r is
dre
ssed
in
th
e ap
pro
pri
ate
atti
re f
or
the
bre
ed/t
yp
e b
ein
g s
ho
wn
.
Att
ire
is o
f th
e h
igh
est
sho
w c
alib
er.
Han
dle
r is
dre
ssed
in
th
e ap
pro
pri
ate
atti
re f
or
the
bre
ed/t
yp
e b
ein
g s
ho
wn
.
Att
ire
is f
un
ctio
nal
, cl
ean
an
d f
itte
d.
Han
dle
r is
no
t d
ress
ed i
n t
he
app
rop
riat
e at
tire
fo
r th
e b
reed
/ty
pe
bei
ng
sh
ow
n.
Att
ire
is d
irty
, h
as
ho
les
in i
t, a
nd
do
es n
ot
fit
wel
l.
Ov
eral
l -
Ho
rse'
s
app
eara
nce
Ho
rse
is v
ery
cle
an a
nd
pas
ses
the
wh
ite
glo
ve
test
. A
ll m
ark
ing
s ar
e
gle
amin
g w
hit
e.
Ho
rse
is
app
rop
riat
ely
cli
pp
ed.
Man
e an
d t
ail
are
bra
ided
/ban
ded
ap
pro
pri
atel
y.
All
equ
ipm
ent
is c
lean
.
Ho
rse
is c
lean
, w
ith
so
me
du
st
sho
win
g o
n t
he
wh
ite
glo
ve
test
. A
ll
mar
kin
gs
are
clea
n.
Ho
rse
is
app
rop
riat
ely
cli
pp
ed.
Man
e an
d t
ail
are
clea
n,
bru
shed
an
d f
ree
fro
m
tan
gle
s.
All
eq
uip
men
t is
cle
an.
Ho
rse
has
ob
vio
us
dir
t sh
ow
ing
an
d
do
es n
ot
pas
s th
e w
hit
e g
lov
e te
st.
Mar
kin
gs
hav
e st
ain
s o
r v
isib
le d
irt.
Ho
rse
is n
ot
clip
ped
. M
ane
and
tai
l
are
tan
gle
d a
nd
dir
ty.
Eq
uip
men
t
clea
rly
has
no
t b
een
cle
aned
.
Stu
den
t M
oti
vat
ion
an
d A
sses
smen
t
24
Fin
al S
core
: N
um
ber
of
“Pas
s S
uper
ior”
x 2
=
Num
ber
of
“Pas
s” x
1 =
N
um
ber
“F
ail”
x 0
=
100 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
earnedascore(Fail=0,Pass=1,PassSuperior=2)thatwascompiledtoequatetoatotalscore.Anoverallscoreof11wasconsideredpassingfortheassessment.TheresultsdemonstratedthatthePRstudentsearnedalower(p<0.05)totalscoreof12.8thantheNPstudentsearnedof17.1(Table3).Inconsiderationofindividualscorecategories(Table4),thePRandNPstudentshadsimilar(p>0.05)passsuperiorscores.Interest-ingly,PRstudentsdemonstratedhigher(p<0.05)passscoresthantheNPstudents.Conversely,higher(p<0.05)failscores(1.4)werenotedinNPstudentsascomparedtoPRstudents(0.1).
Student Motivation and Assessment
6
Table 3: Total scores for students (n = 55) either provided the rubric (PR) or not provided
the rubric (NP) prior to the skill assessment.
Student Group Total Score1
PR 12.8b
NP 17.1a
(5.3) 1Total scores for all rubric categories (mean square error for total scores)
ab Values with unlike superscripts within a column are significantly different at p < 0.05
Table3:Totalscoresforstudents(n=55)eitherprovidedtherubric(PR)ornotprovidedtherubric(nP)priortotheskillassessment.
1Totalscoresforallrubriccategories(meansquareerrorfortotalscores)abValueswithunlikesuperscriptswithinacolumnaresignificantlydifferentatp<0.05 Student Motivation and Assessment
27
Table 4: Individual score categories for students (n = 55) either provided the rubric (PR)
or not provided the rubric (NP) prior to the skill assessment.
1Individual scores for all rubric categories (mean square error for total scores
ab Values with unlike superscripts within a column are significantly different at p < 0.05
Score Category1
Student Group Pass Superior Pass Fail
PR 2.3a 6.1
a 0.1
b
NP 3.3a 2.0
b 1.4
a
(3.5) (2.9) (0.2)
Table4:Individualscorecategoriesforstudents(n=55)eitherprovidedtherubric(PR)ornotprovidedtherubric(nP)priortotheskillassessment.
1Individualscoresforallrubriccategories(meansquareerrorfortotalscores)abValueswithunlikesuperscriptswithinacolumnaresignificantlydifferentatp<0.05
Student Motivation and Assessment
25
Table 2: Assessment rubric for comfort and feeling
Comfort I was/am 20%
comfortable with
performing this
exercise.
I was/am 40%
comfortable
with
performing this
exercise.
I was/am 70%
comfortable with
performing this
exercise.
I was/am 100%
comfortable with
performing this
exercise.
Personal
Feeling
I am exhausted; I
feel drained; I feel
sore in my hands
and shoulders; I
am 100%
dissatisfied with
the session
I am neutral; I
feel neither
drained nor
energized; I
feel sore in my
hands and
shoulders; I am
only 25 %
satisfied with
the session
I am neutral; I
feel neither
drained nor
energized; I feel
good overall; I
feel sore in my
hands and
shoulders; I am
only 70%
satisfied with the
session
I am energized or
at least feel the
same as I started
the session; I feel
grounded; I feel
only minor
soreness in my
hands and
shoulders; I am
100% satisfied
with the session.
Table2:Assessmentrubricforcomfortandfeeling
Tumlin,Linares,Schilling /STUDENTMOTIVATIONANDASSESSMENT 101
PhASEII Astandardizedrubric(Table2)forassessingaffectivevaluesinper-formingtactileskillswasratedas100%(7of7responses)usefulbystu-dents.Whenaskedtoanalyzeindividualprogressoverthesemester,stu-dentsindicatedthattheircomfortandpersonalfeelingscoresdecreasedundertwoconditions:whenataskwasnovelorwhenexternalstressors(exams, personal situations, lack of rest) impacted their participation.Facultyobservationsof student involvement incourseactivitiesnotedthat as students realized that their peerswere also feelinguncomfort-ableortired,theclasswasmorelikelytoparticipateindiscussionsandexpressedmoreeagernesstoapplythetechniquesinapracticumsetting.
