journal of applied sciences & environmental sustainability · 2department of estate management...

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e-ISSN 2360-8013

e-ISSN:2360-8013

Volume 2 Issue 5, 2016

Journal of Applied Sciences &

Environmental Sustainability

http://www.jases.org/scope/

http://www.jases.org/scope/

Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013

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JASES Volume 2, Issue 5, is a Special Issue Publication covering selected and revised papers after Peer-reviewed

by Scientific Committee from The International Conference on Science, Engineering, and the Social Sciences

(ICSESS) convened at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 2016 and also after Peer-reviewed by reviewers of JASES.

The ICSESS served as an academic platform for championing the pursuit of excellence in various research areas

basically from fields including Engineering and Environment. Special thanks to the Chief Guest Editor and Guest

Editors who have made this possible.


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JASES Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief

Dr. Ibraheem Dooba

Co-Editor

Prof. Dr. Malay Chaudhuri

Emeritus Professor, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia

Managing Editor

Dr. Augustine Chioma Affam

University College of Technology Sarawak, Malaysia

Technical Editor

Dr. Ahmed Abba Haruna

Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia


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ICSESS Guest Editor-in-Chief:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Zin Bin Kandar

ICSESS Guest Editors:

Dr. Yakubu Aminu Dodo

Dr. Ar. Elina Mohd Husini

Dr. Wallace Imoudu Enegbuma

Dr. Opaluwa Yusuf Drisu

Moveh Samuel


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CONTENTS

A Brief Study on Survey of Housing Policies in Nigeria and Malaysia 1 - 5

Aisha Haladu Bornoma, Amamata Zakari, Hannatu Idris Abdullahi

Spatial Quality in Space Design for Promoting Self-Healing In Malaysia 6 - 14

Siti Athirah Binti Jaapar, Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Aminatuzuhariah bte Megat Abdullah,

Mohd Zin Kandar

Perspectives on Natural Ventilation and Thermal Comfort in Buildings 15 - 26

Abbas Sa’id El-nafaty, Isah Abdul Anakobe, Mohd Hamdan Ahmad, Malsiah Hamid

Post Occupancy Evaluation of Public Mass Housing Estate in Minna, Nigeria 27 - 38

Adama Unekwu Jonathan, Ogunbode Ezekiel Babatunde, Ernest Ituma Egba,

Fabunmi Foluke Olanike, Abeku D.M.

Risk Management in Public Private Partnership Building Construction Projects 39 - 48

Ernest Ituma Egba, Ogunbode Ezekiel Babatunde, Fabunmi Foluke O., Adama Jonathan U

Neighbourhood Quality and Residential Mobility in Penang 49 - 58

Nur Syuhada Mahasan, Nazhan Nazran, Sarofil Abu Bakar

Reviewing the Factors of the Increasing Needs for Residential Housing in the Gaza Strip 59 - 75

Abdalrahim M. Shehab, Mohd Zin Kandar

Using Green Roofs to Mitigate the Effect of Urban Heat Island 76 - 88

Jibril Danazimi Jibril, Musa Ali Jogana, Halliru Faruk, Faizah Mohammed Bashir


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An Appraisal of Socio-Cultural Housing Features of Space Utilization in a Multi-Ethnic

Setting in Nigeria 89 - 101

Abubakar Danladi Isah, Tareef Hayat Khan, Abdullah Sani Ahmad, Alkali Ibrahim Abubakar

Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in West and Central Africa: Development and Challenges 102 - 114

Hassan, M. A., Njeshu, G, Raji, A., Zhengwuvi, L and Salisu, J.

Proposed Market Survey Framework for Build Green 115 - 125

Rozana Zakaria, Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Rosli Ahmad, Nur IzieAdiana binti Abidin

An Appraisal of the Benefits of Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Architecture 126 - 137

Anumah John James, Anumah Lesado, Gofwen, Chalya, Melchizedek Malson

The Factors Influencing Thermal Performance of Coatings on Roofing Materials 138 - 147

Anumah John James, Anumah Lesado, Benjamin, Gideon Koyan, Odoala, Michael

Thermal Insulation Boards from Camel’s Foot (Piliostigma Thonningii L.) Leave fibres

For Lagging Application 148 - 159

A. Musa, A. Rajiand M.A. Hassan

©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 2 (5) 1-5, 2016 e-ISSN 2360-8013

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Research Article

A Brief Study on Survey of Housing Policies in Nigeria and Malaysia

Aisha Haladu Bornoma1*, Amamata Zakari2, Hannatu Idris Abdullahi3

1Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Science, Modibbo Adama University of

Technology, P.M.B. 2076 Yola, Nigeria.

2Department of Estate Management, Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi. PMB. 0231 Bauchi, Nigeria

3Department of Architecture, Baze University Faculty of Environmental Sciences

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history

Received: 12/10/2016

Accepted: 02/12/2016

A b s t r a c t

This study shows a brief survey on the affordability elements in the current

low cost housing policies of Malaysia and Nigeria. Where a comparism of the

affordability elements in Malaysia and Nigeria were pointed out so as to study

the relationship among the low cost housing affordability elements in Malaysia

and Nigeria; and propose a sustainable low cost housing affordability policy.

The survey discovered that there are no laws, rules or guidelines regulating the

affairs of low cost housing. The design does not reflect user need; it did not

conform to their culture, family background and size. No provisions for public

participation were provided in the policy documents. An example is in the cost

houses located in the same neighbourhood with medium and high cost houses

in Batu Pahat Malaysia and enjoy all facilities, utilities and services there.

However, the situation is not the same in Bauchi town, where low cost houses

are located separately at the peripheries outside of the town trekking distances

which repel beneficiaries because of the awkward location. Residents in Batu

Pahat have higher earnings, less number of dependants than those at Bauchi

who have higher number of dependants and lower income level.

© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights

reserved.

Affordability, low cost, housing, policy

1. Introduction

Housing being a basic need is widely understood in the broader context of the shelter fabric together with

the living environment. The significance of housing is manifested in its components of being both an

economic and social good. Being an indicator of development and welfare in a country, it has an economic

value which makes it an economic investment (Njathi, 2011). In fact housing contributes largely towards

poverty reduction through employment generation, raising incomes, improvement of health and increasing

productivity of the labour force (Chirchir, 2006).Housing being a relatively labour intensive venture retains

the highest employment generation potential in any given developing country necessitating most countries

to consider adequate housing as a priority national development Goal (Syagga and aligula, 1993).


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Government in a bid to providing housing are relatively limited in the number of policy supported actions

they are able to take in supporting the housing needs and aspirations of their citizenry. It is evident over the

years, that Nigeria has developed and implemented a number of housing policies and strategies, in an

attempt to address the housing situation of its citizens and particularly the low-income groups (LIGs).

Consequently, a fatal failure of the public housing scheme to house Nigerians occurred (Agbola 1990;

Awotona, 1990; Ogunshakin & Olayinwola, 1992; Ikeojifor, 1999b; Ogu, 1999). There were writings from

the World Bank and allied scholars in propagating the idea that through supporting policies, the private

sector can adequately tackle the persistent inadequate response from the supply side (World Bank, 1993;

Pugh, 1994a; Ogu, 1999; Ogu & Ogbuozobe, 2001). Nigeria have taken the directives dictated by the

international agencies most especially the World Bank, to henceforth refrain from direct role in housing and

adopt market driven policies

to enable housing provision in their countries (World Bank, 1993; Sandhu and Aldrich, 1998). In this

instance, many of the opponents of neo-liberalism through the World Bank condemn the strategy on the

grounds of its likely deepening of exclusionist trends it would further generate on the poor and LIGs in the

developing countries (Baken and Linden, 1993; Ortiz, 1996; Mukhija, 2001, 2004). However, from the little

available in the Nigerian housing literature, the Organised Private Sector (OPS) are recognized to have

much concentration on housing the upper-and medium-income groups (Ikeojifor, 1997) and generally

display the tendency of profit maximization (Keivani & Werna, 2001a). Scholars have begun to express

cynicism that the desired objective might not be achievable from the participation of the OPS (Keivani &

Werna, 2001a; Aribigbola, 2008). In contrast, however, Malaysian housing programs have focused largely

on the eradication of poverty and restructuring of the society through the integration of the various ethnic

communities. The government has provided a settlement policy to keep pace with Malaysia‘s rapid

economic growth ―to eradicate hard-core poverty, to bring a better quality life to her people and to

conserve her forest eco-system for future generations (Ezeanya, 2004). As such, the role of private sector

developers became more significant and resulted in the formation of a consultative committee on housing

and construction between public and private sectors. The scope of development undertaken by developers

has increased from encompassing traditional housing projects to condominiums, townships, towering

commercial complexes, shopping malls, state-of-the art golf courses, hospitals, theme parks and industrial

estates.

2. Scope of the survey

The study vehemently focused on low cost housing in Batu Pahat, Malaysia under the Municipal Council

and low cost housing in Bauchi, Nigeria also under the Municipal Council. Emphasis was given to elements

that negate affordability of the housing units by lower income groups of these two municipalities by


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assessing their literacy level, dependency level, income level versus expenditure, family tie, ethic and race.

This has shown the extent of the achievements and sustainability of the housing policies.

Table 1.1 Population and Geographical Area of the study area

Figure 1.1 Administrative Map of Batu Pahat, Malaysia. Source: Figure 1.2 Administrative Map of Bauchi, Nigeria. Source: Google maps:

http://zodml.org/Nigeria/Geography/Bauchi%20State/#. (2012). Google maps:http://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl (2012).

3. Goals of Low Cost Housing Policy

Whichever future policy designed to achieve sustainable housing development for the low cost housing

should necessarily be designed to meet the following objectives:

Must provide the basis for household improvement. Few poor families fail to notice if the effect of

such policy led to an improvement or otherwise in their particular case. That is the acid test for the

lower income groups. Site and services failed because it left the lowest one fifth of the income

distribution behind, this forgotten fifth integral part of the population participate in the

improvement as well (UN Habitat, 2000).

Policies could result in sustainable housing development concerned with the improvement of poor

people. At least 50% of the urban population in the developing world has been marginalized. Not

only they must be heard by decision makers, they must have influence on matters affecting their

future destinies (UN Habitat, 2000).

Policies must be to psychologically give this lower segment a feeling of self-worth (UN Habitat,

2000).


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3.1 Concept of Low Cost Housing Affordability for the Low Income Groups

Affordable housing means the need for assistance to lower income household employed (Berry, et.al, 2004).

Universal Declaration of Human Rights declared that: ―Everyone has right to a standard of living adequate

for health and wellbeing of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and

necessary social services‖ (UN-HABITAT, 2002). In the UK housing policy context, in their statement in

their White Paper: Fair Deal for Housing in 1971, policy aimed to achieve a ―Decent home for every

family at a price within their means‖. However, the Department of Environment, Transport and Regions

(DETR, 2000), defined Affordable Housing as follows: Affordable housing can be classified as a social

housing at typically low, sub market rents and can also include other forms of sub market housing such as

intermediate rent and low cost ownership such as shared ownership.

3.2 Low Cost Housing Affordability Plan

Low cost housing unit is the dependent variable in respect of which all the affordability elements which are

the independent variables in this study represent the inputs or causes, tested to see the extent to which they

determine either affording or otherwise. Smart Home Design enables different people to live a better life

(Dewsbury, 2001). It is important to facilitate matching of low cost housing Design to user needs (Curry et

al. 2001; Doughty, 2000). Adaptation of culture in new Site & situations (Scott and Tilly, 1998) is equally

important in the design of low cost houses for the low income earners. These scholars suggest that low cost

housing should be design bearing in mind the family bond of the low income groups or beneficiary of the

components. Affordability is the next hurdle for the LIGs as their earning is usually low because of low

education level. They opt for any available facility for their mission to be accomplished. No scrutiny

whatsoever regarding the interest rate on the facility, they accept the facility, with all the accumulating and

hidden charges to gain roof over their heads.

4. Conclusion

Low cost housing Affordability by Low Income Groups is not usually highlighted in the current practiced

Housing policies. However, physical and socio-economic elements hinder the sustainability and efficiency

of housing policies. This eventually affects the realization of the Goals and affordability of the housing

units by lower income groups of both Malaysia and Nigeria. Economic indicators like Income, Literacy

level, Dependency ratio, ethics, family ties and race, posed a problem to the housing policies. Family

members don‘t seem to leave their ancestral compound to new locations. This survey ensure a sustainable

low cost housing policy by the government through the enhancement of sustainability elements such as

literacy/income level, dependency burden on the low income groups that impede affordability.


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References

Abdul-Aziz, W. (2007). Low-cost housing policy in Malaysia: a challenge in delivery. Unpublished Ph. D

thesis University of Dundee 308 pp.

Ader, H.J. (2008). Phases and initial steps in data analysis. In H.J. Adèr & G.J. Mellenbergh (Eds.) (with

contributions by D.J. Hand), Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion (pp. 333–356).

Huizen, the Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing.

Agbola, T. (1990). Affordability and cost recovery in shelter projects: the case of Nigeria. Third World

Planning Review, 12 (1), 59- 73. An analysis of Abuja Master Plan scheme and the revalidation of

certificate of occupancy. Housing Studies Association Conferences, 9th- 10th September. Belfast, U.K.

Agus, M. R. (1997). Housing the Nation: Historical Perspective on Housing Development. Cagamas

Berhad, Kuala Lumpur.

Archambault, S. & Schloesser, N. (2000). Psychology Department, Wellesley College Publishers.

Aribigbola, A. (2008). Housing policy formulation in developing countries: evidence of programme

Implementation from Akure, Ondo state, Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 23 (2) 125- 134.

Awotona, A. (1990). Nigerian government participation in housing: 1970- 1980. Habitat International, Vol.

14(1) 17-40.

Ball, M. & Harloe, M. (1992). Rhetorical Barriers to Understanding Housing Provision: What the Provision

Thesis is and is not. Housing Studies (7) No. 1. 3-15.

Baken, R., & Van der Linden, J. (1993). Getting the incentives right. Third World Planning Review, 15, 1-

22. Batu Pahat, (2012). Batu Pahat Municipal Council. Majlis Perbanderan, Batu Pahat.

Berry, M. Whitehead, C. Williams, P. and Yates, J. (2004). Financing Affordable Housing: A Critical

Comparative Review of the UK and Australia. Housing and Urban Research Institute. Swinburne-Monash,

Ahuri Research Center, Melbourne.

©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 2 (5) 6 - 14, 2016 e-ISSN 2360-8013

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Research Article

Spatial Quality in Space Design for Promoting Self-Healing In Malaysia

Siti Athirah Binti Jaapar, Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Aminatuzuhariah bte Megat Abdullah,

Mohd Zin Kandar

Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t In most of the healthcare centre found in Malaysia, the building were designed

mostly less therapeutic and studies has shows that the environment in those

healthcare frequently heighten levels of stress in patients, staff and families. Besides,

there are lacks of design consideration on spatial quality in restoring the occupants’

mental wellness and reducing the stress which could help in fostering the recovery

duration. Recent studies shows that appropriate healing environment in healthcare

setting could help enhance the sensory input to stimulate the body capabilities to heal

itself, also known as self-healing. The main focus in this study is to highlight

possible architectural solutions to create healing environment through spatial quality

in space design. The natural environment is frequently discussed related with healing

environment; by integrating nature inside the building that could improves the Indoor

Environmental Quality (IEQ) this can help in enhancing the well-being of the

occupants. Through a critical review of literatures from secondary sources, examples

of the integration of plants with architecture through biophilic architecture, it shows

that there exist strong connections between human and man-made environments in

relationship to spatial quality in space design. Some design considerations were

identified for consideration in future design of healthcare building for promoting self-

healing.

© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.

Keywords: spatial quality, space design, IEQ, healing environment, biophilic design

1. Introduction

Originally, the concept of healing environment was introduced and developed by Florence Nightingale in

1859; she leads a corps of nurses to treat the fallen soldier during Crimean War. She is widely known for

her vision on creating a clean and healthy environment within health care area. At that time, she manages to

prove that clean environment and healthy food can reduce the death rate at that time.


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Thus, she come out with a theory to manipulate the environment to be therapeutic by listing the elements

that create healing environment that is to include light, clean air, quiet and good diet. Since then, the

hospital design started to take the considerations especially on the window ventilation.

However, in these modern days the current healthcare environment were shown as harsh and rigid thus,

making the occupants to feel depressed and heighten their level of stress. Besides, people are commonly can

relate themselves with bad experience when involve with these common buildings such as clinics and

hospitals.

A lot of study has shown that the healing environment has been always related with nature and other natural

elements, such as fresh air, daylight and quietness (Berg, 2005). As people are mostly spend their in

indoors, the indoor environmental quality is very important in related to health and well beings of the

occupants.

1.1 Research Questions

Before conducting the study on this topic, I identify some research questions that will be

the guidelines for this study;

(i) What are the environmental factors that influence the people psychologically?

Architecture vs. Healing vs. Human

(ii) How the design of healthcare environments can be improved to promote mental wellbeing?

(iii)How nature environment can effects the indoor environmental quality and human well-

being?

1.2 Research Objectives

Therefore, my objectives of doing this study are: (i) to identify the casual relationship between human

health and environment, (ii) To understand how the design and sensory experience of architectural space

can affect the behaviour and wellbeing of its occupants, (iii) Integrating the plants in a living space can

improve Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ).


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1.3 Problem Statement

1.3.1. Spatial Quality

Spatial quality is defined as strategies in designing spaces. The spatial qualities of form, color, texture,

sound and light would affect the human behaviour in the enclosed space. In architecture, a space is not just

a simple physical space, the architects take a lot of considerations in designing a space that had the spatial

quality whether it is a good space or bad space.

In relations of creating a space that can influence people psychologically, it is called experimental or

sensory space by enhancing all five senses through visual, acoustic, olfactory, thermal or tactile. Hence, in

designing a space there are a lot considerations will take place such as the location of windows, type of

materials for walls and floors, lighting and depth of the space.

1.3.2. Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)

Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is very important in building environment because normally human

would spend a lot of their time indoor more than outdoor. So, they would breathe in the physical and

chemical nature of indoor air which then could affect the state of mental, physical and social well-being of

the occupants.

Study has shown that indoor air especially with cooling systems (i.e. with windows shut, with full air-

conditioning systems), is more polluted than the air outside. The indoor air quality is a dynamic

interrelationship between thermal comfort needs, physical factors and chemical and biological factors.

Hence, it is very important for our health and well-being.

According to Green Building Index (GBI), the factors that effecting indoor environment quality (IEQ) are

air quality, thermal comfort, lighting, visual and acoustic comfort. All this factors become the requirements

in order to improve the IEQ.


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2. Literature Review

2.1. Research Background

Studies have shown that exposure to the natural environment, or so-called green space, has an independent

effect on health and health-related behaviours. Plants and natural landscapes have shown to have a powerful

impact on people who are ill by creating soothing healing environments.

Figure 1: The relationship between stress reduction and passive encounter with the natural environment.

A study performed by Roger Ulrich found that a view of a park outside a patient’s window helped

patients recover faster, requiring less pain medication compared to patients who viewed a brick wall. By

perceived natural environment, the patients would feel calmer and it reduced their stress. When the level

of stress decrease it helped fastens healing process and improved the health of the patients.

Besides, plants and elements of nature were representing healing, growth, and hope. They offer an

attitude of the mind. A plant can be a representation of how we can feel and how we can change how we

see ourselves. How natural environments, or so-called green spaces, might affect health and health-

related behaviour has received a lot of attention from a range of field, including epidemiology and

psychology. Hence, there have been a lot of healthcare nowadays tried to create the green space as one of

their therapeutic elements in the facility. Throughout the study regarding how the natural environment

could improve health, the paper would investigate more on how can natural environment can improve the

indoor air quality and improve the wellbeing of the occupants.

3. Research Methodology

3.1. Introduction

This study will be more to descriptive because it reviewing others researches related with healing

environment and indoor environmental quality (IEQ). The data collected will be analyses in order to answer

research questions as shown in chapter 1.


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3.2. Qualitative Approach

The data collected through qualitative approach required the researchers to think critically in order to get

the data as they are not numerical in nature. By referring to all studies done by other researchers, the data

would be analysing in order to solve the research question for this paper. The reason for using qualitative

methods in this study was to understand and describing what are the factors that affected the indoor air

quality (IAQ) and to prove that natural environment helped improved the occupant’s health.

3.2.1. Content Analysis

The content analysis was conducted by collecting few researches related with the objectives of this study in

order to understand the relationships between indoor environmental quality (IEQ) and healing environment.

The data collected for this study will answer the research objectives mention in chapter 1.

4. Research Findings and Discussion

This chapter presents the results of the content analysis that I gathered from reviewing few researches

related to healing environment and indoor environmental quality (IEQ). From that, the discussion will be

derived from the analysis of the data that I had collected.

Research Objective: (i) To identify the casual relationship between human health and environment

Study 1: Natural Environments Healthy Environments? An Exploratory Analysis of the Relationship

between Greenspace and Health

The study was conducted in Dutch to find out if living in greener areas is healthier than living in less green

areas? Three global health indicators were use in this study that is number of symptoms experience in last

14 days, perceived general health and score of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Sjerp, 2003).

Based on the overall study done by the researchers, they find out that a significant effect were found in

urbanity, as the people were living in a highly urban areas they tends to have more symptons and their

mental health were highly affected.


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The analyses also found that the people in a greener environment were reported to has a fewer symptons

and perceived a better general health. Furthermore, their mental health appears to be better. Each

environment also shows different physical activities involve in their daily life. As the people living in green

environment, they do more physical activities than those who live in urban area such cycling, gardening,

walking and socialize with people surrounding. Hence, we can conclude that people reacts differently in

different environment in terms of physiologically and psychologically.

Research Objective: (ii) To understand how the design and sensory experience of architectural space can

affect the behaviour and wellbeing of its occupants.

As been mentioned before in Chapter 1, the spatial quality is very important in order to create sensory

experience that would affect human behaviour and their well-being. In spatial qualities, there are light and

dark, solid and void, opaque and transparent, and condensed and expansive. These are the basic elements in

designing a space.

Study 2: The Influence of Sensory Gardens on the Behaviour of Children with Special Educational Needs

The study explore on how can sensory experience affect people behaviour and wellbeing? The researcher

makes use of sensory gardens to observe the behaviour of the children with special educational needs in

Lyndale Special School. The sensory garden was divided into 4 zones of different types of landscape that

can stimulate the sensory experience and influence their behaviour. The study found out that the users spend

a longer time at a green space where the sensory experiences were emphasized which shows a positive

reaction compare to other zones that offer more hard landscape compare to this zone. We can conclude that

people would react positively when engage with spaces that offer sensory experiences involving all of their

senses.


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Research Objective: (iii) Integrating the plants in a living space can improve Indoor Environmental Quality

(IEQ).

NASA researchers are exploring the possibility of long-term space habitation; It became clear that the air in

the sealed space capsule to be contaminated with chemicals faster, such as volatile organic compounds

(VOCs).

Table 3: Benzene Removed by Marginata from a Sealed Experimental Chamber during a 24 Hours

Exposure Period.

Initial Final Percent

Removed

Full Foliage 0.152 0.051 66

Full Foliage with

Potting Soil Covered with Pea Gravel

0.171 0.085 50

Uncovered Potting Soil with Foliage Removed 0.278 0.194 70

Potting Soil Control 0.206 0.164 20

Table 3: Chemicals Removed by Houseplants from a Sealed Experimental Chamber during 24 Hours

Exposure Period.

Formaldehyde (ppm)

Initial Final % removed

Mass Cane 20 6 70

Pot Mum 18 7 61

Gerber Daisy 16 8 50

Warneckei 8 4 50

Ficus 19 10 47.4

Leak Control 18 17.5 2.8


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This study is about the use of plants such as air and water purification systems where it’s located in a closed

environment during space missions. Typical indoor plants show that they can provide a natural way to

remove the toxic agents.

The study found three commonly found toxins in indoor that affect human health:

• Trichloroethylene – effect similar to alcohol poisoning: headaches and dizziness, with long term

damage to liver and kidney.

• Formaldehyde – headaches, watery eyes and difficulty breathing

• Benzene – drowsiness, dizziness, vomiting and unconsciousness

Based on the findings, it supports the relationship between nature and health. The indoor plant was found

to be able act more self-sustaining, flexible and become a bio filtration system in filtering unwanted

components in the air which affecting human health and wellbeing.

• The indoor plant really does reduce or eliminate volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from indoor

air within 24 hours.

• The reduction of the VOCs helps improving human health and increase the productivity.

• When the indoor air quality improving, all those sickness due to the VOCs decrease and it reduce

the stress of the occupants of the space.

5. Conclusion

Findings have shown that the casual relationship can affect people physiologically and psychologically

depending on what environment they were in. It also shows that the relationship between indoor air quality

(IEQ) and healing environment would affect the well-being and health of the occupants.

In summary, the good indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is important in creating healing environment,

where people feel comfortable and feel that their stress is restore. By integrating plants inside a healing

space, it helps improves the healing process as the occupants would feel more calm and able to breathe in

fresh air than medical smells.


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References

Norhidayah, A. Lee Chia-Kuang, M.K. Azhar, S. Nurulwahida, S. (2013). Indoor Air Quality and Sick

Building Syndrome in Three Selected Buildings. Universiti Malaysia Pahang.

Berg, A.V.D. (2005). Health impacts of healing environments - A review of evidence for benefits of nature,

daylight, fresh air and quiet in healthcare settings.

Groningen: University Hospital Groningen.

Evans, G. W. and S. Cohen (1987). Environmental stress. Chapter in D. Stokols and I. Altman (Eds.),

Handbook of Environmental Psychology. New York: John Wiley, 571-610.

Hazreena H. (2010), The Influence of Sensory Gardens on the Behaviour of Children with Special

Educational Needs. University of Malaya.

Ismail Said (2008), Garden as Restorative Environment for Hospitalised Children, Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia.

Sjerp.d.V, Robert A.V., Peter P.G. (2003),

Natural environments – healthy environments? An exploratory analysis of the relationship between

greenspace and health, Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research.

Wolverton, B. C., et al. (1989). A study of interior landscape plants for indoor air pollution abatement: an

interim report. NASA. September.


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Research Article

Perspectives on Natural Ventilation and Thermal Comfort in Buildings

Abbas Sa’id El-nafaty 1,2, Isah Abdul Anakobe2, Mohd Hamdan Ahmad1

Malsiah Hamid1

1Dept. of Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

2Dept. of Architecture, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, University, PMB 0248, Bauchi, Nigeria

Email: [email protected] Tel +6 017 786 2327

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

Natural ventilation (NV) is the natural flow of air into buildings generated by

buoyancy forces, and static pressure. Ventilation is a key determinant of indoor

air quality providing building occupants with comfort and contaminant free air

[3]. Therefore, the delivery of energy efficient and environmentally friendly

ventilation is vital for providing safe, healthy and comfortable indoor

environment and thermal comfort of occupants in buildings. Therefore, this

paper seeks to explore the conceptual relationships between naturally

ventilation and thermal comfort in naturally ventilated buildings (NVB). It

presents perspectives on NV and Thermal Comfort in Buildings as well as a

summary of current standard techniques for assessing thermal comfort. The

study showed that ventilation under natural environmental conditions enhance

occupant comfort in buildings. Furthermore, NV is an energy efficient and

environmentally friendly approach for cooling and heating buildings. The

findings will avail architects, engineers and policy makers with perspectives on

improving the sustainable ventilation of future buildings.


Thermal Comfort, Energy Efficiency, Naturally Ventilation, Naturally Ventilated Buildings

1. Introduction

The delivery of safe, healthy and comfortable indoor environment in buildings is typically achieved by

ventilation systems (Chenari, Carrilho, & da Silva, 2016; Etheridge, 2010). In addition, ventilation is a

major determinant of indoor air quality providing building occupants with comfort and contaminant free air

(Awbi Hazim, 2003). This is dependent on the efficiency of air exchange distribution, removal of pollutants

and heat experience in the building (Cao et al., 2014). Building ventilation systems (BVS) are broadly

classified into natural, mechanical or hybrid systems (Awbi, 2003; Hall, 2010).

Natural ventilation (NV) is defined as air flow through buildings due to natural wind and static pressure

initiated by differences on the exterior and indoor area of buildings. It is typically ascribed to natural air

flows generated by the forces of buoyancy and wind through envelope openings in buildings (Etheridge,

mailto:[email protected]


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2010). In contrast, mechanical ventilation (MV) is conveyed through fans, blowers or air-ventilation

systems powered by electricity (Op’t Veld, 2008). In addition, MV systems are classified according to

function for extracting, supplying or a combination of both extracting-supplying air into buildings

(Etheridge, 2010). Lastly, hybrid ventilation (HV) is a combination of both natural and mechanical

ventilation (Cao et al., 2014). According to Turner and Awbi (2015) HV systems are novel systems that

supply clean air into buildings through natural and mechanical driving forces. In these systems, mechanical

devices are employed to recompense lack of natural airflows during adverse conditions (Chenari et al.,

2016).

The major drawback of MV and HVS is the substantial energy consumption, high costs and burden the

systems have on the environmental. Furthermore, indoor air quality as determined by the inflow, exchange,

and distribution of air into buildings ventilated by such systems is a major challenge. Hence, the removal of

pollutants and heat experience required to ensure occupant comfort in buildings remains is paramount. In

the same vein, the global attention on lowering greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and energy consumption

is vital to reducing the environmental burden of buildings. Current data estimates buildings account for 40%

of energy resources consumption yearly (Omer, 2008a). Similarly, the UN Environment programme

estimates that over 50% of global electricity consumption is utilized for heating air-conditioning and

ventilation in buildings (UNEP-SBCI, 2016). The study also reveals over 30% of GHGs worldwide are

emitted from buildings. Hence, it is imperative to address the challenges facing mankind and its

environment particularly against the backdrop of the growing threats of global warming and climate change

(McCarthy, Best, & Betts, 2010; Pérez-Lombard, Ortiz, & Pout, 2008). This philosophy forms the major

objective of Paris Agreement which aims to reduce GHGs by 46 billion by the year 2050 (COP21, 2015).

Therefore sustainable, low cost solutions are required to address the imminent challenges associated with

the built environment to ensure low carbon efficient energy consumption in buildings (Dodo et al., 2015; Li

& Colombier, 2009).

Several studies have examined the use of renewable energy technologies (Figueiredo & Martins, 2010;

Zahedi, 2006), low cost materials (Gustavsson & Sathre, 2006; Kuznik, David, Johannes, & Roux, 2011)

and sustainable design practices (Chwieduk, 2003; Deru & Torcellini, 2004) to lower the environmental

burden (Dahlstrøm, Sørnes, Eriksen, & Hertwich, 2012; Ortiz, Castells, & Sonnemann, 2009; Winistorfer,

Chen, Lippke, & Stevens, 2007) of current building structures. Others have explored the used of ICT

(information and communication technologies), and smart energy technology systems to monitor energy,

emissions and environmental impact of buildings (Aghemo et al., 2013; Häkkinen et al., 2007). However,

the deployment of these technologies into buildings particularly in developing countries is expensive,

complex and time consuming (Bobbo, Ali, Garba, & Salisu, 2015; Omer, 2008b; Torcellini, Pless, Deru, &

Crawley, 2006). In addition, these techniques are not sufficiently robust to provide occupant comfort, low


17 | P a g e

energy consumption and pollutant emissions in future buildings. Since, these metrics significantly influence

indoor air quality, it is paramount to explore simpler, cheaper, and sustainable solutions to address the

outlined challenges posed by current buildings on the environment. The use of natural ventilation (NV) can

potentially address the problems currently associated with buildings. Furthermore, NV can be efficiently

and cost effectively integrated into the design and construction of future buildings. Similarly, the robustness

of this approach can benefit even older existing buildings thereby lowering emissions, energy consumption

and occupant discomfort.

Therefore, the main objective of this study is to examine the potential of deploying natural ventilation (NV)

in future buildings. The study will also explore the conceptual relationships between NV and Thermal

Comfort in Buildings in the tropics. Lastly the study will present an overview of the concept of NV and

current standard techniques for assessing thermal comfort in buildings. It is envisaged that the study will

avail building experts with novel approaches for improving sustainability in the built environment.

2. Naturally Ventilated Buildings

Naturally ventilated buildings are designed based on passive cooling strategies (Pfafferott, Herkel, &

Wambsganß, 2004). In hot and humid tropical environments, NVBs have certain limitations in providing

thermal comfort. The limitations are typically linked to three factors namely (Feriadi, 2004);

Dependency,

Unpredictability,

Controllability.

First, NVBs dependent on the characteristics of the climatic regions. Predictably, external environmental

factors such as wind, air temperature, humidity, and solar energy significantly influence indoor conditions.

Therefore, it is difficult to estimate and safeguard comfortable thermal condition due to unpredictable

nature of the climate. Furthermore, it is impossible to completely control the fluctuation of indoor condition

continually within a narrow thermal comfort range. No matter how excellent the naturally ventilated

building is designed, there will be certain extreme natural conditions which cannot be controlled by passive

cooling strategies. Despite the limitations of NVB provide thermal comfort. Secondly, several studies have

demonstrated adaptive and innovative building design, particularly traditional architecture in tropics,

provide better thermal comfort (Abdullah & Wang, 2012; Chancellor, 1994; Kazmerski, Gallo, Sala, &

Sayigh, 1998). Furthermore, evidence indicates that precise control is unnecessary for occupant comfort in

the buildings. This supports the adaptive concept which considers that occupants play an active role in

achieving thermal comfort through their activity, clothing and behavioural. In addition, previous researchers

have observed the tendency of occupants to trade-off higher temperatures over other benefits in a well-liked

building (Humphreys, 1976). Therefore, occupants are willing to accept nominally uncomfortable

conditions when control devices that improve conditions such as operable windows, light switches or


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curtain blinds are accessible. Based on these findings, there is a better chance for NVB to accommodate

occupant control needs and in return thermal satisfaction over environment will be improved.

However, it is important to cautiously assess the level of environment control in NVB and incorporated

from design process to ensure the expected thermal performance is achieved without sacrificing other

performance such as lighting. Thirdly, recent studies reveal there is a statistically higher prevalence of sick

building syndrome in the air-conditioned buildings compared to naturally ventilated buildings (Barrozo

Costa & Da Rocha Brickus, 2000; El-nafaty, Ahmad, Hamid, & Shika, 2014; Wouters, 1999). The findings

show some positive aspects, not only because of healthier indoor spaces for particular occupants but also

wider advantage in terms of lower impacts on the environment. In addition, energy consumption and

pollutant emissions from NVBs are typically lower thereby contributing to more sustainable environment

and well-being. Furthermore, occupants of NVBs are given are better placed to decide and create the

conditions for thermal comfort. For example, some studies have demonstrated the choice of clothing and

indoor activities of building occupants can influence thermal neutrality even at different temperatures. In

NVBs, the indoor conditions tend to vary with outdoor climate, often to the preference of occupants

naturally responsive to the latter (F. Nicol & Raja, 1996). In addition, people working for long hours in air-

conditioned buildings tend to prefer open spaces which are naturally ventilated.

Therefore, understanding the issue of thermal comfort in NVBs is more complicated since numerous factors

directly and indirectly influence the process. The factors can be classified into four namely;

Physiology,

Psychology,

Climate and

Building design.

The outline factors are considered the most influential factors that influence thermal comfort. Furthermore,

the factors significantly contribute to occupant’s thermal comfort perception with varying levels of

interdependency and dynamic influences as illustrated in Figure 1 (Feriadi, 2004).


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Figure 1: Major factors influencing Thermal Comfort.

Table 1 shows in brief how the four inter-dependent factors affect Thermal comfort perception in naturally

ventilated buildings.

Table 1. Interdependency of Factors that influence Thermal Comfort in NVBs. (Feriadi, 2004)


20 | P a g e

Physiology and psychology are human factors that interact dynamically in response to thermal sensation in

the environment. However, climatology covers a wide range of natural setting of macro environmental

impacts that cannot be easily modified. People, as a part of the natural ecosystem need to adapt to climatic

conditions in their environment. In addition, the design of buildings, towns, and settlements are influenced

by climatic conditions typifies its role in promoting thermal comfort and energy efficiency (Perry & Smith,

1997). Building enclosure provides protection from harsh outdoor conditions thereby creating comfortable

interior spaces in the micro-environment. Similarly, the built environment affects local and regional climate

change, which can influence comfort and health (Bosselmann, Arens, Dunker, & Wright, 1995). Hence, the

design of buildings significantly influences thermal comfort of occupants.

3. Human Comfort in Buildings

According to Moujalled, Cantin, and Guarracino (2008) human beings are more comfortable under natural

environmental conditions. Similarly, Brager and de Dear (1998) demonstrated that natural ventilation is a

practical alternative for cooling and heating of buildings due to its potential for low energy consumption.