DISCuSSIon
Results fromthe initialstudyagreewith theconcepts identified inboth the arts and music fields (Mason & Steedly, 2006; Meier et al.,2006;Leonhardt,2005).Therewerenotablediscrepanciesintheuseofindividualstepsoftherubric,makingassessmentcomplicated.However,basedonfocusgroupdiscussionswithraters,thefaculty-derivedrubricwasdesegregatedintoappropriatecategoriesandconsidereduseful,al-thoughmeasurementof‘usefulness’wasnotdeterminedinPhaseI.Fromthesediscussions,theimportanceofprovidingamethodforquantifyingperformanceundereachtaskcategorywasnoted. Althoughnotclearlyaddressed,otherworksutilizingrubricsforpsy-chomotorskillsoftenincludesomeformofquantitativemeasure(Brownet al., 2006;Seybert&Barton, 2007), although suchvalueswerenotconsistentlyincludedinrubricsusedforwritingskills(Andrade,2005;Loveland, 2005). By nature, the rubric as an assessment tool shouldmakegradinglessredundantbylimitingthenumberoftimesaprofessorwritesthesamecommentandprovidesameansforstudentunderstand-ing of grading standards (Brookhart, 2003). Descriptors such as “few,”“widevariety,” “slowly,” “many,” areopen to interpretation resultingindifferencesbetweenraterandstudentinterpretation.Thedifferencesbetweentheneedforquantitativemeasureinrubricsforcognitiveskillsascomparedtopsychomotorskillsmayberelatedmoretofieldofstudy.Forinstance,innursing,a“likelyharmful”scoreinarubricdealingwithapplicationofaseptictechniqueforpreparationofasepticproductsmayresult in injury, illness or death depending on the ultimate use of theproduct(Brownetal.,2006). Inconsiderationofanincreasedrisk tohumans or animals, rubric categories should be quantifiable by time,proportions,orotherformsofmeasuretolimitraterinterpretationandsubjectivity. As ameans to address clarity in rubricuse, proportionswere implemented into the rubricdevelopedforPhase II. Theuseof
102 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
proportionsgaveraterstheabilitytoassessthevalueoftheiraffectiveresponseonacommonlyknownscale.Thesealterationsaidedincreat-ingclarityoftheassessmenttool,whichisinagreementwithpreviouswork(Andrade&Du,2005;Meieretal.,2006). MurthyandEtkina(2005)designedarubrictoassesstheirstudents’abilities in devising solutions to a laboratory problem and conveyingtheirsolutioninawrittenformatreportsinalargeenrollmentintroducto-rylaboratorycourse.Theaveragefinalexamscoreforthesamplegroupwas 78.3 as compared to the class average of 75 out of 100 possiblepoints.Theauthorsindicatedaneedfordevelopmentandrevisionoftherubricpriortouseandsuggestedthatstudentperformanceimprovedaf-terreceivingtherubric(Murthy&Etkina,2005).ThesedatacontradictthefindingsinPhaseI.ApparentlystudentsinPhaseIPRgroupweremotivatedtoaccomplisha“passing”score,butnotmotivatedenoughtoachievea“passsuperior”score. Further, thereweremorestudents toboth“fail”and“passsuperior”intheNPgroupsreflectingthehighestandlowestmotivationforachievingtheoverallskill. Compilationofstudentreflectionsintoseveralthemesdemonstratedinbothphasesofthisstudythattheoverallexperienceofusingarubricwaspositiveandalleviatedmuchoftheconfusionoftenassociatedwiththe “how-to’s” of hands-on skills. The students in Phase II reflectedthattherubricsshouldbecreatedforallequinecoursestohelpalleviatesubjectivityinassessment.Thisthemesupportsthefacultyobservationthatperceptionoffairnessinassessmentandclearnessofexpectationsenhancesmotivationandwillingnesstolearntheseskillsandagreeswithsimilarfindingsinthewritingfield(Andrade&Du,2005)andfororalpresentations (Hafner & Hafner, 2003). Despite this positive theme,therewerestudent-derivedrecommendationsforimprovementoftheas-sessmenttools.Thefirstrecommendationthemewasthatsomestepsintheskillsrubricshouldbeweightedascriticalpoints,andtheskillstepsshouldbeevenmoredetailedtomaketheteachingandassessmenttoolmore effective. Another recommendation was that all students couldhavebenefitedfromhavingthetoolinadvanceforpracticinghands-onskills;however,basedonstudentscoresinthistrial,thisperceptiondoesnotresultinachievementofthehighestpossiblescore.Thisdiscrepancybetweenattitudetowardstherubricuseandperceptionofperformancelevelwasalsoobservedintheapplicationofmusicskills(Char,2009;Schmidt,2005).Assessmentofastudent’smotivationtopracticeataskascomparedtoperformanceofthattaskmaybeabettermeanstodif-ferentiateintrinsicfromextrinsicmotivators(Schmidt,2005).
Tumlin,Linares,Schilling /STUDENTMOTIVATIONANDASSESSMENT 103
uSEoFRuBRICSAnDSTuDEnTDEVELoPMEnTInAPPLIEDLEARnInG
Bloom’sTaxonomyofLearningdictatesthatlearningoccursinthreedifferentmanners:cognitive(knowledge),affective(attitude),andpsy-chomotor(skills)(Bloom,1956).Inanequinestudiesprogram,abaselevelofcognitivelearningisnecessarysothatthestudentunderstandstheory and background common to the industry. Also necessary is ahighlevelofpsychomotorlearninginanefforttoachievepracticalap-plications.Thispresentsachallengetotheinstructorwhomustbalancethelevelsandapplicationofcognitiveandpsychomotorlearningwithina given lesson. In addition to complicating the teaching process, thecombinationofcognitiveandpsychomotorelementscreatesachallengeinassessingstudentperformance. Studentsdemonstratingaparticulartask(evidenceoftheskill)arenotusuallyexpectedtoalsodemonstratecognitivelearning(eitherinverbalorwrittenformat).Conversely,stu-dents demonstrating cognitive learning generally are not required todemonstratepsychomotorlearningwithahorseintheclassroomenvi-ronment. Aframeworkdescribingthedifferentstagesofpsychomotorlearn-inghasbeenpreviouslydescribed(Simpson,1972).Withinthisframe-workastudentprogresses throughthestepsofperception,set,guidedresponse,mechanism,complexovertresponse,adaptation,andorigina-tion. Thesedivisionsprogress frombasic learningof a skill (percep-tionandset)toadvancedmasteryoftheskillresultinginspontaneousimprovementasaresponsetospecificproblems(origination).Withinanequinestudiesprogram,professorsencouragestudentstoprogressfromguidedresponsetoatleastthemechanismstep.Asstudentsprogresstothemechanismcategory,theyhavemovedintotheintermediatestagesof learning. During this type of psychomotor learning, response andactionsbecomehabitual,andthestudentdisplaysamoderateamountofconfidencewhendisplayingskills(Simpson,1972).Studentsinequineprograms are traditionally assessed by demonstration and subsequentcomparisonofthepsychomotorskilltoastandard,whichisdefinedin-houseorbyarespectedequineprofessional.However,achievementoftheskillisnotalwaystheentirepurposeofteachingthetask,andsomemethodsofperformingindividualskillsputboththehorseandstudentinpotentiallydangeroussituations.Theseskillsareoftennotintuitiveorinherentlylogical;therefore,safetyissuesandprograminconsisten-ciesdictate theneedfor theseskillsandthe learningexperience tobestandardized.Intheequineindustry,judgingstandardsassociatedwithshowingofvariousbreedsanddisciplinesexist;however,clearholisticstandards that reach across all breeds or disciplines do not. In otherfields,therearestandardizedtestsforoutcome-basedcognitivelearning.