Other studies have also shown that NV provides good indoor air quality (Finnegan, Pickering, & Burge,

1984; Santamouris, 2013; Wong & Huang, 2004). Additionally, Yang and Zhang (2008) discovered that

lack of adequate ventilation caused discomfort among building occupants. The study further highlighted

that thermal comfort as one of the major parameters that contributes to human comfort in buildings. Other

significant and interdependent parameters that influence occupant comfort are visual lighting, acoustic, and

spatial comfort design (R. J. de Dear & Brager, 2002; El-nafaty, Dodo, Khandar, & Ahmad, 2014;

Johansson, 2006). Due to the importance of occupant comfort studies, researchers have developed methods

to measure the quantitative impacts of the parameter on comfort levels. To this effect, some researchers

have devised rating scales based on quantitative and qualitative methods to measure indoor environmental

acceptability (Rohles Jr, Woods Jr, & Morey, 1989; Winakor, 1982). However, other researchers have

focused on studying interdependency impacts between two or more comfort parameters (Yamazaki,

Nomoto, Yokota, & Murai, 1998). Figure 2 presents an example of the dynamic interaction among comfort

parameters.


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Figure 2: Interactions of Comfort Parameters Figure 3: Comfort and Related Sensation

in a Building.

Sources: (Feriadi, 2004)

This demonstrates that the interaction between parameters on occupant comfort which is more prevalent

and critical in NVBs. In such buildings, natural ventilation is maximized by opening the windows and doors

to allow wind to enter into interior spaces. However, this can result in outside noise, solar radiation, and

pollution. In addition, the interdependency of the parameters creates ambiguity in the accepted definitions

of thermal or occupant comfort. Therefore, the definition of common terms used in thermal comfort have

been widely discussed and defined (ASHRAE, 2004; ISO, 2005). Some important definitions are;

Thermal comfort: “Condition of the mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal

environment. Conditions wherein the average person does not experience the feeling of

discomfort.”

Satisfactory thermal environment: One that provides occupants a minimum of 80% thermal

satisfaction.

Thermal sensation: A conscious feeling commonly categorised by 7 points of -3 to +3 (cold,

cool, slightly cool, neutral, slightly warm, warm, and hot).

Despite the widely varied definitions, some physical parameters contribute to human thermal sensation but

may not be defined appropriately. For example descriptions for humid, stuffy, dry, still, breezy, and windy

conditions. Kuno (1987) warned about the difficulties which might be relied on insufficiency of semantic

(verbal expression) to represent a particular thermal sensation.

Figure 3 presented the interactions between the parameters. The solid lines refer to information channels

and dashed lines to interdependencies. With increase in the temperature and humidity levels, the human

skin will accept and detect the change of thermal sensation. However, inside the human body, integrated


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and sensitive sensors in spinal cord, mid brain, hypothalamus, and deep core receptors send signals to the

vasomotor to maintain (regulate) body temperature by sweating for hotter temperature and shivering for

cooler temperature. During the thermoregulation process, interactive information for building cognitive

assessment of comfort and discomfort of the current condition are executed. However, these approaches for

assessing thermal comfort are unpredictable prompting the development of standard methods for measuring

thermal comfort in buildings.

4. Standards for Thermal Comfort

The three most widely used international standards that relate specifically to thermal comfort studies are

(Olesen & Parsons, 2002); ASHRAE standard 55 (2004), ISO standard 7730 (2005), and CEN standard

EN15251 (2007).

4.1 ISO 7730

The International Standards Organization (ISO) is the predominant source of standard, each of which

becomes a national standard for the member states. ISO 7730 sets out the calculation and use of the

PMV/PPD index, including criteria for local comfort considerations. The standard is categorised into

classes (A, B, and C). It is aimed at estimating the thermal sensation and discomfort of persons exposed to

mid-level thermal indoor environments (R. De Dear, 2004).

4.2 European Standard EN15251

Standard EN15251 was developed by the Comite Europeen de Normalisation (CEN) for the European

Union for standards to back up the energy performance of buildings Directive (EPBD). It considers in

addition other factors that contribute to energy consumption in buildings. The standard aims in general to

specify input design parameters for the assessment of energy performance in indoor environments (J. F.

Nicol & Wilson, 2011). The typical parameters serve to examine acoustics, lighting, and indoor air quality

in thermal environments and their effect on occupant thermal comfort (F. Nicol & Humphreys, 2010).

4.3 ASHRAE 55

The ASHREA standard 55 is controlled and sponsored by the American Society of Heating Refrigeration

and Air conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) (ASHRAE, 2004). It is the first international standard to

include an adaptive component based on the extensive work of R. J. De Dear, Brager, Reardon, and Nicol

(1998), and data from ASHRAE project RP-884. On this basis, an adaptive standard was developed that

applies to NVBs. An acceptable zone for indoor temperature in naturally conditioned buildings is

determined by this standard. This is based on the relationship between indoor comfort temperature and the

outdoor temperature in NVBs using windows as the major source of indoor temperature control.


23 | P a g e

5. Conclusions

The paper explored the conceptual relationships between naturally ventilation and thermal Comfort in

naturally ventilated buildings. In addition, an outline of the current standard techniques for assessing

thermal comfort in buildings was highlighted. The findings indicate that occupant comfort is enhanced

under conditions akin to natural environment. In addition, NV is an environmentally friendly, and energy

efficient approach for cooling and heating of buildings. In addition, indoor air quality and occupant thermal

comfort can be enhanced by adopting NV in the design of future buildings.

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Research Article

Post Occupancy Evaluation of Public Mass Housing Estate in Minna, Nigeria Adama Unekwu Jonathan1, Ogunbode Ezekiel Babatunde*2, Ernest Ituma Egba3, Fabunmi Foluke Olanike1,

Abeku D.M.2

1Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger state, Nigeria.

2Department of Building, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger state, Nigeria.

3Department of Technology and Vocational Education, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi state, Nigeria.

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

The incessant increase of people in the urban area and the diversity of their

needs make the issue of housing a recurring problem. These days, housing

provision for civil servant and masses is one of the major problems facing

most of our urban areas. These studies report the post occupancy evaluation of

mass housing residential estate in Minna metropolis in terms of its use and

responses. The objectives of this study are to evaluate level of adequacy of

housing design and construction for users’ satisfaction, and to examine the

quality of mass housing in terms of its user’s response to the facilities and

services provided. The questionnaire survey approached was adopted in

acquiring the data required for the analysis. A total of 150 questionnaire copies

were administered randomly. The findings indicate that lack of good water

supply, good drainage system and lack of regular waste disposal, adequate

ventilation, poor management and maintenance are major challenges

encountered by public mass housing estate users.


civil servants, housing provision, mass housing, post occupancy evaluation.

1. Introduction

Many buildings do not perform as planned, and this can impact on running costs, staff and client

satisfaction and performance, health, safety and comfort (Eziyi et al., 2013; Akinluyi, 2013). The concept

of Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) is about procedures for determining whether or not design decisions

made by the architect are delivering the performance needed by those who use the building (Ilesanmi,

2010). It is a systematic manner of evaluating buildings after they have been built and occupied for duration

of time (Preiser, 2002, 1995,). Voordt and Wegen, (2005) opines that POE represents the vital diagnostic

step needed to feed the prescriptive tools of planning and programming. The gap between the actual

performance of buildings and explicitly stated performance criteria constitute the evaluation (Preiser et al,

1998). One of the applications of POE is the comparison between the use that the house was designed for


28 | P a g e

and the actual use. Vischer (2002) suggests that POE can be used to determine building defects, formulate

design and construction criteria, support performance measures for asset and facility management, lower

facility life cycle costs by identifying design errors that could lead to increased maintenance and operating

costs, and clarify design objectives. It helps to empower users to negotiate building issues and reduce

maintenance works and cost (Hewitt et al, 2005; Vischer, 2002; Bordas and Leaman, 2001). POE gives

feedback into existing projects in such a way that it can be considered as a diagnosis, the applied use of the

results being a form of treatment (Wohwill and Weisman, 1981).

However, despite the preponderance of research in the context of building performance, POE as a

systematic method of collecting data on buildings in use has not found wide usage for public housing in

Nigeria (Ilesanmi, 2010). Since, POE is the process of obtaining feedback on a building's performance in

use, the value of POE cannot be overemphasised and it is becoming mandatory on many public projects.

POE is valuable in all construction sectors, especially healthcare, education, offices, commercial and mass

housing, where poor building performance will impact on running costs, occupant well-being and business

efficiency. POE highlights any immediate teething problems that can be addressed and solved. It identifies

any gaps in communication and understanding in building operation. It also provides lessons that can be

used to improve design, procurement on future projects and act as a benchmarking aid to compare across

projects and over time. POE involves the building users in defining how buildings function for them

(Watson, 2003).

The prime intent of constructing buildings by the owner is to offer the users comfort, convenience and

safety as they conduct their activities and daily endeavours. This is why the design, planning, construction

and managing of buildings in accordance to statutory standards and specifications is paramount and

expedient (Meir et al., 2009; Zeiler and Boxem, 2008; Ukoha and Beamish, 1997; Kaitilla, 1993). However,

previous studies have shown that sometimes these standards and specifications given by the experts,

professionals and government officials or institutions does not align to the shifting desires and anticipations

of the users of the built environment, mostly the housing estates and its facilities (Eziyi, 2013; Ukoha and

Beamish,1997; Kaitilla, 1993). The users, thus raise complains of their dissatisfaction of the performance of

the buildings the abode in. Studies have shown various consequence associated with living in an

environment or house that the performance are below the expectation or satisfaction of the residents. Such

consequences are sick building syndrome and building allied illness (Kian et al., 2001). Additionally, this


29 | P a g e

shortfall in building performance triggers the craving for abandonment or modifications or remodelling of

completed and occupied buildings (Kim et al., 2005). Such practice amounts to waste of resources, energy

and some-times even adverse damage to the building envelope components and the surrounding

environment (Mitterer et al., 2012).

One of the major reasons that causes the poor performance and low satisfaction derived from buildings and

its facility by this users is the lack of adequate knowledge of users’ shifting needs and inclinations by

developers and building professionals who makes paramount decisions during the pre-design and design

stage of building projects. Most time they exempt salient aspects in the design which affects the buildability

and maintainability of the building. Adequate knowledge on user’s desires is requires for building

developers and designers to be able to provide functional, comfortable and convenient building structures

and its accompanying facilities. Therefore, Kim et al. (2005), and Fatoye & Odusami (2009) advocated that

in other to improve the generally performance of buildings and its facilities, the building professionals,

property developers, development control officers, and the urban planners must understand the building

users’ desires, anticipations and aspirations through regular performance evaluation referred to as post

occupancy evaluation (POE).

In the past decade, resident satisfaction has been used as an important indicator in evaluating public mass

housing, quality and services. However, in the recent past, the housing deficit syndrome and the need to

make housing available for all has made the practice of POE questionable. It has been noticed that in some

public mass housing projects, modification and extensive remodelling of the houses starts even before the

end users move into the houses. This is an economic waste, which can be avoided. Therefore, the paper

presents a report of POE that was conducted based on two specific objectives, namely: to evaluate level of

adequacy of housing design and construction for users’ satisfaction, and to examine the quality of mass

housing in terms of its user’s response to the facilities and services provided. The findings of the study

could provide a platform for proffering solutions to the challenges of public mass housing projects at

conception and preplanning stage.


30 | P a g e

2. Methodology

The population from which the samples was obtained are three bedrooms, two bedrooms, in Wushishi estate

in Minna, Niger State. A research structured questionnaire on Post Occupancy Evaluation was design to

covered paramount issues such as available facilities, level of satisfaction of the end user, condition of

facility and client value ranking. A total number of 150 questionnaire copies were administered to the end-

users in each area considered. The statistical frequency and percentage were used to analyse the date.

3. Result and Discussions

3.1 Demography of the users of the housing estate

This study highlights the functionality, convenience and comfortability of the use of structure, spaces and

facilities provided for an emblematic mass housing estate. The physical and facility elements performance

and level of satisfaction of the users are determined by conducting the post occupancy use. The response of

users of these facilities in the housing estate of different socio-economic characteristic were presented and

analysed below.

Table 1: Occupation of respondents

Occupation Respondents Percentage %

Employed 102 68

Unemployed 7 4.6

Self-employment 25 16.7

Retired 16 10.7

Total 150 100

Table 2: Income level of respondents

Income level Respondents Percentage %

N20,000-N30,000 15 10

N31,000-N40,000 33 22

N41,000-N50,000 68 45.3

N51,000-N60,000 14 9.3

Above N60,000 20 13.4

Total 150 100


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Table 1, Table 2 and Figure 1 presented the demographic background of the users of the housing estate

studied. Table 1 shows the occupation status of the respondents residing in the housing estate. Table 2

shows that most inhabitants of this estate are medium income earners (45.3%) and they are majorly civil

servants. Most inhabitants of the estate actually acquired their structures through the housing scheme

instituted by Dr Muazu Babangida Aliyu administration who also gave the self-employed with a medium

income earning means an opportunity to acquire too.

Figure 1: Tenure type of respondents

The tenure type of the respondents as shown in Figure 1 indicates clearly that majority of the respondent

who are the inhabitants of the estate are owners of the building they abode with a percentage of 65%.

However, it was seen that 30% rented the apartment and 5% are dependents (squatters).


32 | P a g e

3.2 Post occupancy evaluation of building, facility and Space condition of the Housing estate

Table 3: To evaluate level of adequacy of housing design and construction for users’

Satisfaction within the Housing estate.

Facilities provided for the residents

Rating

Frequency

Percentage

(%)

Quality of building materials

EA 0 0.0

VA 1 0.6

A 6 4.0

FA 109 72.7

PA 34 22.7

T 150 100.0

Level of Natural illumination in the rooms

EA 20 13.3

VA 25 16.7

A 63 42.0

FA 39 26.0

PA 3 2.0

T 150 100.0

Level of Ventilation in the rooms

EA 23 15.3

VA 21 16.7

A 71 47.4

FA 20 13.3

PA 15 10.0

T 150 100.0

Level of Convenience and Comfort

EA 12 8.0

VA 15 10.0

A 37 24.7

FA 69 46.0

PA 17 11.3

T 150 100.0

Level of Aesthetics appearance

EA 7 4.7

VA 12 8.0

A 31 20.7

FA 53 35.3

PA 47 31.3

T 150 100.0

Size of the room

EA 0 0.0

VA 5 3.3

A 50 33.3

FA 70 46.7

PA 25 16.7

T 150 100.0

Key: EA= Excellently Adequate, VA =Very Adequate, A=Adequate, FA = Fairly Adequate,

PA= Poorly Adequate, T= total.


33 | P a g e

It is observed from Table 3 that 22.7% of the respondents rate the Quality of building materials

used in constructing the structures to be poorly adequate, 72.7% to be fairly adequate, 4% to be adequate,

0.6% to be very adequate, while 0% of the respondents rate the level of Quality of building materials used

in constructing the structures to be excellently adequate.

According to the table above, 13.3% of the students rate the level of ventilation to be fairly

adequate, 47.4% to be adequate and 10% to be poorly adequate, while 15.3% of the students rate the level

of ventilation to be excellently adequate, 16.7% of the students rate the level of natural Illumination within

the room to very adequate, 42% to be adequate, 2% to be poorly adequate, while 13.3% of the respondents

rate the level of natural illumination to excellently adequate.

The distribution shows that 10% of the students rate the level of Convenience and Comfortability

generally to be very adequate, 24.7% to be adequate, 46% to be fair, 11.3% to be poorly adequate and just

8% of the respondents rate the level of Convenience and Comfortability generally to be excellently

adequate. The distribution in table 3 shows that, 20.7% of the respondents rate the level of aesthetics of the

buildings within the estate to be adequate and 35.3 to be fair, 31.3% to be poorly adequate while just 4.7%

of the students rate the aesthetics of the buildings within the estate to be excellently adequate. The above

distribution shows that, 3.3% of the respondents rate the size of their rooms to be very adequate, 46.7% to

be fairly adequate, 16.7% to be poorly adequate, 33.3% to be adequate and 0% to be excellently adequate.


34 | P a g e

Table 4: To examine the quality of mass housing in terms of its user’s response to the facilities and

services provided within the Housing estate.

Key: EA= Excellently Adequate, VA =Very Adequate, A=Adequate, FA = Fairly Adequate,

PA= Poorly Adequate, T= total.

Facilities and services provided for the residents Frequency Percentage

%

Level of Drainage system in the estate

EA 18 12.0 VA 23 15.3 A 34 22.7

FA 68 45.3 PA 7 4.7 T 150 100.0

Level of Parking Facilities

EA 12 8.0 VA 75 50.0 A 43 28.7

FA 18 12.0 PA 2 1.3 T 150 100.0

Level of availability of Electricity

EA 9 6.0 VA 13 8.7 A 72 48.0

FA 22 14.7 PA 35 23.3

T 150 100.0

Level of Waste Disposal

EA 27 18.0 VA 65 43.3 A 32 21.3

FA 15 10.0 PA 7 4.7 T 150 100.0

Level of water Supply

EA 22 14.7 VA 48 32.0 A 29 19.3

FA 32 21.3 PA 19 12.6 T 150 100.0

Level of Road Facilities

EA 3 2.0 VA 7 4.7 A 50 33.3

FA 54 36.0 PA 36 24.0 T 150 100.0


35 | P a g e

Table 4 shows that 45.3% of the respondents rate the level of drainage system to be fairly adequate, 22.7%

to be adequate, 15.3% to be Very adequate, 4.7% to be poorly adequate, while 12% of the respondents rated

the level of drainage system to be excellent.ly adequate Also, the table shows that 12% of the respondents

rate the level of the parking facilities to be fairly adequate, 50% to be Very adequate and, 28.7% to be

adequate, 1.3% to be poorly adequate. While just 8% of the respondent’s rate the level of parking facilities

to be excellently adequate. It could also be observed from the Table that, 33.3% of the students rate the

level of road to be good, 4.7% to be Very adequate, 36% to be fairly adequate, 2% to be excellently

adequate while just only 24% of the respondents rated the level of road facilities to be poorly adequate.

Table 5 also shows that 48% of the respondents rate the level of electricity supply to be good and 14.7% to

be fairly adequate, 23.3% to be poorly adequate while 6% of the respondents rate the level of electricity to

be excellently adequate. Further inspection of the table shows that 10% of the respondents rate the level of

waste disposal to be fairly adequate and 43.3% rated it to be very adequate, 21.3% to be adequate while

4.7% of the respondents rate the level of waste disposal to be poorly adequate. While just 18% of the

respondents rate the waste disposal to be excellently adequate.

Also the table shows that, 21.3% of the respondents rate the level of water supply to be fairly adequate,

19.3% to be adequate, 32% to be very adequate, 12.6% to be poorly adequate, while 14.7% of the

respondents rate the level of water supply to be excellently adequate.

Information from the respondents (occupant) shows that all respondents that reside in the estate evaluated

showed that the majority of the occupants are between the ages of 31-50. As these two characteristics are

two important socioeconomic characteristics of the users in accessing and evaluating the user use and

response pattern to spaces within the estate.

Findings of these research has shown that most housing estate use space (bedroom) does not function well

and they are not supportive in design aspect such as conformability, size of the unit, arrangement of fixtures

and furniture number per unit, ease of movement, ventilation and privacy required by individual users. It is

observed that, the design is not flexible to accommodate more number of users.


36 | P a g e

It was observed that, if attention is paid to services and facilities such as electricity, waste disposal, parking

facilities and good road, it could have resulted in more comfortable and higher housing satisfaction by the

residents. Living spaces should offer adequate services as well as functional and aesthetic satisfaction to

users. From the finding, the estate evaluated performed just above average as good quality ratings of the

aspects used in the evaluation outweighed the poor quality ratings. Also, findings showed that lack of good

water supply, good drainage system and lack of regular waste disposal, adequate ventilation, poor

management and maintenance are major issues highlighted by the occupants as constrains of their estate.

4. Conclusion

This research has investigated the post occupancy evaluation of housing estate in FCT Abuja. From the

analysis of the result obtained in this research, it can be concluded that the users are satisfied. To an average

extent, the performance of the estate was satisfactory despite the merit problems of poor sanitary facilities,

lack of privacy, and lack of good water supply and small size of the unit. There is a high probability that

buildings never work out as planned; however, complaints are not necessarily the result of bad design. They

could be the result of an outdated design concept, because it has been realized that post occupancy stage is a

dynamic model, and changes overtime can cause different effects. In view of the above finding, the

following conclusions are reached:

(i) The problems of overcrowding can be addressed by producing more accommodation. There should be

proper and adequate orientation for estate users on importance of good maintenance culture of fixture,

furniture and other facilities provided.

(ii) The use of space in estate’s housing should be functional, comfortable and flexible to a degree so that it

will be able to serve generations of estate users.

(iii) Finally, the lack of adequate knowledge of users’ shifting needs and inclinations by developers and

building professionals has to be bridged through further intensive study on POE.


37 | P a g e

References

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Case Study of Obafemi Awolowo Hall of Residence Ile-Ife. Greener Journal of Science, Engineering

and Technology Research. Vol. 3(1), Pp. 1-11.

Bordas, B. and Leaman, A. (eds.) (2001). Assessing building performance in use. Building

Research and Information. 29 (2).

Eziyi O. I., Akunnaya P. O., Albert B. A., Dolapo A. (2013). Performance evaluation of residential

buildings in public housing estates in Ogun State, Nigeria: Users' satisfaction perspective.

Frontiers of Architectural Research. Vol. 2 (2). Pp. 178–190.

Fatoye, E.O., Odusami, K.T., (2009). Occupant’s satisfaction approach to housing performance

evaluation: the case of Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the RICSCOBRA Research Conference,

University of Cape Town, 10 –11 September, 2009.

Hewitt, D., Higgins, C. and Heatherly, P. (2005). A Market-friendly Post Occupancy Evaluation:

Building Performance Report. Washington: New Buildings Institute.

Ilesanmi, O. A. (2010). Post–Occupancy Evaluation and Residents’ Satisfaction with Public Housing in

Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Building Appraisal. Vol. 6, 2, 153-169.

Kaitilla, S., (1993). Satisfaction with public housing in Papua New Guinea: the case of West Taraka

housing scheme. Environment and Behaviour. 25 (4), 514–545.

Kim, S., Yang, I., Yeo, M., and Kim, K., (2005). Development of a housing performance evaluation model

for multi-family residential building in Korea. Building and Environment. 40, 1103–1116.

Mitterer, C., Kunzel, H.M., Herkel, S., and Holm, A., (2012). Optimizing energy efficiency and occupant

comfort with climate specific design of the building. Frontiers of Architectural Research. 1, 229–235.

Preiser, W. F. E. (1995). Post occupancy evaluation: How to make buildings work better. Journal of

Facilities. 13 (11):19–28.

Preiser, W. F. E., Rabinowitz, H. Z. and White, E. T. (1988). Post Occupancy Evaluation. New York: Van

Nostrand. Reinhold Company.

Preiser, W. F. E. (2002). The Evolution of Post Occupancy Evaluation: Towards Building Performance and

Design Evaluation, Chapter 2. Washington: Federal Facilities Council, National Academy Press, pp. 9 – 22.

Ukoha, O.M. and Beamish,J.O.,(1997). Assessment of resident’s satisfaction with public housing in

Abuja,Nigeria. Habitat International. 21(4), 445–460.

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bibliography and guide to the literature. New York: Plenum Press

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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability, 2 (5) 39 - 48, 2016 e-ISSN 2360-8013

39 | P a g e

Research Article

Risk Management in Public Private Partnership Building Construction

Projects

Ernest Ituma Egba1, Ogunbode Ezekiel Babatunde2, Fabunmi Foluke O3., Adama Jonathan U3.

1Department of Technology and Vocational Education, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. 2Department of Building, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna. Niger

State, Nigeria. 3Department of Estate management and Valuation, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of

Technology, Minna. Niger State, Nigeria.

Corresponding author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



Abstract

The study examines risk management in Public Private Partnership (PPP)

projects carried out in the federal capital city of Nigeria. A questionnaire

survey approached was adopted in acquiring the data required for the analysis.

A total of 155 copies of questionnaire were administered. The analysis shows

that the public sector preferred to retain most political, legal and project

selection risks, while the private sector preferred to retain most construction

risk and operation risk. It was also established that both parties preferred to

share the economic risks and market risks. The findings indicate that PPP is a

good approach in building construction projects. Also, the findings show that

adequate allocation of risk is necessary for the smooth implementation of any

PPP model. The paper provides investors a better understanding of risk

preferences among the stakeholders in the Nigerian construction industry so

that they could better adjust and plan their strategies according to the specific

risk factors and achieve better value for money when executing PPP projects. © Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.

Construction risk,

Risk management,

PPP projects,

Nigeria,

Stakeholders

1. Introduction

Several infrastructures and building construction projects have been implemented by the Nigerian

Government and its different agencies using Public Private Partnership (PPP) approach. For example, the

domestic terminal of Murtala Muhammed International Airport, Lagos, which was partially destroyed by

fire in 2000, was re-built through a syndicated medium-term refinancing facility from a consortium of six

Nigerian banks. The banks that were involved are Zenith Bank Plc, Oceanic Bank Plc, Guaranty Trust Bank

Limited, Access Bank Limited and First City Monument Bank. In recognition of the potential role for PPP

in infrastructure development in Nigeria, the government in 2008 established the Infrastructure Concession

Regulatory Commission (ICRC) to develop and lead on the development of a harmonised PPP policy in the



40 | P a g e

country (Akinyemi et al., 2009). Several other projects at the federal and state government have benefited

from the scheme.

The World Bank (2009) gave a generally accepted definition of partnership as “a collaborative relationship

between entities to work together towards shared objectives through mutually agreed division of labour”.

Though, this definition is not a precise one since it does not specifically mention several other important

areas of partnership such as shared responsibility, joint investment of resources, shared risk taking and

mutual benefits (Demirjan, 2008), however, it has really helped in clarifying that partnerships is different

from other relationships. For this reason, several researchers had to further highlight additional aspects of

partnering. For example, Demirjan (2008) appears to provide an alternative definition based on the

perspective of shared objectives. This is especially true as risk-sharing among governments, utility, lenders

and developers is often at the heart of most reservations or debate about Public-Private Partnership projects

(Malhotra, 1997; Akintoye et al., 2003). Literature indicate that there is no single accepted definition of risk

(Rockett, 1999), resulting in the fact that risk is a generally misunderstood concept having been used

interchangeably with other related terms such as harm, hazard, threat, and uncertainty Khattab et al., (2007).

The concept of risk has been studied intensively by researchers across all known schools of thought leading

to a focus on three key areas, namely: risk assessment, risk management and risk perceptions. It is

particularly important to highlight the fact that risk perception generates considerable interest in cognitive

and behavioural psychology (Keil et al., 2000). The reality is that major infrastructure projects, because of

their complexity (Pipattanapiwong et al., 2003), are highly risky. To understand the impact of these risks, it

is necessary to conduct an exploration of the various independent parameters that impact on decision-

making (Grimsey and Lewis, 2004). The adoption of PPPs by governments around the world is a recent

phenomenon and it is important that good practice is maintained among the parties involved (Reeves and

Ryan, 2007). Consequently, the objectives of this paper are to examine the effectiveness of PPP models on

building construction projects, determine preferred risk allocation in public private partnership projects, and

measure the effects of public private partnership building project execution.

2. Methodology

The Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, Abuja was used as the study area due to its peculiar status, state of

act construction process and product adopted therein, to provide for the need of the ever-increasing


41 | P a g e

population in Abuja. The rapid growth in the Nigeria construction industry as well as the application of

more PPP projects is not an exception. Also, several PPP projects are on-going and some completed.

Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources for analysis. The primary data include

reconnaissance survey and structured questionnaire obtained from selected professionals in Abuja

representing the Nigeria construction industry. A total number of 155 copies of questionnaire were

administered. The sampling method adopted is the simple random sampling in order to eliminate the

incidence of bias. Secondary data were obtained from extensive literature review of relevant seminar paper,

reports, textbook, and journals both published and unpublished.

The respondents were categorized by education background, years of experience, and profession. Also,

project cost was utilized as a variable. In the education background category, 49% of the respondents have

BSc/HND qualification, 13% are PGD Holders, 26% are MSc holders, while the remaining 12% have PhD.

In the years of experience category, 40% of the respondents have 5-10 years’ experience, while 60% of the

respondents have above 10 years’ experience. From the survey, it was revealed that 20% of the projects the

respondents are engaged in worth 5-10 million, 28% of projects worth 30-50 million, while the projects

above 50 million are 52%. Table 1 shows the profession distribution of the respondents. Out of a total of

155 respondents, 19.36% are Architects, 23.23% are Builders, 9.03% are Civil Engineers, and 22.58% are

Estate Managers, while Quantity surveyors are 25.80%. Most of the respondents are Quantity surveyors.

Table 1: Profession Distribution of Respondent

Profession of respondent No Administered to respondents Percentage (%)

Architect 30 19.36

Builder 36 23.23

Civil engineer 14 9.03

Estate Surveyor 35 22.58

Quantity Surveyor 40 25.80

Total 155 100.00


42 | P a g e

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Effectiveness of PPP models

The result of the effectiveness of supply and management contracts as a form of PPP model is shown in

Figure 1. The result shows that 22% of the respondents were of the opinion that it’s averagely effective for

project delivery. Also, the result of the effectiveness of turnkey contracts as a form of PPP model is

presented in Figure 2. The result indicates that 70% of the respondents were of the opinion that it’s

averagely effective for project delivery, while 30% were not sure.

Figure 1: Supply and management contracts Figure 2: Turnkey contract PPP model

PPP model

Figure 3 shows the effectiveness of lease/affermage contracts as a form of PPP model. From the survey,

70% of the respondents were of the opinion that it’s averagely effective for project delivery, 12% went for

not effective, while 18% were not sure. In addition, the effectiveness of concession contracts as a form of

PPP model is shown in Figure 4. From the survey, it was established that 62% of the respondents are of the

view that it’s very effective for project delivery, while 38% believe it’s strongly effective.

0

5

10

15

20

25

frequency

percentage

0

20

40

60

80

averagely

effective

not sure

frequency

percentage

0

20

40

60

80

noteffective

averagelyeffective

not sure

frequency

percent

0

20

40

60

80

stronglyeffective

very effective

frequency

percent


43 | P a g e

Figure 3: Lease/Affermage Figure 4: Concession contracts

Table 2 shows the effectiveness of private ownership of assets contracts as a form of PPP model. From the

survey, 62% of the respondents were of the view that it’s averagely effective for project delivery, 8% of the

respondents believe it is not effective, while 30% said they were not sure.

Table 2: Private ownership of assets contract

Frequency

Percent (%)

Not effective 4 8

Averagely effective 31 62

Not sure 15 30

3.2 Preferred Risk Allocation

Table 3 illustrates respondents view on how political risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private

sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents are of the opinion that political risk

should be the responsibility of the public sector, 10% delegated it to the private sector, while 28% believe it

should be shared among both parties. Table 4 illustrates respondents view on how construction risks are to

be allocated to the public sector, private sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents

were of the opinion that construction risk is the responsibility of the private sector, 8% said it should be

delegated to the public sector while 30% believe this risk should be shared by both parties. Table 5

illustrates respondents view on how legal risks that are to be allocated to the public sector, private sector or

risk to be shared by both parties. 60% of the respondents were of the view that legal risk was preferred to be

assigned to the public sector 10% went for private while 30% believe it should be shared by both parties.

Figure 5 illustrates respondents view on how economic risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private

sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents were of the view that economic risk

should be shared, 10% went for private while 28% went for public sector.

Table 6 illustrates respondents view on how operational risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private

sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents were of the opinion that operational risk

should be taken care of by the private sector, 28% went for shared while 10% went for public. Figure 6

shows the respondents view on how market risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private sector or

risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents went for shared, 16% went for private, while 22%

went for public. Figure 7 illustrates respondents view on how project finance risks are to be allocated to the


44 | P a g e

public sector, private sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 60% of the respondents were of the opinion

that project finance was the duty of the public, 30% went for private while 10% went for shared. Figure 8

illustrates respondents view on how project selection risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private

sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 70% of the respondents were of the opinion that project selection

was the delegation of the public, 10% went for private while 20% went for shared. Figure 9 shows the

respondents view on the preferred risk allocation for relationship. 60% were of the opinion that this risk is

better suited for the private sector, 20% went for public, while 20% went for shared. Figure 10 shows

respondents view on the allocation of natural risk. 80% of the respondents strongly believe that this risk

should be shared by both parties, 10% went for public while 10% went for private.

Table 3: Political risk Table 4: Construction risk

Frequency Percent (%)

Public 31 62

Private 5 10

Shared 14 28

Table 5: Legal risk Table 6: Operational risk


Public 30 60

Private 5 10

Shared 15 30

Figure 5: Economic risk Figure 6: Market risk


Private 31 62

Public 4 8

Shared 15 30


Public 5 10

Private 31 62

Shared 14 28

0

20

40

60

80

public private shared

frequency

percent


45 | P a g e

Figure7: Project finance Figure 8: Project selection

Figure 9: Relationship risk Figure 10: Natural risk

3.3 Effects of PPP on project outcome

Figure 11 shows respondents view on how PPP affects the outcome of a project. Majority of the respondent

were of the view that the proper application of PPP as a means of project delivery brings about the

provision of projects at improved standard time and cost with emphasis on the better cost management and

cost efficiency in terms of construction cost, operational cost, as well as cost of maintenance as it is private

sector driven. 72% of the respondents were of this view.

0

20

40

60

80

frequency

percent

0

20

40

60

80

public private shared

frequency

percent

0

50

100

frequency

percent


46 | P a g e

0

20

40

60

80

time cost

frequency

percent

Figure 11: How PPP affect project outcome

The findings indicate that PPP is a good approach in building construction projects. Also, the findings show

that adequate allocation of risk is necessary for the smooth implementation of any PPP model. The findings

agree with the submission of Akintoye et al., (2003).

4. Conclusion

Based on the research carried out it was observed that risk involved in PPP projects can be categorized into

ten risk factors. The risk factors were carefully studied in relation to the response of the sampled

professionals. The identified risks were looked at with their preferred allocations. Analysis of the

effectiveness of PPP models indicates that different PPP models have different efficiency. As a result of

findings, the following recommendations were made:

Early measures should be taken to identify unforeseen risks likely to occur in order to make

contingencies for them.

Risks factors should be assigned accordingly to bring about proper implementation and increased

project performance.


47 | P a g e

References

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Opportunities. Oxford: Blackwell Science Limited.

Akinyemi, B., Ojiako, U., Maguire, S., Steel, G. and Anyaegbunam, A. (2009). Nigerian Banks and the

Perception of Risk in PPP Project Delivery. Journal of Finance and Management in Public Services, 8(2):1-

20.

Demirjan (2008) in B. Akinyemi, U. Ojiako, S. Maguire,G. Steel and A. Anyaegbunam (2009). Nigerian

Banks and the Perception of Risk in PPP Project Delivery Journal of Finance and Management in Public

Services, 8(2).

Grimsey, D. and Lewis, M. (2004). Public Private Partnerships: The Worldwide Revolution in

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Khattab, A. A., Anchor, J, and Davies, E. (2007). Managerial Perceptions of Political Risk in International

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Reeves, E. and Ryan, J. (2007). Piloting Public-Private Partnerships: Expensive Lessons from Ireland's

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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 2 (5) 49 -58, 2016 e-ISSN 2360-8013

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Research Article

Neighbourhood Quality and Residential Mobility in Penang

Nur Syuhada Mahasan*, Nazhan Nazran, Sarofil Abu Bakar

Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Bharu, Malaysia.

*Corresponding author email: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

Neighbourhood quality is a major factor that influences the process of

residential mobility. Research has shown that quality of neighbourhood is one

of the motivating triggers for relocation. The main objective of this research is

to examine the effect of quality of neighbourhood, vis-a-vis its social features,

on the process of residential mobility. The study area is located in a

neighbourhood of Penang comprising low-cost, middle-cost and high-cost

residential housing. Consequently, a total of 135 respondents consisting of 67

respondents each from low-cost and middle-cost along with one respondent

from high-cost residential housing were sampled. Using survey data, the

logistic regression analysis showed that motivations arising from work-related

factors, neighbourhood and housing-related reasons significantly influence the

decision making process of relocation from current residences to other places.

This was consistent in both low and middle-income residences demonstrating

that neighbourhood factors influence residential mobility.


PFI, Benefits, Strategy, Value for money, public procurement

1. Introduction

Over the years, Malaysia has achieved major successes in the quest for political stability, socioeconomic

growth and sustainable development. In line with this level of advancement is the expectation that all

citizens are entitled to a certain quality of life. This includes a high neighbourhood quality usually

characterised by safe living environment, peaceful social interaction, adequate facilities and social

infrastructure. It is the combined effect of these factors that influence residents decision to either stay or



50 | P a g e

move into a particular neighbourhood. As a result, neighbourhood quality has become an important

measure for determining the factors that influence the mobility or relocation process.