104 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
Thedatapresentedinthistrialindicateacombinationofanassessmentrubricdevelopedforaspecificpsychomotortaskandanaffectiverubricforself-assessmentareviableoptionsforteachingandassessingappliedskillsintheequinestudiesfield. Previousexperienceswithhandlinghorsesaffectstudentcomfortinperformingappliedtasks(Meeketal.,2005).Throughfurtherdevelop-mentofrubricsforotherequinestudiesskills,asindicatedinthisstudy,thehands-onexperiencecouldbestandardized.Furthermore,well-con-structed rubricsmay also assist indeveloping intrinsicmotivation forlearningtheseskillswhenstudentsdemonstratepre-existinghorseexpe-riences.Inexperiencedstudentscouldbenefitfromthesetoolsbyhavingaclearlydelineatedstep-wiseprocess.BothAndradeandDu(2005)andBrookhart(2003)reportedthatformativeassessmentof“goodwriting”resultsinstudentstransferringtheirrubric-basedconceptionsofqualityworkintoothercoursesandtootherstudents.Asacademicprogramsin the equine studiesfieldgrow, furtherdevelopmentof teaching andassessmenttoolswhichstandardizehands-onskilllearningandthecriti-calthinkingprocesswouldpromotecohesivenessofequinestudiespro-grams,enhancestudentmotivation,andprovideameansfordocument-ingstudentprogress.Otherfieldsofstudythatdonothavethebenefitofmultipleleadinggenerationsmightalsobenefitfromdevelopmentofsimilartoolstopromotestandardization,motivation,anddocumentationofstudentlearning. Experientiallearningandmorespecificallyactivelearningisanin-structionalmethodwhichengagesstudentsinthelearningprocessandrequiresthatstudentsthinkaboutwhattheyaredoinginsteadofsolelymemorizingfacts(Lohuisetal.,1999;Prince,2004;Tan&Towndrow,2009).Inthisstudy,rubricswereusedasapplicationsofuniversalintel-lectualstandards(Paul&Elder,2001)for teachingandassessmentofhands-onskills. Basedon focusgroupdiscussions, thestudent learn-ingexperiencewaspositive,andthetoolsservedaseffectivemeansforlinkingcriticalthoughttoaction.Studentswereencouragednotonlytoperformaskill,buttoevaluatehowtoperformthatskill.Thisobserva-tionhasalsobeenrecentlydocumentedinstudentslearningmusicskills(Char,2009). Byusing rubrics in thismethod, theprocessofcriticalthinkingwasintroducedinanon-threateningmanner.Studentsclearlystruggledwithconvertingfromcognitivetoaffectiveandself-reflectiveactivitiesasindicatedthroughobservableexpressionsoffrustrationanddissatisfaction in Phase II. These observations support the data fromPhaseIofstudentsbeingmoregoal-orientedthanprocess-oriented.TheresultsfromPhaseIclearlydelineatedthatfirst-yearstudentsmaynotworktothehighestscorelevelwhenprovidedwiththeassessmenttool,whichisinagreementwithresultsinthemusic(Char,2009)andwriting(Andrade&Du,2005)fields.Motivationinthird-andfourth-yearstu-
Tumlin,Linares,Schilling /STUDENTMOTIVATIONANDASSESSMENT 105
dentsisoftenperceivedaslessaboutcomfortandmoreaboutfocusingon graduation or employment goals. Clayton (2009) stressed the de-velopmentoflearningobjectivesfor“criticalreflection[that]generates,deepensanddocumentslearning”(p.7).Similarly,innursingclinicaleducation,theuseofrubricsaidednotonlyininstructorfeedback,butalsostudentapplicationofcritical thinkingandreflection(Isaacson&Stacy,2009).InmakingtheshiftfromPhaseItoPhaseII,courseac-tivitieswerealignedwithmovingstudentsthroughaclearlydelineated,step-wiselearningexperience.Althoughasmalldataset(n=7),studentfeedbackinPhaseIIsupportstheneedforcriticalreflectionpreviouslyoutlined(Andrade,2000;Clayton,2009;Isaccson&Stacy,2009),notonlyfordocumentation,butalsotoenhancemotivationandengagementinthelearningprocess. One student’s reflection regarding the use of rubrics in Phase IIstated,“…creativityinteachingstartswiththeabilitytoteachinunex-pectedorunlikelysituations. Teachingisnotamatterof thequantityofthecontent,butthequalityoflearning. AlthoughatfirstIdislikedthe tasks and found them cumbersome, as the semester progressed,these toolshelpedmeassessmyqualityof learninginawaythathadnot been previously given to me. I find myself now thinking—whatproportionofthetaskdidIreallycomplete?AmIcomfortableandpre-pared?WhatdidIlearn?”Thisreflectionexemplifiestheconceptofanengagedpedagogyandashiftinstudentperspective.Bothengagementandperspectiveshiftsaregoalsofapplied learningandcritical reflec-tion (Clayton,2009). As furtherevidenceof thisshift inperspective,anonymoussharingofstudentresponsesfostereddiscussionandgreaterwillingnessofstudentparticipationasobservedbyincreaseddiscussionintheclassroomandpeer-to-peerinteractionsinPhaseII.Studentsratedtheircomfortlevelgreaterwhenthetaskwasassociatedwiththeknowl-edgeorcomprehensionlevelsthanwhentheactivityrequiredanalysis,synthesis,orevaluation. These reflectionsalso raised interestingdataregardingspecifictactilesensations.Themostdifficultsensorypercep-tion to teach is temperaturesensitivity.Thisperception isconfoundedwhentheambienttemperatureisnearfreezing,suchasthatfoundinanunheatedstableduringthewintermonths.Developmentofstandardizedmodelsaidedinteachingthissense,althoughmoreworkondevelopingreliablemodelsisnecessitated.Applicationofaffectiverubricsinotherfieldsmayaidinfurtherelucidatingtheissueofstudentmotivation.FuTuREDIRECTIonSAnDConCLuSIonS
Asanunexpected result,when techniquesweredemonstrated stu-dents focused more on trying to mimic exact movements, instead ofreflectingon theirownperceptions. When techniqueswerenotdem-
106 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
onstrated,studentsdevelopedtheirownapproachtothetask.Theau-thors are currently investigatingdemonstrationof a skill as comparedtowrittenorverbalexplanationofskills,inrelationtothelearningandassessmentprocess.Thisresearchdirectionbuildsonpreviousresearch(Meeketal.,2005)incombinationwiththequestionsregardingassess-mentfoundinthisstudy.Asamodelfordistancelearning(eitheron-lineorvideoconferencing),previouslyunpublisheddataregardingstu-dentperceptionofPowerPointpresentationswasinvestigatedinasmallgroupofstudents(n=14).Forthetestcourse,thecontentwaspresentedsolelythroughverbalexplanationandwritingonawhiteboard.Allstu-dentshadpreviouslybeeninequinestudiesclasseswhichweretaughtusing primarily PowerPoint lectures. Two questions were asked on avoluntarysurveytodeterminestudentpreferenceofdeliverymethod:1)Ipreferredthattheprofessorwroteonthedry-eraseboardforteachingthecoursecontent;2)Iwouldhavepreferredthattheprofessorhadpre-paredallPowerPointpresentationsforteachingthecoursecontent.Stu-dentsevaluatedthesequestionsusingafive-pointscalefrom“stronglyagree”to“stronglydisagree”.Studentpreferenceofdry-eraseboardwas100%“stronglyagree”or“agree”.Interestingly,onlyatotalof33%ofstudents“agree”withtheuseofPowerPointpresentationsforteachingcontent,without any “strongly agree” answers. Thenext stepwas todiscernwhystudentspreferredtheuseofthedry-eraseboard.Duringaninformaldiscussion,amainthemeemerged.Studentspreferredthehand-writtenmaterialbecausethecoursepacewassloweranddiscus-sionmoreinteractivethanwhenusingPowerPointorothertechnology.Thisfeedbackconflictswithuseofdigitalvideotechnologyinbiologyasanassessmentofstudent-teacherinteraction(Tan&Towndrow,2009)and use of music recording software to motivate beginner musicians(Char, 2009). In equine studies, there is an increased pressure to becompetitivewithonlineprogramssuchasbusinessorhealthcareadmin-istration. Theexperiential learningaspectofequinestudiesandotheragriculturalfieldsiswhatdrawsstudentstotheseprograms(Lohuisetal.,1999;Meek&Marean,2006;Reilingetal.,2003).Inconsiderationof student feedback regardingPowerPointutilization in the traditionalclassroomandPhaseIIobservationspresented,deliverymethodofap-pliedskillsandsubsequentcognitionof“how-to”performthatskillarenotequitableintermsoflearningandattitudetowardslearning.There-fore,thevalueofassessmenttools,suchasskillsrubrics,combinedwithmethodofdeliverywarrantsfurtherinvestigationinanappliedlearningmodel. Althoughtheoverallresearchobjectivewastopromotestandardiza-tionofhands-onskills,thesedataraiseseveralinterestingquestionsre-gardingappliedlearningpedagogy.Rubricsaidedinstudentmotivationtolearnandperformskillswhenprovidedearlyinthelearningprocess;
Tumlin,Linares,Schilling /STUDENTMOTIVATIONANDASSESSMENT 107
however,studentsmayonlyworktoapassinglevelorotherlevelwhichtheyfeelisacceptablefortheirpersonalgoals.Theassessmentrubricassistedstudentsinde-mystifyinganoveltaskintheequinestudiesfield,asdocumentedinthefocusgroupdiscussions.Tasksshouldbealignedwithwell-definedobjectiveswhichprovidepurposefulprogression,andhavemeasureableoutcomes.Demonstrationascomparedtodescriptionoftasksdelineatedonanassessmentrubricwarrantsmoreresearch.Stu-dentsexpressedmotivationforandengagementinthelearningprocesswhenusingaffectiverubricsforself-assessment.
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TheAmericanHorseCouncil.(2005).The economic impact of the horse industry in the United States(Vol.1-5).Washington,D.C.:Author.Andrade,H.(2005).Teachingwithrubrics.College Teaching, 53,27-30.Andrade,H.(2000).Usingrubricstopromotethinkingandlearning.Educational Leader- ship,57(5),13-18.Andrade,H.,&Du,Y.(2005).Studentperspectivesonrubric-referencedassessment[Elec- tronicversion].Practical Assessment Research & Evaluation, 10(3),1-11.BloomB.S.(1956).Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: The cognitive do- main.NewYork:DavidMcKayCo.Britt,J.H.,Aberle,E.D.,Esbenshade,K.L.,&Males,J.R.(2008).Invitedreview:Animal sciencedepartmentsofthefuture.Journal of Animal Science, 86,3235-3244.Brown,M.C.,Conway,J.,&Sorenson,T.D.(2006).Developmentandimplementation ofascoringrubricforaseptictechnique.American Journal of Pharmaceutical Educa- tion, 70(6),1-6.Brookhart,S.(2003).Developingmeasurementtheoryforclassroomassessmentpurposes anduses.Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 22(4),5-12.CenterforBusinessandEconomicResearch.(2004).The 2002 economic and fiscal impact of the Kentucky equine industry.Lexington,KY:Author.Char,L.(2009).UsingGarageBandtomotivatestudentstopractice.Proceedings of the 14th Annual Technology, Colleges, and Community Worldwide Online Conference, RetrievedJune27,2009fromhttp://hdl.handle.net/10125/7969Clayton,P.H.(2009,February).Generating, deepening, and documenting learning: The power of critical reflection in applied learning. Paper presented at the 4th Annual ConferenceonAppliedLearninginHigherEducation,St.Joseph,MO.Conners,S.,&Brady,C. (2009).The importanceofbusiness in theequinecurriculum [Electronicversion].Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 29(5),441-442.Hafner,J.,&Hafner,P.(2003).Quantitativeanalysisoftherubricasanassessmenttool: Anempiricalstudyofstudentpeer-grouprating.International Journal of Science Edu- cation, 25(12),1509-1528.Hogue-Davies,V.(2004).Careers with horses.Irvine,CA:BowtiePress.Hoover,T.S.,&Marshall,T.T.(1998).Acomparisonoflearningstylesanddemographic characteristicsofstudentsenrolledinselectedanimalsciencecourses[Electronicver- sion].Journal of Animal Science, 76(12),3169-3173.Isaacson,J.J.&Stacy,A.S.(2009).Rubricsforclinicalevaluation:Objectifyingthesub- jectiveexperience.Nurse Education in Practice, 9(2),134-140.Kretler,B.(1995).50 careers with horses!Ossining,NY:BreakthroughPublications.Landers,T.A.(2002).The career guide to the horse industry.Albany,NY:Delmar,Thom- asLearning.
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109
Demographic tipping Point: Cultural Brokering with english
Language Learners as Service- Learning for teacher Candidates
and educators
wenDy L. mCCARty UniversityofNebraskaatKearney
RoSemARy CeRVAnteS EducationalServiceUnit10
GeRALDIne StIRtz UniversityofNebraskaatKearney
Changes in the demographic composition of the United States relative to the increase in English language learners (ELLs) in newcomer and refugee populations generate the need for cultural brokers, particularly in the ranks of educators and teacher candidates. Applied learning, especially as used in service-learning opportunities in teacher candidate prepa-ration programs, can produce educators with greater cultural understanding and skills in best practices for literacy instruction. Examples of service-learning for this purpose are highlighted, as well as emerging strategies in professional development for educators who work with ELLs and their families.
“Americaisonitswaytobecomingamicrocosmoftheentireworld.Oneoutofeverytenpeopleisforeign-born.Oneoutofeveryfiveschoolchildren is foreign-born or had foreign-born parents. We are literallybecominga countrymadeupof everycountry in theworld.”So said
JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducationVol.1,Fall2009109-123©2009MissouriWesternStateUniversity
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KennethPrewitt,formerdirectoroftheUnitedStatesCensusBureauin2000(Pipher,2002,p.55).Bythemidpointofthiscentury,ournationwillbeevenmoreraciallyandethnicallydiverse,accordingtoprojec-tions released in August 2008 by the Bureau. Today’s minorities cur-rentlycompriseaboutone-thirdoftheU.S.populationandareexpectedtobecomethemajorityby2042;thenationisprojectedtobe54percentofformerminoritiesby2050.In2023,today’sminoritieswillcomprisemorethanhalfoftheU.S.populationofchildrenaswell.By2050,chil-drenareexpectedtobe62percentofformerminorities,comparedto44percenttoday;thirty-ninepercentareprojectedtobeHispanic,upfrom22percentin2008.TheHispanicpopulationisprojectedtonearlytripleduring2008-2050,anditspercentageofthenation’stotalpopulationisprojectedtodouble,from15percentto30percent—meaningnearlyoneinthreeU.S.residentswouldbeHispanic(Bernstein&Edwards,2008). Asacountrymadeupofmanycountriesthroughouttheworld,theUnitedStates is facingademographic tippingpoint—acultural learn-ingcurvenotyetseeninitshistory.Whennewcomersandmembersofthemainstreamculturespeakdifferentlanguages,thelearningcurveisespeciallysteeponbothsides.TheU.S.CensusBureaureportedthatin2000, 4.4millionhouseholds encompassing11.9millionpeoplewerelinguisticallyisolated—nearlydoublethatofthepreviousdecade.Lin-guisticisolationisdefinedbytheBureauasahomeinwhichnooneaged14oroverspeaksEnglishatleast“verywell”(Shin&Bruno,2003).Al-thoughmainstreamersmayassumethatnewcomersdonotwanttolearnEnglish,manyspeakmultiple languagesalreadyandareindeedlearn-ingEnglish(Pipher,2002),eventhoughittakesmostEnglishlanguagelearners(ELLs)fromonetothreeyearstolearnsocialEnglishandfivetosevenyearstolearnacademicEnglish(Sutton,1998). TheU.S.DepartmentofEducationdefinesELLsasnational-origin-minoritystudentswhohavelimitedEnglishproficiency.ELLsrepresentoneofthefastestgrowinggroupsamongtheschool-agedpopulationinthis nation as well, increasing by over 169% from the years 1979 to2003(Francis,Rivera,Lesaux,Kieffer,&Rivera,2006).Ofthose,thenumberwhospokeEnglishwithdifficulty(i.e., less than“verywell”)grewby124%(Hill&Flynn,2006).Over400differentlanguagesare
AUTHORNOTE:Wendy McCarty, Ed.D., senior lecturer in the Teacher Edu-cation Department, College of Education, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Rosemary Cervantes, MA.Ed., Educational Services Unit 10, Kearney, NE; Ger-aldine Stirtz, M.A.Ed., Director, Office for Service-Learning, University of Ne-braska at Kearney. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Wendy L. McCarty, Teacher Education Dept., College of Education, Univer-sity of Nebraska at Kearney, Kearney, NE 68849; e-mail: [email protected]
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spokeninthisgroup;Spanishismostcommon,spokenby70%ofELLs(Franciset al.,2006). In fact,ELLsareexpected tocomprise30%ofschool-aged population by 2015 (Hill & Flynn, 2006). This dramaticincreaseinthenumberofELLsattendingU.S.schoolsoverthepast25yearshasrevealedcriticallearning,language,andacculturationneedsofstudentsandfamilies.Whoisbestpositionedinourculturetoaddresstheseneeds?Howcanitbedone?