However, research on the influence of quality of neighbourhood on decision of residents to relocate in

Malaysia is lacking. In this study, the researchers aim to investigate the role of neighbourhood quality in the

residential mobility process. Therefore, the main objective of the study is to evaluate the factors that

influence residential mobility in a neighbourhood in Penang, Malaysia. In addition, it is an attempt to

answer some pertinent questions such as; why do people move? Can neighbourhood factors influence

residents to relocate from their current environment? What neighbourhood elements are key to making the

decision to move?

2. Literature Review

Neighbourhood quality has become one of the core of questions that influence the mobility process.

Previous research has shown that neighbourhood quality is one of the motivating factors that influence

movement from the current neighbourhood, especially in terms of providing a suitable environment for

raising children, safety and facilities (Shefer and Primo1985; Skogan, 1990; South and Crowder, 1997).

Neighbourhood conditions influence households and play a significant role in decisions on the choice of

residential environment. Furthermore, the quality of neighbourhood shapes individual outcomes including

mobility (Ellen, 1997). Some scholars have shown that the households that are not satisfied with their

present neighbourhood environment are more likely to move to another neighbourhood. Parkes et al.,

(2002) also mentions that households in low-income neighbourhoods are more dissatisfied than those in

better neighbourhoods while dissatisfaction was higher in high density residential neighbourhoods than low

density. The quality of life also has a relation with residential mobility and neighbourhood. Marans and

Rodgers (1979) and Marans and Spreckelmeyer 1981 observed that the relationship between neighbourhood

satisfaction, decisions to move, and quality of life is a chronological process with neighbourhood

satisfaction predicting mobility and mobility affecting quality of life.

This view is corroborated by the research of Barrett et al., (1994) on the context of residential

neighbourhood mobility. The study demonstrated that, the decision of residents to either remain or relocate

is influenced by neighbourhood quality. Barrett and co-workers also observed that the perception of

neighbourhood quality as either subjective or objective measures plays an important role in the decision to

relocate. However, the study observed that only one of the subjective measures has a direct effect on actual

mobility whereas other measures influence or forecast mobility.

The study by Clark et al., (1996) reported that residential mobility is a fundamental transition in human

lives whereas neighbourhood transitions are due to outcomes of aggregated individual mobility (Clark and

Dieleman, 1996). The movement of people through various commuting patterns, land use patterns, and

traffic flow results in the establishment of neighbourhood or mobile communities (Clark, 2005). In simple

terms, events or adjustments in life such as moving into ‘better’ or ‘worse’ neighbourhoods influence

neighbourhood quality. Furthermore, the quality of the neighbourhood in an area affects economic, social

and health outcomes of residents. For example, a husband’s loss of job results in immediate loss of income,

but if he moves into a poorer neighbourhood the effect is also felt by family. Residents’ dwelling

satisfaction and the neighbourhood quality are likely to ‘slow down’ residents’ propensity to move. This is

only to the extent that their propensity to move is affected by environmental factors, not by changes in the


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life cycle of households, labour market career or other factors that bear no direct relationship with the

neighbourhood.

There is empirical evidence to support the need for attractive housing with career opportunities in

neighbourhoods dominated by cheap multi-family dwellings. Residents of single-detached homes

particularly new developments are less likely to move compared to multi-family residents (Dekker & Bolt,

2005); Green et al., 2005). This indicates that the quality of housing, type and quality of neighbourhood are

connected to mobility. In big cities particularly in the United States of America (USA), the reason for

moving is usually due to the need to escape crime, congestion and other negative external factors (Skogan,

1990) In general, people’s desire to live and raise their children in safe ‘better’ neighbourhoods is a critical

factor. Duncan et al., (1994) proved that poor neighbourhoods negatively affect children’s achievement

levels. The study also revealed that neighbourhood element significantly influence residents' satisfaction

(Fernandez and Kulik 1981).

3. Methodology

The study relies on primary data collected from two sources namely; survey questionnaire and face-to-face

interview. The survey targeted respondents living in low and medium-cost housing who filled the

questionnaire forms. Hence, data for the study was obtained from personal interview technique using set

questions to gain information from the respondents. However, the face-to-face interview was conducted on

the respondent from the high-cost housing due to safety and privacy concerns from the management office.

Table 1: Total population of case study.

The survey was conducted using Stratified Random Sampling (SRS). The SRS technique was used to select

the sample and classify (stratify) the population into smaller groups known as strata. In SRS, the strata are

formed based on specific attributes characteristic to each respondent from low, medium or high-cost

housing. As such, the case study has an equal chance of being selected in each neighbourhood.

Next, structured questions were used design and prepare the questionnaire for the survey and interview. The

questions were constructed in a simple and straight manner to avoid bias resulting from questionnaire

design. Nevertheless, the interviewers explained and clarified certain points to respondents to ensure high

level of consistency during in the interview.

Type of Housing Location No. of unit No. sample

Low Cost Hamna 1284 67

Medium Cost Desa Permai 1057 67


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The level of satisfaction of neighbourhood environmental satisfaction section was measured on a five-point

Likert scale ranging from “1” for very worse, “2” worse, “3” neutral, “4” good and “5” very good. Using

the mean values of the scale, 3 is considered the midpoint. Thus, any value above 3 is considered somewhat

satisfied but of lower level. Similarly, values below 3, were considered lower level or unsatisfactory.

The statistical software SPSS-15 was used for data analysis. In addition, a number of other statistical

techniques including Point estimates (frequencies), Pearson chi-square tests or fisher’s exact test, and Cross

sectional data binary logistic regressions were also used for data analysis. The frequencies were computed

for descriptive analysis. The Pearson chi-square tests or fisher’s exact test (if more than 20% of the cells

contained expected cell count less than 5) was used to examine bivariate association for categorical

measures. Cross sectional data binary logistic regressions were conducted to examine the association

between mobility (outcome variable) and other factor predictors.

The factors chosen include; socio-demographic factors, neighbourhood society, leisure activities with

neighbours and neighbourhood environmental factors. The Odds Ratios (ORs) were also calculated at and

95% confidence intervals, whenever appropriate. Significant probability was defined as α < 0.05. All

analyses were stratified based on low and middle cost residence. However, the data from high-cost

residential housing was excluded from the analysis since there only one respondent in this category.


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Table 2: Influence of Socio-Demography Factors on Mobility among Low and Middle cost Families

Predictor Agree to move

Low Cost Residential Middle Cost Residential

Gender

Male

Female

22 (66.7%)

20 (58.8%)

*P=0.507

10 (41.7%)

22 (51.2%)

*P=0.456

Race

Malay

Others

37 (64.9%)

5 (50.0%

*P=0.482

10 (71.4%)

22 (41.5%)

*P=0.046

Age group

18-24

25-35

36-45

46-55

56-65

5 (55.6%)

16 (80.0%)

14 (73.7%)

6 (50.0%)

1 (14.3%)

*P=0.021

3 (50.0%)

7 (50.0%)

14 (63.6%)

5 (33.3%)

3 (30.0%)

*P=0.317

Education

Primary, no schooling, others

Secondary

University

7 (53.8%)

24 (61.5%)

11 (73.3%)

*P=0.553

7 (50.0%)

13 (37.1%)

12 (66.7%)

*P=0.123

Marital status

Married

Others

32 (62.7%)

10 (62.5%)

*P=0.986

19 (38.8%)

13 (72.7%)

*P=0.015

Household size

4 household

More than 4 household

18 (62.1%)

24 (63.2%)

*P=0.927

16 (41.0%)

16 (57.1%)

*P=0.193

Household income

<3000

>=3000

33 (58.9%)

9 (81.8%)

*P=0.189

13 (44.8%)

19 (50.0%)

*P=0.675

Job sector

Government and Public

Self and Pensioners

Others

33 (73.3%)

5 (45.5%)

4 (36.4%)

*P=0.037

16 (53.3%)

7 (36.8%)

9 (50.0%)

*P=0.518

Ownership

Owned by you or someone in

your household

Rented

31 (60.8%)

11 (68.8%)

*P=0.565 (N=67)

15 (34.9%)

17 (70.8%)

*P=0.005

Motivation for decision to

move

Work-related reasons

Neighbourhood-related

(N=67)

1 (10.0%)

14 (73.7%)

11 (73.3%)

*P=0.003 (N=67)

2 (6.3%)

8 (72.7%)

18 (94.7%)

*p<0.00


54 | P a g e

4. Results and Analysis

Influence of Socio-Demography Factors, Neighbourhood Relationships and Interaction, Leisure and

Activities with Neighbours on Mobility among Low and Middle-cost respondents

This section illustrates the various factors such as socio-demography, neighbourhood relationships and

interaction, leisure and activities with neighbours and neighbourhood satisfaction that influence mobility of

respondents from both low- and middle-cost housing. The results in Table 1 revealed that among low cost

respondents, the socio-demographic factors like age group and job opportunities are significantly linked to

mobility. However for middle cost respondents, race and marital status are more significant. Furthermore,

no significant association was observed between neighbourhood relationships and interaction on mobility

among low and middle cost respondents. Similarly, leisure and activities with neighbours had no significant

correlation to mobility among low and middle cost respondents. In addition, the results demonstrate that

among middle-cost respondents, ownership of residence, motivation, and area of relocation were

significantly associated with mobility (p<0.05), whereas only motivation and area of relocation were

significantly associated with low-cost respondents.

Table 3 illustrates the logistic regression findings of various factors such as socio-demography,

neighbourhood relationships and interaction, leisure and activities with neighbours and neighbourhood

satisfaction influencing mobility of the respondents from both low and middle cost residents.

Table 3: Impact of Social demography, neighbourhood relationship, interaction, leisure and activities

and neighbourhood satisfaction on mobility

reasons

Housing-related reasons

Other

16 (69.9%) 4 (80.0%)

Place to move

In the same neighbourhood

Another neighbourhood same

city

In another city

In another state/ country

(N=67)

2 (20.0%)

19 (76.0%)

10 (62.5%)

11 (68.8%)

*P=0.019 (N=67)

3 (60.0%)

12 (92.3%)

12 (52.2%)

5 (19.2%)

*p<0.001

Mobility

Low Cost

P, Unadjusted OR (95% CI

Middle cost

P, Unadjusted OR (95%CI)

Gender

Male

Female

P=0.508

1

1.4(0.52-3.79)

P=0.456

1

0.68 (0.25-1.87)


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Race Malay

Others

P=0.373

1

0.54 (0.14-2.09)

P=0.054

1

0.28(0.08-1.02)

Age group 18-24

25-35

36-45

46-55

>56

P=0.063

1

3.20 (0.58-17.71)

2.24 (0.42-11.84)

0.80 (0.14-4.53)

0.13 (0.01-1.61)

P=0.330

1

1.00 (0.15-6.77)

1.75 (0.28-10.81)

0.50 (0.07-3.43)

0.43 (0.05-3.48)

Education Primary, no schooling, others

Secondary

University

P=0.559

1

1.37 (0.39-4.87)

2.36 (0.48-11.45)

P=0.133

1

0.59 (0.17-2.07)

2.00 (0.48-8.39)

Marital status Married

Others

P=0.986

1

0.99 (0.31-3.16)

P=0.019

1

4.10 (1.26-13.37)

Household size

4 household

More than 4 household

P=0.927

1

1.05 (0.39-2.84)

P=0.195

1

1.91 (0.72-5.12)

Household income

<3000

>=3000

P=0.167

1

3.14 (0.62-15.88)

P=0.675

1

1.23 (0.47-3.25)

Job sector

Government and Public

Self and Pensioners

Others

P=0.085

1

0.30 (0.79-1.18)

0.21 (0.52-0.84)

P=0.262

1

0.51 (0.16-1.65)

0.87 (0.27-2.81)

Know Neighbors P=0.135

0.72 (0.48-1.10)

P=0.235

0.63 (0.30-1.35)

Important level of interaction

Not too important

Important

Very important

P=0.670

1

1.33 (0.20-8.92)

0.81 (0.11-5.99)

P=0.142

1

0.68 (0.12-3.73)

2.50 (0.35-18.04)

How often go public amenities

Daily

Once a week

Twice a week

P=0.165

1

3.55 (0.88-14.12)

2.18 (0.70-6.85)

P=0.958

1

(0.27-3.78)

1.17 (0.31-4.43)

Social activities

No

Yes

P=0.986

1

1.01 (0.32-3.22)

P=0.680

1

1.28 (0.39-4.21)

Frequency of social activities

Yes

No

P=0.554

1

0.98 (0.93-1.04)

P=0.624

1

1.02 (0.94-1.11)

Ownership

Owned

Rented

P=0.566

1

1.42 (0.43-4.70)

P=0.006

1

4.53 (1.54-13.36)


56 | P a g e

The increasing motivation among low cost respondents revealed odds of 1.77 (95% CI: 1.08 - 2.88),

indicate they are more likely to move from the current residence. However, this was higher among middle-

cost respondents with odds of 9.98 times (95% CI: 3.84 – 25.93) and hence more likely to move.

From the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, gender distribution was almost equal among

low cost respondents, but females were higher (64.2%) among middle cost respondents. Malays were high

in low cost residential (85%) whereas Chinese were higher in middle cost residential. More than 70% of the

respondents were between the ages of 25-55 years. This was consistent between both low and middle-cost

participants. In each type of housing more than half of the respondents’ had secondary school education or

higher. In majority of the houses the numbers of households ranged from 3 to 5 whereas half of all low and

middle-cost respondents were married.

In terms of neighbourhood relationship and interaction among neighbours, more than half of the

respondents from both low and middle cost respondents had good or very good relationship with their

neighbours. In addition, almost 80% or more respondents indicated that social interaction among

neighbours is important or very important. This was almost consistent with both types of housing. The

results also indicated that more than 60% of the respondents from both low and middle cost residential were

more likely to use public amenities daily or weekly. Accordingly, more than 75% of our respondents

believed they need more social activities with their neighbours. This is almost consistent among both low

and middle cost respondents. It should be noted that more than half of the middle cost respondents know

only about 0 to 5 families from their neighbourhoods whereas almost 70% of the low cost respondents

know their neighbours.

On the aspect of leisure activities with neighbours, 60% of the middle-cost respondents indicated they

spend time with their neighbours once a month or less. Although about 25% of the low-cost respondents

have never meet their neighbours. In contrast, about 73% of the middle-cost respondents invite their

neighbours to their homes once a month and less, where as 54% of the low cost respondents did same less

often than once a month and never. About 62% and 70% of low and middle-cost respondents, respectively,

had attended parties at their neighbours’ once a month and less. Nearly half of low-cost respondents and

around 64% middle-cost respondents visit their neighbours once a month or less. It was also observed that a

small number of low and middle-cost respondents do volunteer work in their neighbourhood. Compared to

middle-cost residential people, low-cost residents were more likely to visit religious places.

In terms of neighbourhood satisfaction, 76% of low-cost and 64% of middle-cost respondents live in their

own houses. About 63% of low-cost residential respondents and 48% of middle-cost respondents were more

likely to move to other places. Majority of the middle-cost residential respondents reported that the main

motivational factors for relocation are work and neighbourhood related reasons (16.4%) in both cases.

However, among low-cost respondents the work related reason was the main motivational factor. Majority

of the middle-cost respondents were willing to move to another city whereas low-cost respondents were

willing to move to other neighbourhoods in the same city.

Motivation P=0.023

1.77 (1.08-2.88)

P<0.001

9.98 (3.84-25.93)


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5. Conclusion

The study was aimed at investigating the role of neighbourhood quality and the factors that influence the

process of residential mobility process in low and middle-cost housing in Penang, Malaysia. The results

revealed that motivational factors such as work concerns, neighbourhood, and housing related reasons

significantly influenced the decision of residents to either move from their current residences to other

places. This was consistent among both low and middle-cost residents. The results indicate that research

objectives have been achieved since neighbourhood factors are correlated to residential mobility. However,

the authors recommend that future studies extend the scope of this study to investigate how the effects of

physical and economic features of neighbourhood quality affect mobility.

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neighbourhoods, Urban Studies, 22:339–347.

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Clark, W. A. V. (2005). “Intervening in the Residential Mobility Process: Neighbourhood Outcomes for

Low-Income Populations.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102(43): 15307–12

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between Socioeconomic and Ethnic Groups, Urban Studies 42(13), pp. 2447-2470.

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Research Article

Reviewing the Factors of the Increasing Needs for Residential Housing

in the Gaza Strip

Abdalrahim M. Shehab, Mohd Zin Kandar

Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

It is very important to consider housing as an important factor that plays a

major role in resilience of the inhabitants on their land. This study aims to

identify the factors of increasing the needs for residential housing in the Gaza

Strip and estimate the residential housing needs after the last war in the Gaza

Strip via critically reviewing several international reports and research papers.

Relevant data for the study were obtained through secondary sources which

include academic journals, conference papers, and articles. A total of 36

research articles from several international journals and reports were reviewed

and identified via comprehensive review of relevant literature. The study finds

that Gaza needs more than 150,000 housing units to make up for the shortfall

as a result of the destruction of thousands of housing units Israeli war on Gaza,

and to meet the needs of the annual population growth in Gaza. Furthermore,

various factors of increasing needs of residential housing are found in this

study such as the trends of population growth; and the prospective expectations

of housing in the future, the blockade of Gaza.


Factors, Needs, Residential

Housing, Gaza.

1. Introduction

The Israeli military operation that lasted from July 8 to August 26, 2014 in the Gaza Strip has led

to massive displacement and destruction of buildings and urban systems (ex. water, electricity,

sanitation). This has greatly exacerbated an already precarious situation as the long blockade of the

Gaza Strip had resulted in acute vulnerabilities, including a serious housing shortfall. On one hand,

neighbourhoods have been partially or completely abandoned and return will depend on restoring

of basic functionalities and emergency housing support. In some cases quick return will not be

possible in view of the scale of destruction.

Countries have been interested with housing needs due to the increasing demand for, which is

related to population growth and changes of the size and characteristics of the population at any

locative level either national, regional or local, or institutional and where housing is one of the



60 | P a g e

basic requirements of the population and one of the basic needs like food, clothing, etc. (Al-

Habees, 2012).

Housing needs are based on standards of accommodation considered basic for human health,

safety and well-being. It is considered one of the essential requirements of life; it comes in third

place in the human fundamental physical necessities. Housing, according to Golubchikov and

Badyina (2012), is the basic social condition that defines the quality of life and welfare of the

people and places. Poudyal et al. (2009) also opined that residential housing prices determination

depends largely first on access to those locations which support related uses, such as proximity to

work place, shopping centers, distance to schools, nearness to recreational facilities, accessibility

to public transport, open space, proximity to place of entertainment, place of worship, among

others.

The residential need is considered as the number of housing units that must be constructed or

maintained to ensure the stability of the housing situation within the required level. This stability is

by methods of development and urban renewal or replacement of residential areas (Bourne, 1981;

Abu-ayanah, 1981; Wanaasi, 2009). Housing need drivers include demographic trends such as

migration rates, population age structures and household headship rates. However, economic

factors are also relevant – both directly and indirectly in terms of their influence over demographic

outcomes such as household formation. Hence, any comprehensive housing needs model must

include both demographic and economic variables ().

General characteristics of housing include average monthly housing costs, types, locations, size

and conditions of the units influence the housing affordability. This implies that household should

be able to support the direct costs of the housing unit without neglecting other essential needs

(Kurraz and Ziara, 2007). Therefore, a need arises to determine the needs for residential housing in

the Gaza Strip, thereby determining which factors are important that influence on housing needs in

future development in the Gaza Strip.

Palestine, similar to developed countries, faces housing challenges and limitation especially in

dealing with low-cost housing. The population census for the Palestinian areas conducted in 1997

showed that the population in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are 1,600,100 and 1,001,569 anima,

respectively (PCBS, 2000). Based on available information the annual needs for housing units in

Palestine range from 20,000 to 34,000 (Ziara, 1997).


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Gaza was chosen as a case study for this report series because of its long history of urban

displacement. The majority of the population of the Gaza Strip are registered refugees (over 70%),

and so already live in displacement. Unlike cities where the vulnerabilities of the displaced

population relate to the refusal of local authorities to accept their presence and provide for their

needs, for several decades refugees have themselves driven the expansion of built-up areas with

the acceptance and support of national and international authorities. Gaza is highly urbanised and

military operations have often targeted densely populated areas. Urban displacement has therefore

been the norm, rather than the exception (Haysom and El Sarraj, 2012).

Thus, this Study attempts to highlight the significance of factors of the increasing needs for

residential housing in the Gaza Strip after the recent war on 2014, but with extremely limited

resources due to conflict and blockade region. In addition to minimize the hazards associated and

provide comprehensive insight for understanding problems and challenges to the housing needs.

2. Background of Gaza Strip

The Gaza Strip is a narrow region of the state of Palestine; it is located along the south-western

part of the Palestinian coastal plains region. The total area of Gaza is about 360 km2 (Figure 1). It

has borders with Egypt on the south west for 13 km and with Israel across the east and north for 59

km and it has a 40 km long coastline. The total population of Gaza is 1.8 million and it has one of

the highest population growth rates in the World standing at 3.48%. By 2020, Gaza’s population is

projected to reach 2.13 million (UN-Habitat, 2014). Gaza has experienced multiple Israeli military

incursions and bombing campaigns since the unilateral withdrawal by Israel in 2005. Including the

2014 Israeli war on Gaza, there have been seven military operations since 200617, resulting in

over 4,200 Palestinian casualties (both civilian and non-civilian) (Government of Palestine, 2014

In July 2014, the Israeli army launched a military operation in Gaza which lasted for seven weeks

of air strikes and ground operations. The war has killed more than 2,100 Palestinians and displaced

more than 500,000 persons at the height of conflict. It had also destructed more than 13,000 homes

and affected another 100,000 (UNDP, 2014), which led to the high rate of increase in demand for

residential housing units in Gaza.


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Figure 1 Location Map of the Gaza Strip

2.1 Problem

Housing needs is one of the most important issues among serious challenges in Gaza. Thus, the

problem of this study is to identify the housing needs in Gaza due to the critical situation and

limited available resources over there. The problem becomes clear when answering the following

question: what is the most important factors influencing of the increasing needs for the residential

housing in Gaza.

2.2 Objectives

An understanding the increasing needs for residential housing provides the basis for an appropriate

and effective development plan of housing. This research study reviews the factors of residential

housing needs for the Gaza Strip after the recent war launched by Israel. In order to achieve this

objective, the present study investigated the factors influence of the factors of the increasing needs

for residential housing in the Gaza Strip.


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2.3 Significance

The outcome of this research study will have an impact on housing policy; this study will

contribute furthermore to the existing literature on conflict areas as in the Gaza Strip; the

significance of this research study lies in its attempts to providing preliminary insight into how can

the housing needs in the Gaza Strip can be estimating while it is consider as unstable region and it

faces many serious problems.

2.4 Overview of the Housing Situation in the Gaza Strip

Gaza strip is known as one of the longest conflict area in the world since 1948. It has witnessed

deterioration not only physical and infrastructures of the country but also in socio-economic

conditions due to the repeated aggressions and continuous blockade by Israeli regime. The 1.8

million people living on limited areas of 360 sq. km. Gaza is known as one of the most populated

land in the world with 3.5% annual population growth rates. Currently poverty rate reached 38.3%,

unemployment has reached to 31% and about 57% of the population facing insecurity of basic

needs. High population growth demands sufficient facilities for housing sector –in particular- in

the society. Gaza faces great challenges in providing facilities and infrastructure to provide

sustainable living for all level of society.

The humanitarian Shelter Cluster in Gaza estimates that the current housing shortfall stands at

71,000 units (UN Shelter Sector, 2011). By 2017, Gaza will require 153,000 additional housing

units (Asfour, 2012). In the meantime overcrowding is a widespread problem given the lack of

mobility of the population, the high population growth rate, the destruction of housing stock and

the difficulties caused by the blockade in constructing new housing. While wealthy Palestinians in

Gaza are able to build through the private construction sector and materials available on the local

market, low-income housing is provided by public, UN and NGO actors through international

funding. Both Hamas, the UN and NGOs have plans to build housing, but the UN and NGOs are

constrained by the blockade, under which materials such as cement and aggregate, which Israel

considers ‘dual-use’ materials, must undergo an onerous approval process to pass through the

Kerem Shalom crossing.15 Although these materials are widely available in the Gaza Strip,

restrictive donor policies prevent the UN and NGOs from purchasing them locally, forcing them

instead to bring in all such items through Kerem Shalom, the sole official crossing for goods

(Haysom and El Sarraj, 2012).


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The continuously growing housing shortage in Gaza is driven by conflict and rapid natural

population growth. Construction and reconstruction cannot accommodate the needs due to the lack

of building materials. The human dignity crises increases day by day and has resulted in

widespread difficulties foe Gaza residents to access their right to adequate housing. Overcrowding

is now a major issue in context where long term and chronic overcrowding can lead to greater

protection concerns including increased domestic violence, gender based violence and the general

breakdown of social and cultural norms. The lack of access to adequate raw building materials

resulting from the Israeli and Egyptian blockade remains the major reason for the chronic lack of

progress in Gaza, the shelter sector in Gaza has recently carried out this study which calculates

over 70,000 additional housing units are required (UN Shelter Sector, 2011). Starting in 2007

Israel restricted the import of building materials into Gaza including cement, aggregate and steel,

halting almost all housing construction in Gaza until late 2010. While restrictions on some imports

have eased in limited instances, they have not yet eased enough to meet the building needs in the

Gaza Strip. Since 2007 till now import restrictions greatly reduced the supply of housing units

(Badawy, 2015).

2.5 Housing Needs

Housing needs can be defined as the overall number of homes required to meet historical

affordable accumulated housing need (often referred to as the “backlog”) and newly arising need

for affordable housing over the short term. In reviewing the literature, very little data was found on

the definition of housing needs. Morris and Winter (1975), claims that housing needs are seldom

explicitly defined. They further indicate that for some writers the definition of housing needs

appears to be based on biological needs for protection from weather and predators. However they

argue that housing needs may be reasonably equated with cultural norms for housing. Therefore

this section presents the literature which addresses housing needs in various perspectives.

Furthermore, Kitchen and Milbourne (2006) define housing need in terms of housing units as ‘’the

quantity of housing needed to house those households currently lacking their own housing, or

living in unsuitable housing, and who cannot afford to buy or rent housing without assistance’’.

The nature and extent of housing need in a community is largely determined by population growth

and demographic characteristics such as age, household size, occupation, and income. Cultural

factors may also affect housing preferences.


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Several studies dealt with the housing needs issue, including; Al-Habees (2012) finds out that there

are significant differences in terms of the distribution of population and housing on the urban

communities identified by his study. It also revealed that the concentration of population increases

in the city of Amman. McDonald (2001) deals with methodology of producing estimates of

demand for medium-and long-term housing. It also highlights the importance of the expectations

of the potential housing needs. Zubair (2001) argues that housing construction is a stimulus for

economic growth, particularly in urban areas. Kintrea (2007) investigates the issue of deserted

housing in England. He finds out that housing needs are constantly growing, and the gap increases

between the number and quality of ancient, modern, and rented housing. Winters and Elsinga

(2008) indicates the continued survival of the housing need in the future in Belgium. It also

indicates that it is necessary to increase the incomes of the population to obtain adequate housing

through improving housing association revenues and focus on the needy and unable people who

cannot afford the cost of housing. Besides, Noreen (2007) and ALRabdawi (2010) tackles the

increases of the dwellings number in Sultanate of Oman and how they are distributed due to type

of construction materials used. On the other hand, UN Shelter Sector (2011) shows that, by the end

of 2011, a total of 71,234 housing units are required in Gaza to address current population needs.

This includes 67,151 units needed since June, 2007, and an accumulated shortage of 4,083 units

prior to 2007. The results show that about 79% of the housing needs are due to natural population

growth, and about 9% are due to destruction of housing during and prior to the 2008/2009 “Cast

Lead” military operation. Replacement of substandard and depreciated units account for 7% of the

caseload, and requirements to relieve over-crowded units accounts for 5%. Besides, A report was

done by Health (2014), It provides information on some of the main factors which influence

demand and need for housing, including economic, social and demographic factors.

2.6 Factors Influencing Need for Housing

This current research study uses various factors basis of extensive literature review. The study

proposed these several factors based on the literature review and in particular the studies have been

conducted in the Gaza Strip and similar conflict areas. The study includes seven factors of the

increasing needs for residential housing in the Gaza Strip includes population growth trends,


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economic growth, housing component, household income, housing finance, location of

neighbourhood, conflict and blockade issue, as the followings:

2.6.1 Population Growth Trends

Population growth is a major underlying factor for the demand of housing and without a new

supply of dwellings; it pushes up the prices for both renting and purchasing dwellings.

Furthermore, population growth forecasts (particularly household growth, which takes account of

divorce rates as well as other factors) form the basis of predictions for how many homes need to be

built now and in the future. However, measuring demand for housing is complex as it involves an

assessment of economic, social and demographic factors, which influence what type and tenure of

housing will be attractive and affordable in which areas (Health, 2014). Gaza Strip is not just

limited to the Operation Cast Lead destruction. The total war related caseload includes damages

from pre Cast Lead Israeli-related destruction. It must also not be forgotten the housing units partly

completed, but frozen since June 2007 due to the blockade and the refugees currently living in

camps who need to be re-housed. This is in addition to the tens of thousands of units needed to be

built in Gaza to accommodate natural growth, the population growth rate in Gaza is shown in

Table 1.

Table 1: Population Growth Rates

Period

Growth Rate

Gaza Strip West Bank

2008-2010 3.7 2.8

2010-2015 3.4 2.4

2015-2020 3.0 2.0

(Source: PCBS, 2008)

By all accounts, demographic pressures in the Gaza Strip in terms of population density, age

structure, and growth rate are extraordinarily high compared to neighbouring countries and

regions. This population pressure, combined with limited resources and territorial isolation, places

immense strain on public services, social and political institutions, and the natural environment. At


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the same time, insecurity resulting from a deteriorating political context leads to further poverty

and unemployment (Al-Najar, 2007). Based on current growth, the population (according to

different projections) is expected to increase to 2.13 million by 2020 and 2.76 million by 2028 as

shown in table 2, which would result in a population density of 7,562 people per square kilometer.

The annual population growth rate for Gaza in 2011 stood at a high 3.37%, resulting from a

fertility rate of 4.9 children per woman in 2010, compared to 3.8 in the West Bank. The population

growth rate in Gaza is forecast to decline moderately to 2.99% by 2020 (Cordesman, 2014).

Table 2: Population Projections

Year

Population 1000s

Total Gaza Strip West Bank

Urban Rural Urban Rural

2007 1,346 77 1,260 1,117 3,801

2010 1,530 86 1,483 1.213 4,312

2015 1,856 102 1,860 1.366 5,184

2020 2,152 118 2,054 1.508 5,832

(Source: PCBS, 2008)

2.6.2 Economic Growth

Demand for housing is dependent upon income. With higher economic growth and rising incomes

people will be able to spend more on houses; this will increase demand and push up prices. In their

study of HOPE VI redevelopments, Zielenbach et al. (2010) argue that site location, the density in

the surrounding neighborhoods, tenant incomes, and the strength of the overall real estate market

in which the project is situated are among the factors that can affect how successful these efforts

can be at spurring local economic growth. Moreover, Opoku and Abdul-Muhmin (2010) state that

structural housing components have been mentioned by many sources as among major determinant

factors of household home-buying. A study conducted by Lee (2010) on the influence of leisure

and sporting facilities on house prices using number of dwelling components such as the living

area, number of rooms, building age, number of stories, number of floors as explanatory variables

for structural components and residential neighbourhood variables for sport and leisure facilities,


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revealed that sport and leisure facilities have significant influence on house prices with cross- level

interaction at the same time. Zubair (2001) argues that housing construction is a stimulus for

economic growth, particularly in urban areas. He also claims that the housing sector is one of the

most important sectors of economic growth because it creates new opportunities through internal

and external investment.

2.6.3 Housing Component

Tan (2012) examines the housing needs and preferences of first-time buyers in Kuala Lumpur with

emphasis on certain characteristics of a dwelling such as the number of bathrooms, bedrooms,

living rooms, kitchen, among others. The study revealed that major preference is often given to

number of bedrooms. Similar study carried out by Opoku and Abdul-Muhmin (2010) find out that

in Saudi Arabia the number of bedrooms, bedroom size and the number of bathrooms are major

housing components that influences house prices. The study of Hurtubia et al. (2010) highlighted

that in western countries the numbers of rooms or bathrooms in a house is a very significant

component that is mostly considered by households in making home-ownership decisions. Vahid

(2015) investigates the priority of housing components preferences from user perspective in

Malaysia. The aim of the study was to evaluate how Johor Bahru resident’s conceptions are

affected by various structural characteristics of housing. The main purpose of the study was to

examine the perception on the priority of structural housing components from the point of view of

house consumers. The study adopted the Non-structural fuzzy decision support system (NSFDSS)

model as a tool for determining the perceived relative importance of the set decision criteria.

2.6.4 Household Income

Income is the main factor influencing the ability to buy a house. Income is depended on the types

of employment, period of employment and rank in the employment. Income is very important in

studying the ability to buy a house. It also influenced the types of affordable housing that a

household can buy. Thus, the income received is the determinate on the price and type of houses

that is affordable by a household. (Ismail, 2015). The vast majority of the world countries face the

availability of housing for high-income people and lack of housing units for low and moderate

income people (Kurraz and Ziara, 2007). Income distribution potentially has a significant influence

on housing demand. If the distribution of income becomes more unequal, this would be expected

to exacerbate the problems of housing affordability for some people in the income distribution,


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particularly those not in the higher end but with incomes too high to be eligible for significant state

support in meeting their housing needs

2.6.5 Housing Finance

Housing financing is one of the important mechanisms that should be considered by all groups to

meet housing needs, Financing is defined as a long-term loan with a specified repayment period

for the purchasing of a house, the financing loans are provided by the banks to individuals who

buy a house from a developer who has a commitment with the bank (Ismail, 2015). Housing

financing is an important factor in buying a house. It is a form of financial assistance required by a

buyer to finance the purchasing of a house (Peter, 2009 & Goh, 1985). The housing financing

refers to the assistance of financial institutions such as banks and government agencies in

providing loans to finance a house (Tuccillo et al., 1983). Most of the housing policies around the

world are more concerned with housing needs compared to housing demand. One of the

measurements used by the bank in determining whether a person can repay the loan is the amount

of the monthly payment that should not exceed one-third of the total income (McCord, 2011). If

the amount of the monthly payment is low, then the period of repayment of the entire loan term is

longer and the interest to be paid is also high, and this affects the financing.

2.6.6 Location of Neighbourhood

Immobility causes the location of the house to be an important determinant of its value, since the

purchaser buys both the dwelling and the site where the house is located (Keil and Zabel, 2008).

Wang and Li (2006) again use four attributes to define neighbourhood; namely, accessibility,

living convenience, security and district. Also Opoku and Abdul-Muhmin (2010), in their study

use neighbourhood, local environment, and proximity to relatives, street location and air quality as

important factors for consumer’s access considers the condition of the access road and ease of

access to economic and social services. According to El-Masri and Kellett (2001), people

considered the accessibility to the village or settlement and access to education and social facilities

are more important in village reconstruction. Poudyal et al. (2009) also opined that residential

housing prices determination depends largely first on access to those locations which support

related uses, such as proximity to work place, shopping centers, distance to schools, nearness to

recreational facilities, accessibility to public transport, open space, proximity to place of

entertainment, place of worship, among others.


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2.6.7 Conflict and Blockade Issue

The Israeli military operation that lasted from July 8 to August 26, 2014 in the Gaza Strip has led

to massive displacement and destruction of buildings and urban systems (ex. water, electricity,

sanitation). This has greatly exacerbated an already precarious situation as the long blockade of the

Gaza Strip had resulted in acute vulnerabilities, including a serious housing shortfall. On one hand,

neighborhoods have been partially or completely abandoned and return will depend on restoring of

basic functionalities and emergency housing support. In some cases quick return will not be

possible in view of the scale of destruction. On the other hand, neighborhoods that have received

displaced families are overstretched. Some neighborhoods witnessed both concentrated destruction

and inward migration (UN Habit, 2014).

The conflict in the Gaza Strip in July-August 2014 (‘Operation Protective Edge’) has taken a

devastating toll on civilian lives and resulted in an unprecedented amount of damage and

destruction to housing units, other social and economic infrastructure in the Gaza Strip,

Preliminary assessments of war destruction suggest that some 20,000 housing units were totally

destroyed or severely damaged, and there was an estimated shortfall of 71,000 housing units to

meet the housing needs in Gaza (UN, 2014). The displacement and loss of livelihoods,

employment, homes, household belongings and other assets caused by the conflict have amplified

economic and social vulnerability among the population. It is estimated that 108,000 people will

remain displaced in the long term due to the destruction of or severe damage to their homes

(OCHA, 2014).