EDuCAToRSASCuLTuRALBRokERS
Culturalbrokeringisdefinedastheactofbridging,linking,orme-diatingbetweengroupsorpersonsofdifferingculturalbackgroundsforthepurposeofreducingconflictorproducingchange(Jezewski,1990,ascitedinNationalCenterforCulturalCompetence,2009).Aculturalbrokeractsas“ago-between,onewhoadvocatesonbehalfofanotherindividualorgroup”(NationalCenterforCulturalCompetence,2009,p.1).Culturalbrokerscanhelptoeasepeopleintoeachother’sculturesbyassistingnewcomersandmembersofthemainstreamculturetonavigatethetensionsoffindingbalancebetweenrespectforethnictraditionsandrespectforhumanrights(Pipher,2002).CulturalbrokersalsocanhelpELLsacquirelanguagethroughmeaningfuluseandinteractionindiffer-entsocialsettingsandfordifferentpurposes(Campbell,2010).Whereisthebestplacetofindsuchculturalbrokers?Inourschools. Schools are frontline institutions for acculturation, where childrenreceive the information theyneedabout theworld inwhich theynowlive;therefore,educatorsarethemostimportantculturalbrokersinoursociety.Nearlyallnewcomerandrefugeefamilieshavetremendousre-spect for education and educators (Pipher, 2002). They recognize theneedtolearnthelanguage,andhencetheculture,assoonaspossible;childrenwanttolearnEnglish,learninschool,andfitintotheirnewso-ciety(Campbell,2010).Becauselanguagelearningisculturallearning,everylanguagereflectsthenorms,behaviors,andbeliefsofauniquecul-ture;therefore,“thelearningofanewlanguagealsoinvolvesthelearningofnewnorms,behaviors,andbeliefs”(Campbell,2010,p.316).Pipher(2002)alsostates,“ToreallybecomeAmerican,refugeesmustbecomebothbilingualandbicultural” (p.76).Furthermore, teaching languagerequires educators to learn the culture of the language: “All languagelearningisculturallearning”(Heath,1986,ascitedinCampbell,2010,p.315). Tobeeffectiveculturalbrokers,educatorsmustbeabletocommu-nicatewith students and their families.Wheneducators facilitate lan-guagelearning,theyserveasculturalbrokersandhelpstudentsandtheirfamilies to work through cultural conflict and encourage them to be-comeempoweredtohavecontrolovertheirdestiny.Thisfacilitationof
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languagelearningoccursmostappropriatelyandeffectivelybybuildingonwhat students and families alreadyknow.Theconcepts, language,andstrategiesthatchildrenhavealreadyacquiredathome,their“fundsofknowledge,”aretheconnectingpointsuponwhichtoteachnewcon-cepts,language,andstrategies(Campbell,2010).Rejectionofchildren’shomelanguageandculturemayresultinresponsesthatincludefailuretolearn,withdrawalandpassivity,and/orpowerstruggleswithandre-sistancetoteachersandtheschoolculture(Campbell,2010).Students’native language and culturemaybe treated as inferior, notworthyofbeingusedastoolsintheschoolsetting.“Infact,whenwedonotallowstudents tobuildon their existing language,weand they lose agreatdealofrichnessandvalue,andweperpetuatethemyththatnon-Englishlanguagesarenotschoollanguages”(Campbell,2010,p.320). Thechallenge,then,liesindevelopingeducatorswhoaremuchbet-terpreparedthanthoseinpreviousgenerationstoteachinlinguisticallyand culturally diverse classrooms and to effectively use the funds ofknowledge thatchildrenand their familiesbring to theschoolexperi-ence.Ofcourse,classroomteachersorevenELLteacherscannotlearnallthereistoknowaboutthevariousculturesinschools.Educatorscan,however,betterinterprettheculturesofdiversestudentpopulationsintheirschoolsthroughawarenessofhowmuchcultureaffectslanguageacquisitionandbehavior,insightintotheirownculture,anddiscernmentnottointerpretthebehaviorofothersthroughtheeyesoftheirowncul-ture(Haynes,2005).Thisawareness,insight,anddiscernmentcancer-tainlybedevelopedthroughprofessionaldevelopmentwithexperiencedteachers,butinitially—andperhapsmostimportantly—itcanbedevel-opedthroughtheappliedlearningexperiencesofteachercandidatesandeducators.
CuLTuRALBRokERInGASSERVICE-LEARnInG
Appliedlearningemphasizestherelevanceofwhatisbeinglearnedto theworldoutside theclassroom,andmakes thatconnectionas im-mediateandtransparentaspossiblesothatstudentscanfocusonlearn-ingandapplying theskillsandknowledge theyneed to solveaprob-lem, implement a project, or participate in the work force (VictorianCurriculum and Assessment Authority, 2006). This results in the for-mationofpartnershipsandconnectionswithindividualsandorganiza-tionsoutsideschoolthatprovidethenecessaryout-of-schoolcontextsforstudents todemonstrate therelevanceof their learning.Researchindi-catesthatexperientialimmersionisthebestwayforstudentstodevelopempathy, tolerance, respect, and appreciation for people, languages,andculturesdifferentfromtheirown(Michie,2003).Noddings(2005)concursthat“socialactioncanandmust‘extendbeyondschoolswallsto the wider world’ where faculty create learning opportunities at an
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appropriatedevelopmentallevelforstudentsthathelpraisetheiraware-ness of social justice by allowing them to experience, to be with the‘other,’forwhomwemustcare”(p.7). Whenteachereducationprogramsstructureapplied learningexpe-riences that allow teacher candidates to interact with people differentfrom themselves, teachercandidatesareempowered toconstruct theirknowledgebaseaboutdiversityfromlifeexperience.Theassumptionisthat theseteachercandidates,witharicherbackgroundofexperiencesinculturallydiversesettings,willbebetterpreparedtoteachculturallydiversestudentsthanthoseteachercandidateswhohavelivedinsulated,monocultural lifestyles and who have had limited experiences incul-turallydiversesettings.Modest,andsometimesdramatic,changescanoccur in teachers’ attitudes and behaviors regarding diversity (Smith,1998).Although theroleofeducatingpeople tobeculturalbrokers ishardlytouchedoninthescholarlyliterature(Michie,2003),areviewofempiricalstudiesconcludedthatexperienceswithmembersofdiversepopulationsareworthwhileforteachers,andpositiveresultscanaccrueforstudentsandteachershavingthecontextsandsupportwithinwhichtointerprettheirexperiences(Smith,1998).Appliedlearningcanpro-videboth thecontextand the support forboth teachercandidatesandeducatorstobecomeculturalbrokers. These applied learning experiences, when structured as service-learning, canhelp teacher candidates learn aboutother languages andcultures,tohavegreaterinvolvementininternationalaffairs,toputtheirowncultureinperspectiveandseeitinanewway,andtosimplyfeelusefulandhelpful.Pipher(2002)states,“HavingaculturalbrokercanmakeatremendousdifferenceinhowsuccessfullyanewfamilyadaptstoAmerica.Peoplecomeheretraumatized,andthetraumadoesn’tendwitharrival.Withoutguidanceandsupport,it’sdifficulttosurvive”(p.85).Pipher’ssuggestionsforculturalbrokeringlendthemselveswelltoservice-learningapplicationsinteacherpreparationcourses.Sheadvo-catesvisitingwithnewcomersandrefugeeswheneverpossible,onthestreetsorinthestores,andespeciallywhenseeingsomeonelookinglostorconfused.Helpingwhenandwhereaneedisidentifiedisattheheartofservice-learning,suchastutoringinafter-schoolprogramsorforGEDandELLclassesandvolunteeringatagenciesthatserveimmigrantsandrefugees.Followingisonesuchservice-learningopportunity that tookplaceincentralNebraskaastheresultofacoordinatedeffortbetweentheUniversityofNebraskaatKearney(UNK)andEducationalServiceUnit(ESU)10inKearney,Nebraska.