According to the United Nations Human Settlements Programme, based on the materials allowed

in by Israel, it would have taken 80 years to rebuild the 6,000 housing units destroyed during the

military operation in December 2008 –January 2009. However, delays in funding, lack of access to

materials due to the ongoing blockade and the scale of destruction have led to delays in the

response to housing needs of those families whose homes were damaged or destroyed by

Operation Protective Edge. These delays and the proximity of winter must overtake the need for

durable solutions. To this effect agencies are mobilising to make emergency shelter materials

available for winterisation and to maintain sufficient collective center capacity for those in need

(OCHA, 2014).


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3. Methodology

The research is basically an archival type where the outline of the study is a review of empirical

literature on the estimating the residential housing needs and exploring the factors of increasing the

residential housing needs in the Gaza Strip. Relevant data for the study were obtained through

secondary sources which include academic journals, conference papers, articles, textbooks and the

World Wide Web (cyber internet). A total of 36 research articles only from several international

journals and reports were reviewed and identified via comprehensive review of relevant literature.

A systematic approach was adopted to review the relevant previous literature. This review study

was conducted to identify the factors influence on the increasing needs for residential housing in

the Gaza Strip. The purpose of this study is also to highlight the most challenges facing the

housing sector in the Gaza Strip especially. This review study reviewed the concepts of the

housing needs and the factors affecting the increase of the housing needs via comprehensive

review of relevant literature. A systematic approach is adopted to review the previous literature.

The purpose of systematic literature review (SLR) is to identify the areas having ambiguity or

remained less focused by researchers and to further suggest the future prospects. The idea behind

using SLR is to select the variables that can increase the needs for residential housing in the Gaza

Strip. Subsequently, a filter is placed to restrict the publications for a specific period of last ten

years, and the selected journals having more articles relevant to the housing needs and demands.


An almost complete physical and political isolation, combined with successive military operations,

has deeply affected the housing situation in Gaza. Accordingly, Gaza needs more than 150,000

housing units to make up for the shortfall as a result of the destruction of thousands of housing

units Israeli war on Gaza, as well as to meet the needs of the annual population growth in Gaza ,

due to the combined impact of repeated wars and the associated house damage and destruction, the

import ban on dual-use (cement, gravel and metal bars) construction materials, a deteriorating

housing stock, lack of resources due to unemployment and natural population growth. Further

investigation of the total housing supply warrants analysis. Census data (PCBS 2007) suggests a

surplus of 10 percent in the number of housing units over the total number of households (MCRG,

2015). Furthermore, the rapid population growth adds further pressure. Critical priorities to address

the needs of the population in the Gaza Strip include emergency shelter, energy and water, the

absence of which will make progress in all other sectors impossible (UN, 2014). Housing need


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drivers include demographic trends such as migration rates, population age structures and

household headship rates. However, economic factors are also relevant – both directly and

indirectly in terms of their influence over demographic outcomes such as household formation.

Hence, any comprehensive housing needs must include both demographic and economic variables.

Thus, this study from one hand provides an estimation of the accumulated housing needs in the

Gaza strip as a result of the ongoing ten year blockade on Gaza and the concurrent rapid

population growth since 2007.On the other hand, it finds the main factors of the increasing needs

for the residential housing are the accumulative wars on Gaza and the damaged houses by Israel

powers, the trends of population growth, the prospective expectations of housing in the future, the

blockade of Gaza, the Israeli remaining in control of the borders, including the entry and exit of

people and goods, building material, as well as the air space and access to the sea. Moreover, it

was clear through the literature review that Gazian people live in unstable economic conditions

due to the siege, repeated aggression and closures, which negatively affects the development of the

housing sector and inadequate housing units. Thus the economic growth is considered as one

important factor of increasing needs for residential housing in Gaza.

5. Conclusion

The findings of systematic literature review of prior studies have revealed that the continuously

blockade of Gaza imposed by Israel, the repeated aggression on the Gaza Strip and losing much

homes, the ongoing restrictions on the goods import including of basic building materials, the new

housing unites needed to meet the natural population growth, and the non-recovery of productive

capacity of Gaza’s economy are considered as the greatest factors that influence on the increasing

needs for residential housing in the Gaza Strip. Critical concepts embedded within traditional

approaches to the measurement of housing need include the distinction between ‘backlog’ and

‘newly arising’ need. Recognition of this duality has important implications for needs estimation

methodology. It is also important to differentiate between ‘need’ and ‘demand’ and to recognise

that valid policy responses to need include some which do not entail new provision of affordable

housing. However, the Palestinian Governments may require estimates of housing need for a

variety of purposes. These can provide a way of monitoring the state of the housing system, and it

has to take in consideration the factors of increasing the housing needs in future as it is clear in the

findings of this study.


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6. Limitation of the Study

Further researches are needed to get a more comprehensive view of the situation. An additional

area in a big scale for future research is on affordability levels for Palestinian households in the

Gaza Strip, in order to assess the housing demand. An in-depth study of the demographic and

social factors affecting the housing demand is also recommended.

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Research Article

Using Green Roofs to Mitigate the Effect of Urban Heat Island

Jibril Danazimi Jibril1, Musa Ali Jogana2, Halliru Faruk3, Faizah Mohammed Bashir4

1&2Department of Building Technology, Federal College of Education (Technical) Bichi, Kano State, Nigeria.

3Department of Engineering and the Built Environment, Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford United Kingdom.

4Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Malaysia.

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

The green roofs are utilized to mitigate the heat island effect in the urban

cities, thus are on the rise as part of the revolution for sustainable construction.

This study examines how heat island are formed in the urban cities, as well as

the mechanism of green roofs that make them a good mitigation strategy, it

also investigates the role of government in ensuring that green roofs are

implemented and other strategies that may be used to reduce the rise of the

urban temperatures. Furthermore, it was found that green roofs are indeed

effective in urban heat island mitigation. That they work better when they are

implemented alongside other mitigating strategies. Governments along with

non-governmental organizations around the globe are pushing for the

implementation of green roofs not only for this reason, but also for their other

environmental, cost and social benefits. Finally, the governments should

slowly incorporate implementation of green roofs in building regulations,

whereas that residents should be enlighten about the multiple benefits of green

roofs in our society and encourage them to integrate the green roofs in their

building.


reserved.

Green Roofs, Urban Heat

Island Effect, Mitigating

Strategies, Sustainable

Construction.

1. Introduction

In the field of real estate and the environment, sustainability became one of the trending topic globally.

Many of our community interactions results to the negative environment impact, this is due to urbanization,

thus trees and open lands are eradicated to make way for roads, buildings and other infrastructure. Heat is

created from activities by cars, buses, trains and the dense population of people in a society. This makes the

temperature in urban areas to be higher than that of the surrounding suburbs, a phenomenon known as the

urban heat island effect. In accordance to the (Earth pledge, 2008.) Heat islands are created when dark-

coloured, impermeable surfaces absorb heat energy and radiate it back into the air. Due to the lack of space

in cities, buildings are constructed close together, this and the high value in insulation of building materials

contribute to the rise of temperature in the areas. Among materials, concrete and asphalt, both used as


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rooftops, have been found to absorb and re-radiate the most heat. According to the US environmental

protection agency, the annual temperature of a city of more than a million people can be 1-3 degrees Celsius

hotter than its surroundings and up to a staggering 12 degrees in a calm night. The variation in temperature

depends on the urban design, climate and topography of a region.

Heat islands have negative impacts on human health and the environment as a whole. The most talked about

maybe the higher energy consumption. During hot summer times, the hot weather brings about high

demand for cooling, thereby requiring more electricity. Akbari (2005) estimated that 5 – 10% of electricity

of peak electricity demand for cooling buildings in cities is a result of the urban heat island effect. This

results to a significant amount of pressure to the electricity grid. During hot summer afternoons, the

overwhelming demand for cooling may need additional systems to prevent power outages or blackouts. In

the other hand, air quality also decreases as temperature rises. Thus the increased energy demand due to the

high temperature, generates more greenhouse gas emissions and pollutants from the power plants that cater

for them. Take the US for instance; whose main source of energy is by burning fossil fuels. The gases

emitted while burning the fuel are a main part of decreasing air quality, they also aid in creating acid rain.

2. Literature

2.1 Urban Heat Island

In recent years, sustainable architecture became the government ecological concern, this is to promote and

motivate people in their building construction. Thus it will mitigate a building’s negative impact on the

urban environment, and to create harmony between human and inhabitants who live in urban areas.

Therefore, making more green roofs in the city could be the best ecological solution, which can improve air

quality, mitigate the heat island effect, beautify the environment, and simultaneously make the city more

sustainable (Sun et al., 2012) although green roofs can cool the ambient air through consuming the solar

heat that is gained from transpiration and photosynthesis (Sun, 2011).

Statistics from The World Bank in 2014 showed that 82% of the British and 81% of the United States’

population are living in urban areas. According to Yves Baudouin, director of graduate studies, Department

of Geography, University of Quebec at Montreal, the percentage of hard surfaces in most U.S. cities is

approximately 60 percent, with roadways making up between 35 percent and 45 percent, and rooftop

surfaces accounting for around 16 percent (Barbara, 2013). These numbers mean density of people and heat

absorbing buildings will increase. Therefore this article tends to portray a solution in the reduction of high

air temperature by reviewing the green roofs in summer times.


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Figure 1: Urban Heat Island Effect (Healthy Urban Habitat, (2015)

It was depicted in Fig. 1 that, when solar shortwave or long wave radiation strikes the roof of a building,

which is the nature of the nature of conventional rooftops, it is either radiated or absorbed by the building

envelope (Peck, 2009). The energy from the sun, combined with the high heat-absorbing nature of rooftops

heats buildings and their surroundings raising the temperature significantly. The two main materials used

for rooftops, asphalt and concrete, and other conventional materials are dark and absorb most of the sunlight

and reflecting very little. This warms up the inside of the building, and the surroundings on the outside as

well. ‘Albedo’ is the term used to measure the fraction of solar energy that is reflected from a surface.

Ranging from 0 to 1, the higher the albedo, the more the energy that is reflected (Healthy Urban Habitat,

2015). Table 1.1 shows the albedo of common materials. A study in showed that increasing the albedo of

1,250 km2 of concrete pavement by 0.25 would save cooling energy worth $15 million per year (Peck,

(2009).

Table 1 : Solar reflectance (Albedo) of Common Construction materials. (National Snow and Ice Data

Centre, 2015)

MATERIAL ALBEDO

Black Acrylic paint 0.05

New asphalt 0.05

Aged asphalt 0.1

Aged concrete 0.2 – 0.3

New concrete 0.35 – 0.45

White acrylic paint 0.8


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In the other hand solar reflective index is also used to measure the ability of a surface to stay cool, reflecting

and emitting thermal radiation. A standard black surface (initial solar reflectance 0.05, initial thermal

emittance 0.90) has an initial SRI of 0, and a standard white surface (initial solar reflectance 0.80, initial

thermal emittance 0.90) has an initial SRI of 100 (United States Environmental protection agency, 2005).

Green roofs have a higher solar reflective index than conventional rooftops.

3. Result and DISCUSSION

3.1 Effectiveness of Green Roofs in Reducing Urban Temperatures

It is clear that green roofs and other mitigating strategies reduce UHI effect, but it would be difficult to

estimate in numbers the exact impact it has on cities. As PCA (2015) put it whilst talking about estimating

the impacts of cool and green roofs;

‘’ Accurately estimating the city-scale impacts of these mitigation strategies is difficult largely due to the

impracticality of controlled city-scale experiments (the mitigation efforts listed above are largely

uncontrolled and unmonitored at the city-scale) and the lack of appropriate numerical tools to resolve

surface heterogeneities in urban environments’’

So individual buildings which have green roofs can be assessed, from there the potential impact of green

roofs would be predicted if they were to be on a much larger scale. Recently, The National Research

Council Canada carried out a research in order to quantify how using green roofs would reduce

temperatures over large areas. They predicted that adding green roofs to 50 percent of the downtown area in

Toronto would cool the entire city by 0.2 F to 1.4 F; temperatures could be bumped down another 3.5 F,

and extend a 1 F to 2 F reduction over a larger area also just by irrigating the roofs.

Figure 2: Average roof surface temperatures for different roofs


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In 2006, a report by the Columbia Centre for Climate Systems Research showed that vegetation is

crucial in determining the urban heat potential of a place (Barbara, 2013).

Figure 3: Heat transfer on a green roof (U.S Green Building Council, 2015)

In addition the “Latent Heat” refers to the energy released when water transforms into vapor, the process

results in heat release. Green roofs help lower the latent heat by evotranspiration heat.

3.2 Government Policies Promoting Usage of Green Roofs

3.2.1 The Climate Change Act

The Climate Change Act is on the forefront in driving sustainable housing in the UK. Passed in 2008, it

established a framework to develop strategies in the international collective action to tackle climate change

(Committee on Climate Change, N.D). Mitigation of the urban heat island effect is a branch of what the Act

is setup to do. Through this legislation, the government has been able to set targets to combat climate

change, setting up measures to meet these targets while monitoring its progress closely.

3.2.2 German Federal Nature Conservation Act

Germany is a green roof pioneer in the world. In Germany, the country which leads the world in roof

greening, 1 million m2 of green roofs were installed during 1989. They introduced a legislation to encourage

the use of green roofs which, made 43% of German cities to present incentives for green roof installation by

2001. As of 2012, 35% of cities have added green roofs in their regulation, and the whole country is

accountable for 86 million m2 of green roofs that translates to 14% of Germany's total roof area. This Act

was put into force in March 2010. Their drive for green roofs came as a result of the drive for nature

conservation and landscape management. Article 1 starts thus.

‘’By virtue of their intrinsic value and importance as a basic necessity of human life, and also as a

responsibility to future generations, nature and landscape in both settled and non-settled areas are to be

protected.’’ (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2009).


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It proceeds in section (4) to say that.

“The air and the climate are also to be protected via measures of nature conservation and landscape

management; this shall apply especially with regard to areas with favourable air-cleansing or climatic

efforts, such as areas in which fresh or cold air develop, or pathways for air exchange; establishment of

sustainable energy supply systems, especially via increasing use of renewable energies, is to have special

priority’’ The government carried on by introducing direct subsidies to anyone who installed a green roof

on their property that could amount to 10-20 euros per square meter of green roof, which makes them a

‘green’ superpower in the world.

3.2.3 UHI in New York City

New York City is basically said to be a floating oven. On a hot summer day in the city, dry surfaces like

pavements and roofs can be up to 90 degrees hotter than the air temperature. It does not end there, as the

heat stored makes the city still hot at night time. In October 2006, The New York City Regional Heat Island

Initiative accepted a report titled ‘mitigating New York City’s heat island with urban forestry, living roofs

and light surfaces’. The report was funded by the New York State Energy Research and Development

Authority (NYSERDA) and was prepared by Columbia University Centre for Climate Systems Research &

NASA/Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

Case Study Area

Grass-to-Trees

Open-Space

Planting (%)

Street-to-

Trees

Curbside

Planting (%)

Impervious

Roofs to

Living or Light

Roofs (%)

Impervious

Roadways and

Sidewalks to Light

Street-Level

Surfaces (%)

New York City 10.8 6.7 13.6 34.4

Mid-Manhattan West 1.9 8 33.8 37

Lower Manhattan East 5.8 8.8 26.6 36.2

Fordham Bronx 8.7 9.9 16.1 35.3

Maspeth Queens 15.9 6.2 16.5 28.7

Crow Heights Brooklyn 7.8 14.4 21.8 34.2

Ocean Parkway Brooklyn 5.2 13.4 21.7 38.1

Figure 4: Available areas for implementing heat island mitigation strategies in each case study area

Model results indicated that the most effective mitigation strategy per unit area redeveloped is curb side

planting, followed by living roofs, light-coloured surfaces, and open space planting. The analysis assumed

100% implementation of green roofs in the city. The largest difference between impervious surfaces and

trees was 8.7ºF (4.8ºC), across all times of day.

3.2.4 UHI in Baltimore

In 2008. It was investigated the mitigation of the urban heat island effect at the city-scale using the Weather

Research and Forecasting (WRF) model in conjunction with the Princeton Urban Canopy Model (PUCM)

during a heat-wave period (7 June–10 June 2008) (PCA, 2015). The investigation was done through


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computer models to see what it would be like if green roofs were implemented in the city. The weather

research and forecasting (WRF) model used is a ‘’a next-generation mesoscale numerical weather

prediction system designed to serve both atmospheric research and operational forecasting needs’’. The

WRF is used to simulate atmospheric conditions based on real data or idealized conditions.

The PUCM showed that different roof types have widely different surface temperature cycles.

i. The daytime surface temperature of a green roof is substantially lower than that of a conventional

roof due to evapotranspiration

ii. The night time temperature of a green roof is also lower but the margin between the two is reduced.

iii. Asphalt roofs have the highest daytime surface temperature because of its low albedo and low

thermal conductivity (about 15 °C higher than the green roof)

iv. Daytime surface temperature over concrete reaches its maximum slightly later than over asphalt and

green roofs, which results from the larger thermal effectivity of concrete.

Figure 5: Surface temperatures of different sub-facets in the PUCM from a simulation PCA (2015)

The simulation depicted the city-scale impacts of green roof and cool roofs mitigation strategies on the

surface and near-surface urban heat island effects. The effects of green roofs and cool roofs to the near-

surface and surface urban heat islands due to their increasing fractions were noted as well.

4. Other Alternatives of Curbing UHI

4.1 Cool Roofs

These are roofs that are designed to reflect sunlight and keep themselves cool, most important characteristic

of cool roofs is its high solar reflectance, which helps to reflect sunlight away from a building and reduce

the temperature. According to Sun, (2012), cool roofs have an albedo greater than 0.65, which means that

they can reflect more than 65% of solar radiation back to the atmosphere. Cool roofs do not have to be

white in colour, as there are darker colours which still have high solar reflectivity.


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Another good characteristic of cool roofs is their high thermal emittance. It is defined as the ability of a

body, per unit area at a given temperature, to re-radiate heat (infra-red radiation) that is absorbed thereby

cooling itself, cool roof increases the reflection of incoming solar radiation in urban areas by increasing the

albedo of roof surfaces (PCA, 2015) .

Figure 6: Solar reflectance and thermal emittance are the two radiative properties to consider

when selecting a cool roof – (Cool Roof Rating Council, n.d)

The combination of a high solar reflectance and thermal emittance makes cool roofs very effective. In a hot

afternoon, a standard roof might reach up to 150°F, while a cool roof under the same condition could stay

50°F cooler than that. A normal roof surface can be transformed into a cool roof by applying a cool roof

coating, which is a special pigment that reflects sunlight.