FLAME:SERVICE-LEARnERSASCuLTuRALBRokERS
TheUNKCollegeofEducationrequiresteachercandidatestocom-pleteaservice-learningexperienceasaprerequisiteforadmissioninto
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the teacher educationprogram.Studentswhoenroll in the entry-levelcourse in the professional education course sequence are required tocompletetheirservice-learningexperienceduringthesemestertheytakethecourse;logisticsforstudentplacementsarecoordinatedbythedirec-toroftheOfficeforService-Learningincollaborationwiththefacultyofthecourse(UniversityofNebraskaatKearney,2009). Teachercandidateswerefirstgiven theopportunity toput culturalbrokeringskillstouseinaservice-learningsettinginaprograminitiatedbyESU10,thelocaleducationalresourceagency.ESU10isaregionaleducation agency that provides supplementary educational services toK-12schooldistrictsinelevencountiescoveringnearly12,000squaremiles incentralNebraska,servingabout30,000studentsandapproxi-mately2,200teachers(EducationalServiceUnit10,2009).In1999theELL program of ESU 10 secured a multiyear Title VII Developmentand Implementation Grant from the U.S. Department of Education todevelop, adapt, and implement the Project FLAME (Family Literacy:Aprendiendo, Mejorando, Educando) program with eight communitysites, involving663parents and910children2½ through12yearsofage, 14 teacher education candidates, 26 teachers, 18 paraprofession-als,and12schooladministratorsthroughoutthethreeyeardurationoftheprogram.Specificculturalandliteracyskillstrainingwasprovidedbythegrant to136educatorswithinthetargetcommunities(ESU10,2002).FLAMEwastheprogramofchoicebytheESU10ELLprogramafter an extensive searchwas conductedon family literacyprograms;thosewithmedicalmodels(“somethingiswrongwithyou”),militarymodels(“waragainstilliteracy”),orpatronizingtones(“ifyouwerejustmorelikeus,you’dbebetter”)wererejected.The“LaFamilia”philoso-phyofFLAMErespectsHispanicculture;familyisthemostimportantsocialunit,sotheprograminvolvestheentirefamily.FLAMEutilizesanassetmodelthatbuildsonthestrengthsthatfamiliesandstudentsal-readybring:theirlanguageandtheirculture,theconnectingpointsuponwhichnewlanguageandculturalknowledgearebuilt.TheFLAMEproj-ectincentralNebraskahashelpedfamiliesprovidecircumstancesandinteractionsthatsupportliteracyskills,whetherinSpanishorEnglish,usingculturally-relevantpracticeandallconductedwiththetoneofre-spect. ProjectFLAMEwasfirstdesignedbyProfessorsFloraRodriguez-BrownandTimothyShanahanoftheUniversityofIllinoisatChicago(UIC)CollegeofEducationin1989aspartofarequestforfundingfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducation.Theoriginalpurposeoftheprogramwas to supportparentsofpreschoolersandprimarygradestudentsbyprovidinginformationandsharingknowledgeaboutwaystoprovideahomeenvironmentrichinliteracylearningopportunitiesfortheirchil-dren.FLAMEisbasedonthebelief,supportedbyresearch,thatparents
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canpositivelyaffecttheirchildren’slearningandschoolachievementbyprovidingasupportivehomeenvironmentandservingasconfident,suc-cessful learnermodels.Additionally,FLAMEbelieves that successfulfamilyliteracyissensitivetothesocial,linguistic,andculturalcontextsofthefamiliesserved.TheFLAMEcurriculumhastwelvefamilylitera-cysessionsthatincludetopicscoveringbooksharing,bookselection,us-ingthelibrary,andcreatinghomeliteracycenters;helpingchildrenlearnthealphabet,read,write,dohomework,andlearnsongsandgames;andhelpingparentsconnecttothecommunitythroughclassroomobserva-tions,field trips,andcollaborationwithotherparents.Thecurriculumisnotrigidlystructuredandisintendedtoberesponsivetoparticipants’needs and concerns.Adoption sites are encouraged to revise, expand,andadapteach lesson toparentalneedsandcommunitycontext (UICCollegeofEducation,2003). In central Nebraska, the curriculum was adapted to put additionalemphasisonincreasingaccesstobooksandliteracymaterials.ParentswereencouragedtoattendESLandGEDclassesalreadyofferedintheirown communities, and literacy activities for children replaced baby-sitting. Insteadofusinggraduate-levelstudentsas in theoriginalUICimplementation,ESU10collaboratedwiththeUNKCollegeofEduca-tiontoprovideservice-learningplacementsintheFLAMEprogramforteachercandidateswhoassistedwithliteracyactivitiesforthechildrenand theirparents.Service-learnersparticipated inmeet-and-greetwiththefamiliesupontheirarrival;childrenwouldgotoaseparateareatoworkwithUNKstudentswhoreadbookstothemandfollowedupwithliteracyactivitiessuchashelpingthechildrenwritetheirownstoriesinaparticularpattern.AtthesametimeparentswouldmeetwithFLAME-trainededucatorsfromtheeightcommunitysitesinsessionsthatcov-ered literacy topics mentioned previously. After the literacy activitieswerecompletedinbothgroups,parentswereshownwhattheirchildrenhadexperienced,andthenchildrensharedwiththeirparentswhattheyhaddone.Thechildrenreadtotheirparents,andUNKstudentsmodeledforparentshow to interactwith theirchildrenappropriately regardingthe readings and engaged with family members regarding their chil-dren’swork.Thiswasfollowedbysocialtimewithfoodandrafflesforliteracymaterialsthatwereconductedbythechildrenthemselvessotheyhadpracticereadingnumbers.MostoftheUNKstudentsdidnotspeakSpanish;theyhadtofigureouthowtocommunicatewithELLsandlearnnot tobeafraid to speak to someonedifferent from themselves.Moststudentsalso sangand read inSpanisheven if theywerenotSpanishspeakers(ESU10,1999).
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STuDEnTIMPACT Akeyoutcomefortheseservice-learnerswaslettinggoofthefearof communicating. They moved from hanging back with their fellowcollege students, to being given a job to do and doing it. They wereabletodevelopcloserelationshipswiththechildren;olderHispanicchil-drenwhospokeEnglishforthemostpartwereabletotalktotheUNKstudentsandreceivedencouragementtogotocollege.Service-learnersweresurprisedathowmuchtheyenjoyedparticipatingwiththefamilieswhiledevelopingadeeperunderstandingofLaFamilia.Excerptsfromtheirservice-learninglogsfollow(ESU10,2002):
“OneofthemostimportantthingsthatI learnedduringmyser-vice-learningexperiencewasrespectforothers,nomatterhowdif-ferenttheyarefromme.ThegroupsofchildrenthatIworkedwithwereallHispanicandmanywerefromverylow-classfamilies.Be-forethisexperienceIwouldnothavelookedatthesechildrenandtheirfamilieswiththesameempathyIdonow...IhavelearnedthatIcannotjudgepeoplebasedonappearances.” “IinteractedwiththemandcouldactuallytelltheyunderstoodmeeventhoughIwasspeakingEnglishornotspeakingatallbecausepeople have an unspoken language that everyone can understand.However,IdidstarttousesomeofmySpanishthatIlearnedinhighschoolandthoughtthatIhadlongtimeforgotten[sic].TheyweresimplewordsandphrasesbutIthinkitshowsthatIcared...IwasatfirstabithesitantaboutworkingwithallthesepeoplethatspokeadifferentlanguagethanmebutnowIrealizethatasIcontinuewithmy field experience I can make an impact on them and they willdefinitelymakeanimpactonme.” “WhenteachingIneedtousemorethanjustmywordstoteach...IamnowexcitedforanyopportunitythatmayariseformetoworkwithotherlanguagesbesidesEnglish.” “Ilovethisprogram.Ithinkitisafabulousideatogettheparentsinvolvedwiththeirchildren’seducationandtohelpbuildconfidenceinthechildren...whenIbecomeateacherIwillhaveavarietyofchildrenandculturesand learningaboutothercultureshelpsme tounderstandmystudentsandwhatmethodofteachingworksbestforthem.” “Afterbeingplacedwiththisliteracyprogramforasemester,IwasabletoputforthmySpanishspeakingskillsintoreallifesituations.WhatIlearnedfromboththechildrenandparentswasbeyondwhatIanticipated.Theytaughtmesomuchabouttheirlanguageanditwaswonderfulbeingabletosharewiththembymeansofcommunication.” “Trying tocommunicate ina languageother thanmynative lan-guage isdifficultandsometimes frustrating,butalsoverygood for
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me.IthinkithelpsmetodevelopmoreofaculturalsensitivityandtounderstandthedifficultiesthesefamiliesmusthavehereintheUnitedStates.” “IamverythankfulforhavingtheopportunitytoworkwithProjectFLAME.AsaresultofFLAME,Ihavefoundmyselfto[be]amoreopen-mindedandknowledgeableperson.Thisprogramhasalsomo-tivatedmetopursueanendorsementintheESL[EnglishasaSecondLanguage]area.IhaveseenhoweffectivethisprogramhasbeenandIhopethatI,asateacher,willbeabletohelpmystudentsasmuchasFLAMEhashelpedtheirs.”
Allofthestudentscompletingtheservice-learningexperience,with-outexception,statedthattheyexperiencedatransformationfrominitialbiasesaboutminoritiesandlanguagelearningtogreaterunderstandingand acceptance. All students were from small, rural Nebraska towns,with limitedexposure to andexperiencewithminoritypopulationsofanykindpriortoattendingUNK.Theconsistentoutcomeforthesestu-dentswasanincreasedsenseofconfidenceastheypreparedtoteachinclassroomsmuchmorediverse thantheirhometownschoolshadbeenforthem.Onlyonestudentcommentreflectedalesspositivesentiment,thatofdislikeforsomeofthenecessary“officework”thatwentintopre-paringforthesessions.Yet,eventhiswasavaluablelearningexperienceaswell:“Inowrealizehowmuchworkplanningjustonelessonis...Iwilldefinitelybeorganizedwhenitcomestomeplanningandcreatingmyownlessons”(ESU10,2002). Becausetheservice-learningcomponentwasnotspecificallyinclud-edintheoriginalobjectivesoftheFLAMEgrantassubmittedtotheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,programevaluationsfromtheUNKservice-learnerswerenotapartofthegrantreportingprocess.Therefore,assess-mentoftheservice-learningcomponentinfutureprojectimplementationwouldcertainlybenefitfrommorestructuredpre-sessionorientationandpost-sessiondebriefing, in addition to the reflective journaling for theUNKservice-learningcourseandtheinformalpreparationanddebrief-ingwithESU10staffthattookplaceonthewaytoandfromsessions.CLIEnTIMPACT
EvaluationresultsoftheoriginalpilotingofFLAMEinIllinoisindi-catethatchildrenoffamilieswhoparticipatedshowedsignificantgainsincognitivedevelopment,pre-literacyand literacyskills,andvocabu-larydevelopmentinbothSpanishandEnglish.ResultsfurthershowedthatparentschangedtheirattitudestowardsteachingtheirchildrenandalsobecamemoreproficientinEnglish,evidencedbysignificantgainsinEnglishproficiencyasmeasuredbytheLanguageAssessmentScales
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(Rodriguez-Brown,Shanahan,&Wagner,1999).Theseclaimswereval-idatedbytheOfficesofBilingualEducation,CommunityAffairs,andEarlyChildhoodoftheIllinoisStateBoardofEducation,whichallowedFLAMEtoqualifyforadisseminationgrantfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEducationinordertocarrytheprogramnationallyasafamilyliteracyadoption model. In 1996, the U.S. Department of Education awardedProjectFLAMEafive-yearAcademicExcellenceGrant to export theprogramto trainoverfiftyadoptionsites, including theone incentralNebraska(Zygouris-Coe&Smith,2001). InNebraska, theESU10FLAMEprogrammirrored theseresults;80%ofparentswhoattendedFLAMEclassesincreasedthenumberofhomeliteracyactivitieswiththeirchildrenandimprovedtheirchildren’saccesstoreadingandwritingmaterialsasevidencedbyself-reports.Onanevaluationscaleaskingparentstoratethedegreetowhichthepro-gramaccomplished itsobjectives, thecomposite scoreacrossall siteswasninetyoutof100points(ESU10,2002).Althoughtheparentspre-viouslyfelttheywerenotabletohelptheirchildrenbecausetheycouldnotspeakEnglish,nowtheyrealizedtheycouldhelptheminSpanishthroughthetransferofSpanishskillstoEnglishinvocabulary,content,and concept development. Additionally, parents participated more inschoolactivities,attendedschooleventsmoreoften,andservedasrep-resentativesofotherparents(Bransford,2002).FollowingareexcerptsfromparentevaluationsoftheESU10FLAMEprogram(ESU10,2002)[translatedfromSpanishtoEnglish]:
“ItisnicetoknowthatthereissomeoneinterestedintheHispaniccommunity,andespeciallywhosupportsandisinterestedinourchil-dren.”“Ilikethewaythatyousupportourchildren’seducationandalsothewaythatyouhavethechildrenworkinginschoolactivitiesandthewaythatteacherstreatuswhenwearetogether,andthetalksthatyougiveusonhowtohelpourchildrentoreadbetter.”“IlearnverymanydifferentthingssothatIcanhelpmydaughterswiththeirhomework.”“Itisaveryimportanthelpforourchildren’seducation.Thankyou.”
“Me gustaria que este programa continuara mas anos”–“Iwouldlikethisprogramtocontinueformoreyears”wasthesentimentconsis-tentlyexpressedbyparentswhocompletedprogramevaluationsinthefinalyear,anditwastheonlyconcerntheyraised.Inseveralinstances,parents also expressed a desire to continue sessions during the sum-merandforlongerhours“para aprender mas para ayudar a nuestroshijos”–“sothatwecanlearnmoreandhelpourchildren.”Participatingfamiliesreportedastrongersenseofconnectiontothecommunitiesthat
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werenowtheirhomesandexpressedadesire tohelp tosecure futureprogramfundingsothattheirchildrencouldcontinuetobenefit.Withoutexception,theirremarksfocusedonhelpingtheirchildrenfirst(ESU10,2002). Additionally,theNebraskaFLAMEprogramprovidedscholarshipsforteachercandidates,paraprofessionals,andeducatorstopursueESLteachingendorsements;sixty-ninescholarshipswereawardedduringthe3-yearproject period.Theprogramwas recognized as anoutstandingeducationalprogrambytheFoundationforEducationalFundingandtheNebraskaAssociationofStudentFinancialAidAdministratorsinApril2002(ESU10,2002).
PoST-FLAMEIMPACT
ThoughtheProjectFLAMEgrantconcludedin2002,itservedasacatalyst forUNKteachercandidates toseekculturalbrokeringoppor-tunitieswithELLsinsubsequentyears,andforUNKteachereducationfacultytousethoseopportunitiesasservice-learningexperiencesfortheteachereducationprogram.ProjectFLAMEutilizedabout10%of thetotalnumberofservice-learnersfromtheUNKteachereducationpro-gram,whichaveragesapproximately150studentspersemester.Nowthepercentageofservice-learnersparticipatinginculturalbrokering-relatedactivitywithELLs, including language and literacydevelopment, hasgrowntonearlyhalf.IncentralNebraskacommunitieswheretheHis-panic ELL population is significant (20% in Grand Island, Nebraska,forexample),andinthesamecommunitieswhereProjectFLAMEhadbeenconducted,culturalbrokeringopportunitiesinservice-learningforteacher candidates has taken place in public school outreach centersand cultural welcome centers. Activities have included serving mealsfortheSalvationArmy;sorting,stocking,anddistributingfoodpantryitems;participatingincoatdrives;readingtochildrenandparticipatinginpovertysimulationsduringNationalHomelessMonth;servingneedyfamilies through theChristmasdrivesduring themonthofDecember;packingbackpacksonFridaymorningsforweekendfoodforchildrenin need; teaching and assisting with citizenship classes; facilitating amoms’groupinlearninglifeskills;providinghelpandadviceforfami-liesregardingapplyingtohighereducation;assistingwiththe2010cen-susandencouragingcitizenstovote. Unfortunately, thenumberof teachercandidatesseekinganactualESLendorsementplummetedtozeroby2003;thewaningofscholarshipmoniesattheendoftheESU10grantwasacontributingfactor.Butac-cordingtoDr.GlennTracy,leadinstructoroftheESLendorsementatUNK, the continuation and expansion of service-learning experiencesforteachercandidateshashelpedthenumberreboundtoasteadytento
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twelveinthelastseveralyears,andtherewerethirteenenrolledintheprogramat theendof the2008-2009schoolyear(personalcommuni-cation,July9,2009).OfthesixtymajorsavailabletothenearlythreehundredteachercandidatesenrolledatUNK,theESLendorsementnowranksasthefifthmostchosenendorsementarea(UniversityofNebraskaatKearney,2008). In addition, educators have access to ongoing training in service-learning aspedagogy for their ownK-12 and college classrooms in agraduatelevelcourseavailablefromtheUNKteachereducationdepart-mentandtaughtbythedirectoroftheOfficeofService-Learning.Oversixtyfacultymembersfrommultipledisciplinesoutsideoftheteachereducationprogramhaveparticipatedintraininginstitutestolearnhowtoincorporateservice-learningintotheircourses.Inthisway,thenotionofculturalbrokeringwithELLpopulationsisexpandingbeyondbeginninglevelteachereducationstudentsintoclassroomsandschoolsthroughoutcentralNebraska. Concurrent with the growth of cultural brokering service-learningexperiences for teacher candidates, Nebraska’s own state Departmentof Education, in collaboration with the North Central Regional Com-prehensiveCenterandtheNebraskaCouncilofSchoolAdministrators,embarkedonaprofessionaldevelopmentplanforeducatorswhowerefacingchangesinclassroomandschoolELLdemographics.In2007theNebraska English Language Learner Leadership Institute (NELLLI)wasinitiatedtoincreaseteachers’andadministrators’understandingofresearch-based instructional strategies with ELLs, to increase partici-pants’understandingofthecorrelationbetweenleadershippracticesandstudent achievement, and increase participants’ capacity to lead ELLreform efforts in their respective districts and schools. Representativeteamsofeducatorsandadministratorsin26schooldistrictsacrossthestate,aswellasoneteamrepresentinghighereducationteacherprepa-ration programs, applied to become part of multi-day quarterly train-ing sessions. The teams have taken ELL best practices for languageacquisitionandculturalbrokeringstrategiesback to theirdistrictsandprovidedleadershipforongoingprofessionaldevelopmentwithintheirownschools.Inaddition,adesignteamwasformedfromtheNELLLItrainingparticipantstoprovideongoingsupporttoteams,andeventuallyallschoolsinNebraska(thoughwebaccesswillmakeuniversalaccesspossible) through thedevelopmentofanonline resourcecentercalledthe Continuous Improvement Process Toolkit, accessible through theNebraska Department of Education website (Nebraska Department ofEducation,2009). ThefirsttaskoftheNELLLIdesignteamwasthecreationofamis-sionandvisionstatement(NELLLI,2009):
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THETEAMMISSION:WewillequipallNebraskaschoolstoeffectivelymeettheeducationalneedsofEnglishLanguageLearnersbycreatingreadilyaccessiblere-sourcesthroughtheContinuousImprovementProcessToolkit.
THETEAMVISION:AllEnglishLanguageLearnerswillreceiveresearch-basedinstructionintheEnglishLanguageandcontentareassothattheyareempoweredtoprogresstowardacademicmasteryandachievetheirfullestpotential.AllstudentsinNebraskaschoolswillrespectlanguageandculturaldif-ferences and communicate effectively with each other in English andconversationallyinasecondlanguage.AllPreK-16educatorswillreceiveongoingtraininginexemplarycur-riculum and instructional strategies that promote social and academicEnglishdevelopmentandculturalidentitydevelopment.
TheremainingtasksincludethecompletionofELLtrainingresourc-es that are user-friendly for educators and administrators in a varietyofschoolcontexts,andthecompletionofabookstudytobeusedasaprofessionaldevelopmenttoolinconjunctionwiththebookClassroom Instruction That Works With English Language Learners,byJaneHillandKathleenFlynn(2006).TheNELLLIdesignteamseekstocompletetheirworkonthetoolkitbytheendof2009. Evenmorerecently,thepassageofTheAmericanRecoveryandRe-investmentAct(ARRA)of2009hasprovidednewfundingforaddress-ingtheneedsofEnglishlanguagelearners:“OurrecommendationsarefocusedonELLsbecausetheyrepresentalargeproportionofstudentsat riskofunderachievement in statesanddistrictsacross thecountry”(StanfordUniversity,2009).ThefundingguidanceforthisactstatesthatparentsofELLsareinsufficientlyengagedinschoolsandineducationaldecision-making,soARRATitleIfundscanbeusedtoimproveavenuesforengagingparentsintheirchildren’seducation,perhapsresultinginaresurgenceofprogramssuchasProjectFLAME.
ConCLuSIon
Teachercandidatesandeducatorsarekeyculturalbrokerswithintheirrespective communities, and service-learning opportunities provide apowerfulpedagogythroughwhichtodeveloptheirknowledgeandskills.Byembracingculturaldiversityandlanguageacquisitionbestpractices,teachercandidatesandeducatorscancollaboratetosupportandempowerELLsandtheirfamiliestoconnectwiththeresourcestheyneedtoattainsuccessinthemainstreamcultureandtoeffectivelyprepareforbecom-ingthemajoritycultureintheverynearfuture.Indoingso,theyembraceourmoralimperative,asglobalcitizens,tocare(Noddings,2005).
122 JournalofAppliedLearninginHigherEducation/Fall2009
REFEREnCES
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J o u r n a l o f
Applied Learning in Higher Education
ISSn:2150-8259
Missouri Western State University
3 FromCelebrationtoCriticalInvestigation: ChartingtheCourseofScholarshipinAppliedLearning ROYSCHWARTZMANandKELLYBOUASHENRY
25 Generating,Deepening,andDocumentingLearning: ThePowerofCriticalReflectioninAppliedLearning SARAHL.ASHandPATTIH.CLAYTON49 ExaminingtheDevelopmentoftheVictorianCertificate ofAppliedLearningandItsImplicationsforSchools andTeacherEducationinAustralia DAMIANBLAKEandDAVIDGALLAGHER 73 WillTheyRecognizeMyLectureintheField? TheJuvenileCorrectionsCritical AssessmentTourAppliedLearningExperience GREGLINDSTEADTandREGINAWILLIAMS-DECKER93 StudentMotivationandAssessmentof AppliedSkillsinanEquineStudiesProgram K.I.TUMLIN,R.LINARES,andM.W.SCHILLING109 DemographicTippingPoint: CulturalBrokeringwithEnglishLanguageLearnersasService- LearningforTeacherCandidatesandEducators WENDYL.MCCARTY,ROSEMARYCERVANTES, andGERALDINESTIRTZ