Figure 7: Comparison of a black and a white flat roof on a summer afternoon with an air temperature

of 37 degrees Celsius (Cool roof tool kit, n.d)


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Table 2 : Comparing Temperatures of Roof Types in a Hot Summer Afternoon (Sun, 2012)

Roof type

Thermal

emittance Solar reflectance Temperature

Asphalt roof High Low 165°F to 185°

Metallic Roof Low High 150°F to 165°

Cool Roof High High 110°F to 115°

4.2 Cool Pavements

Cool pavements are designed in a way to reduce solar reflectance and improve cooling. This can be

achieved through using more reflective materials like Portland cement concrete, using a lighter coloured

aggregate and changing the surface’s colour. Nonetheless, Conventional impervious pavements have dark

surface and large thermal inertia. During summertime they tend to absorb and store solar radiation but

negate the evaporative cooling, contributing to the development of urban heat island (UHI). The idea of

using cool pavements to mitigate the UHI has gained momentum recently. Permeable pavements and using

permeable wearing courses are considered part of cool pavements as well.

Although, cool pavements have many standard definitions. Interestingly, the United States Environmental

Protection Agency (USEPA) described cooling pavement as “Cool pavements that include a range of

established and emerging technologies that communities are exploring as part of their heat island reduction

efforts. The term certainly refers to paving materials that reflect more solar energy, enhance water

evaporation, or have been otherwise modified to remain cooler than conventional pavements.” If this

“remain cooler” is interpreted as “cool pavements should always maintain a lower surface temperature

compared to conventional pavements”, cool pavements always emit less sensible heat to the surrounding air

than conventional pavements. This mean whether a pavement can be deemed as a cool pavement depends

on if it can suppress its surface temperature. As the maximum temperature usually appears around 15:00

during a summer day when the sensible heat release is critical to the development of the UHI, a cool

pavement must be capable to decrease its daily maximum temperature.

Therefore, cool pavements will help reduce UHIs due to these additional characteristics;

i. Reduced thermal conductivity

ii. Reduced pavement heat capacity

iii. Increased surface convection

iv. Evaporation cooling

Therefore using the cool pavements in our streets and roads and walkways will certainly reduce the

temperature raise in urban cities. In addition, the cool pavements presence will additionally increase

pavement durability as well as reduces the pavement deterioration


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“It’s amazing how hot these pavements get and how we’ve let them cover most of our urban surfaces….

dark pavements absorb almost all of the sun’s energy, the pavement surface heats up, which in turn also

warms the local air and aggravates urban heat islands’’

- Haley Gilbert, a researcher at Berkeley's Heat Island Group in California.

Figure 8; This picture of Phoenix, Arizona, in the summer shows a variety of conventional

pavements that reached temperatures up to 67°C

Pavements constitute 35% to 50% of the surface area of a typical city. The majority of them are made of

asphalt or concrete. They absorb a lot of heat and aid to the urban heat island effect, a conventional

pavement tends to be 20°C to 30°C higher than the surrounding air due to the solar energy absorbed during

the day. Cool pavements are designed to absorb less heat than traditional pavements lowering surface

temperatures and reflect a large amount, just like cool roofs.


It was crystal clear that green roofs are proven strategy to combat urban heat islands. Adding to their

environmental benefits, their cost and energy saving potentials on the long-term increase to its credibility.

The most important strategy for reducing ambient temperature is increasing green space in cities. The

results show that in every situation, green roofs perform a better function when installed together with other

UHI mitigation strategies, it’s the best strategy to reduce heat islands is setting up green roofs together with

urban forestry. This attests to what was talked about in the literature review; that vegetation is the key

component of green roofs. Another good combination would be implementing green roofs along with or

next to cool roofs. This brings together the high evotranspiration of the vegetation with the high albedo of

the cool roofs, making them to complement each other. Green roofs, as the case study shows, perform better

in dry regions while cool as to the better performance of cool roofs in areas with high sunlight. A mitigation

strategy should be chosen according to the properties of a region as well as shown by Figure 4. If a region

has little available green roof space and it is used, it should be coupled with other strategies, maybe cool

pavements, which have a space to be fitted.

The studies corroborate that heat storage on buildings during the daytime, which does not cool down and

raises the near-surface and surface temperatures during the night time. The difference in the rural and urban

area temperatures is also higher during the night time. Irrigating the green roofs during the night will further


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increase the cooling abilities of the roofs. The literatures prove that, green roofs are at their best during the

daytime, which highlights their greatest feature is cooling system. As depicted in Figure 4, the greatest

difference in temperature between a conventional and green roof comes during the afternoon, recording a

difference of more than 10°C. This supports the literature review. It goes on to show the effect of

evotranspiration. The night-time difference between green roofs and conventional roofs is reduced,

recording a mere 1°C. This is because at night-time evotranspiration is reduced, and the green roof’s

insulation as well as the entire building became a little warmer. Therefore the study highlight the fact that

green roofs in a city-scale reduce the temperatures slightly, from 0.5°C to 4°C. This might be perceived as a

small margin but will be appreciated because heat islands raise the temperature of cities by close to that

margin during the daytime. It actually took a slight increase in temperature for the glaciers in the North

Pole to start melting that is how effective slight increases in temperature are. The green roofs showed lower

temperatures during the daytime and the night time, which means that the temperature inside the buildings

will be lower in those times as well. The green roof temperature becomes a bit warmer in the night, due to

its insulation of buildings. It further reduces the emissions that would have been released into the

environment through the appliances, indirectly reducing the UHI effect.

Fig. 5 shows that near-surface reduction in temperature is little compared to the reduction of ambient air

temperature. With a 100% implementation of green roofs, the near surface city-wide temperature will only

be reduced by a little over 1°C. But city- wide, a reduction of 4°C was predicted of the ambient air. This is

because a much as green roofs try to reduce the near surface temperature, the presence of a dense

population and other impervious surfaces, which are close to the ground affect the near surface air. But the

ambient air is cooler because it has more space to flow at a distance from the surfaces that heat it up.

The Baltimore study show that sporadic implementation does not help mitigate UHI. This is because of the

presence of impervious surfaces next to the green roofs raises the temperature and counters its productivity.

It results to lower evotranspiration as this increases as vegetation increases. It is also by the reduction in

vertical mixing (due to reduced surface heating) and by the increased advection of more moist air at the

lower elevations from the rural areas to the urban areas when the green and cool roof fractions increase.

This doesn’t discourage starting from smaller numbers. Evotranspiration has been confirmed as the main

means that green roofs reduce temperatures; this is as talked about in the literature review. The Baltimore

and Toronto studies clearly state that they have greater temperature reduction when they are irrigated,

recording a 0.27°C at near surface temperature to 2°C city-wide. Soil moisture has a large role to play in the

life of green roofs. When they are left dry and the soil is at its wilting point, the cooling effect of the roofs is

drastically reduced if not eliminated completely. This is owed to the high latent heat flux of the vegetative

cover. This shows that the choice of plants on the green roofs matter if its main aim is UHI mitigation. The

results from the Baltimore case study complements the literature review, showing that asphalt has the

highest daytime temperature among all roofs, having higher than 15°C difference between the temperature

above a green roof and the one above it. This shows that asphalt, being used on top of roofs is a primary

contributor in urban heat islands. Therefore, it needs to be laced with vegetation or converted into a cool

roof.

These studies show that different locations may require different UHI mitigation strategy depending on the

weather conditions of the region. These studies have shown a qualitative result, which is very likely to be in

any condition. But some areas may require further research and study in order to generalize the results.

Although the study is compute based simulation, which were carried out by world-class bodies.

Nevertheless the technology used has been proven to give precise projections based on whatever the input


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is. The performance of the WRF modelling software has been studied to be effective by PCA (2015) and

GIS systems have been used for a long time in studies and are reliable. The other software, MM5 and

UFORE are reliable as well, used by many professionals all over the world to make real life models and test

them. So it would be fair enough to have a pessimistic view about what the results would be if these

strategies are implemented in real life scenarios.

6. Conclusion

The study has confirmed that green roofs are indeed an effective UHI mitigation strategy. Other strategies

are effective as well depending on where they will be situated. The study has confirmed that using more

than one strategy in the same place further reduces the temperature in urban areas. Advantage that green

roofs have over other UHI mitigation strategies are their multiple benefits. Good runoff water management,

improvement in air quality, high insulation, among other things. These are things that cost a lot to deal with

individually, but are all integrated in one green roof package. Green roofs have to be maintained in order for

their performance to be at maximum. We found out that when they are wet with rain water or after being

irrigated, their cooling properties increase. Soil moisture is a key for it to work effectively. That implies to

cool roofs as well, which could be used as another strategy. Their albedo is reduced when dust settles on

them, so they have to be maintained properly in order to work effectively. Other than constructing new

green roofs, people may be encouraged to put retro-fit their existing roofs. This brings down the cost and

makes it easier for installation. There are ‘blanket sedums’ available which are rolled on top of the existing

roof like mats and are extensive. This brings about a solution to those that may face construction problems.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to acknowledge the Federal College of education (Tech) Bichi, Kano Nigeria

supported by Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND).

References

Akbari H. (2005). Energy saving potentials and air quality benefits of urban heat island mitigation [PDF]

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Available at

<http://www.osti.gov/scitech/servlets/purl/860475>[Accessed 28th March 2015]

Barbara, H-B. (2013). Cooling off: known for mitigating the urban heat island effect, cool roofing and

green, planted roofs can deliver significant energy-saving benefits as well. (Continuing Education Unit).

Earth pledge (2008). Green roofs: Ecological design and construction. Pennsylvania: Schiffer

Environmental Design & Construction [Internet]. [cited 2015 Nov 19];16(10). Available from:

http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/186853173?q&versionId=203402002.

Healthy Urban Habitat (2015). Urban heat island effect.[Image online]Available

at<http://healthyurbanhabitat.com.au/responding-to-the-urban-heat-island-optimising-the-implementation-

of-green-infrastructure/> [Accessed 23rd April 2015].

National Snow and Ice Data Centre (2015). Thermodynamics: Albedo.][Online] Available at

<https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/processes/albedo.html> [Accessed 10th April, 2015]

http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/186853173?q&versionId=203402002


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PCA, (2015). America’s cement manufacturers, Heat Island. [Online] Available at <> [Accessed 10th April

2015].

Peck, S. W. (2009). Green Roofs and the Urban Heat Island Effect. Buildings, 103(7), 45–48.

Sun, C.Y., Lin, Y.J., Sung, W.P., Ou, W.S., Lu, K.M. (2012). Green Roof as a Green Material of Building

in Mitigating Heat Island Effect in Taipei City. Applied Mechanics and Materials. Aug; 193-194:368–71.

Sun, C.-Y. (2011). The Thermal Influence of Green Roofs on Air Temperature in Taipei City, Applied

Mechanics and Materials Vol. 44-47, p. 1933-1937.

United States Environmental protection agency (2005). High Albedo and Environment-Friendly Concrete

for Smart Growth and Sustainable Development.

[Online] Available at <http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.highlight/abstract/7

791> [Accessed 10th April, 2015]

U.S Green Building Council (2015). Heat Island Effect, Roof. [Online]


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Research Article

An Appraisal of Socio-Cultural Housing Features of Space Utilization

in a Multi-Ethnic Setting in Nigeria

Abubakar Danladi Isah*, Tareef Hayat Khan, Abdullah Sani Ahmad,

Alkali Ibrahim Abubakar

Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

*Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

Objectives Housing growth beyond been a necessity to stressing culture

content in activity spaces entails culture integration in housing delivery

systems. Emphasis on culture attributes in Nigeria housing sector arouse due to

conflict amid spatial provisions and indigenous social pattern of household

activities. Remarkably, this study strives to unveil core cultural attributes of

dwellings focusing on major ethnic communities and highlighting design

factors and patterns exhibited by typical ethnic dwelling in the study area.

Qualitative content analysis of an ethnographic account of dwellings’ spatial

layout of major ethnic groups in the region was applied for the research. The

attributes identified were compared across ethnic groups, reduced to themes in

developing activity with activity-space relationship and then analysed to

discover common design patterns. Findings obtained revealed distinct

arrangements with similar layout in activity spaces, which indicates a sense of

semblance in core space use. This outcome suggests that sustainable housing

policy and design can emanate from formal indigenously established core

culture space utilization.


Attributes, Culture, Ethnicity, Housing quality, Pattern.

1. Introduction

Advancement in housing needs has risen beyond its inevitability in developing nations, to searching for

housing quality. Thus require the determination of a sustainable delivery process and pattern of housing

choice by inhabitants. In effect, occupants’ social activities and activity patterns are crucial elements to be

discovered is attaining housing sustainability. Therefore, recognizing the culture of inhabitants becomes

critical as occupants’ assess housing performance based on family and cultural norms (Morris and Winter,

1975). Although, the reflection of traditional patterns of culture in urban housing was refuted by Ikejiofor,

(1998) cultural principles kept on manifesting in self-built and transformed urban public housing in Nigeria,

with compounds occasionally inhabiting residents of diverse ethnic background. Furthermore, in spite of the


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scarcity and non-affordability of housing due to urban population rise, cultural factors tend to influence the

physical features of housing space use (Awotona, 1990). However, the impact of urbanization on housing

scarcity contributed to cultural diffusion and acculturation of urban inhabitants in their quest for shelter and

has critical influence on the nature and quality of housing in the country. For instance, in the past decades

over 75% of Nigeria’s urban houses were rated substandard by Jagun, (1983) with slow sign of

improvement (Olotuah and Bobadoye, 2011). In their studies, (Awotona, 1990; Ibem, et al., 2011; Jiboye,

2009; Ilesanmi, 2010) avidly emphasized housing dissatisfaction due to cultural exclusion particularly

among tenants and public housing owners. The situation has undermined the projection of housing delivery

in urban settings. As a result, this study uncovers the cultural core attributes in dwellings of major ethnic

groups in northern states of Nigeria using qualitative factor analysis to categorize findings from

ethnographic participant observation into latent factors and themes. The result obtained from the study

indicates similarity in core space use across the ethnic groups’ in-spite of the disparity in layout

arrangement. This outcome is a useful guide to developers in the provision and re-positioning of housing in

the study area where cultural factors are significant housing characteristics.

2. Background Studies

Nations have had social histories that have shaped their housing needs before contact with civilization. In

Australia for instance, the Aboriginal housing reform of 2001 witnessed stakeholders confronted with

resisting acculturated civilization and pressure from indigenous Aboriginals demanding the consideration of

socio-cultural spatial practice in housing design (Memmott and Chambers, 2003; Potter, 2012). Social

factors influenced by climate, poverty and congestion were to be harmonized with ventilation standards;

conventional living spaces; and western perception of domestic spaces. Thus, Porter, (2009) adopted the

concept of aligning ‘supply services’ with ‘demand services’ conceptualized as space recognition by

negotiating cultural values and existing standards in housing responsiveness. Also, future uncertainties,

planning for next generations are echoed as the desire for more housing space by inhabitants (Khan, 2014),

but culture actualization is significant in the lifespan of household interaction with their buildings. Against

the backdrop this study builds a theoretical framework based on the concept of emic and etic cross cultural

approach. Then, proceeded to relate housing and culture towards assessing multi-ethnic space use features.

2.1 Emic and Etic Principle in Housing Delivery Mechanism

The Emic and Etic approach has been adapted in harmonizing conflicting universal views and concepts with

cultural peculiarities in cross cultural research (Patton, 2002). It is conceptually adopted in valuing

diverging opinions on indigenous housing perception across cultural boundaries Sofield, (2010) particularly

in culture sensitive communities. In the context of this study, interpreting the meaning of cultural attributes


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of space use by the ethnic communities constitute the emic paradigm, while the conservative etic paradigm

resides in provision of housing based on universal standards and national building regulations. The existing

conflict between these perspectives creates unintended gap in housing delivery systems in culture sensitive

communities. Therefore studies have identified culture responsive space recognition as a way out. However,

articulating the meaning in space use by the core ethnic groups towards identifying core appropriate values

in order to establish thresholds appears uncommon. As it is a necessary foundation for actualizing the

process. Thus, this study attempts to fill this gap in the context under study. Moreover, Ayoola and Amole

(2014) have asserted that history, culture, economics, and social traits of people are constituents for better

housing.

2.2 Housing and Inhabitants’ Cultural Norms

Although, Olotuah (2009) argues that new house forms have evolved with old forms fast disappearing,

these new forms are not devoid of the influence of inhabitants’ cultural values on spatial configurations.

Certainly, Africa’s long history in establishing underlying principles and meaning, coherency and

symbolism in space recognition and interaction (Prussin, (1974), is reflected in cultural attributes of space

use and should not be undermined. Besides, social analysts have focused on discovering recognized patterns

that manifests overtime in different settings (Zerubavel, 2007). In this regard, Ozaki, (2002) opined that the

core determinants of spatial composition of a house are its cultural matrix, then modified by the non-

cultural factors. As in cultural sensible buildings that echoes potentials and value such as in traditional

environments established for sightseeing (Dincyurek and Turker, 2007). Beyond that is the self-esteem

users derive while interacting with the spatial network which remains intangible yet crucial. Arguably,

emotional comfort is therefore linked to housing arrangement with a natural instinct of spatial satisfaction

(Khan, 2014). In addition space use manifests social activities which in turn are develop from culture

inclination of households (Rapoport, 1998).

On the overall, this literature analysis focuses on the significance of inhabitants’ cultural norms in shaping

the configuration of housing designs. Considering the context of urban environment where standards are

highly recommended, housing delivery systems can rely on the recognition space generated from the emic

and etic principles.

2.3 The Multi- Ethnic Settings and Their Bonding Attributes

Six major ethnic groups of Hausa, Fulani, Kanuri, Tiv, Nupe and Gwari are found to be dominant within the

central and northern states of Nigeria (Mustapha, 2006). Typical households in each ethnic group in


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selected states of Niger, Sokoto, Katsina, Benue, Adamawa and Borno were studied. They were examined

in order to establish the major attributes of their housing layout, towards highlighting the similarities in their

spatial arrangement. Although, each of these ethnic communities differ in cultural traits and also ethnic

norms which depicts cultural identity (Igwara, 2001) their intertwine language families (Mustapha, 2006) is

a basis for their commonality and enable their integration. For instance, Temple and Temple (Temple and

Temple, 1967) asserts that only a dialectical difference exists between Nupe and Gwari. Also, Nupe, Fulani

of Adamawa (Yola) and Borno where the Kanuri predominates have had their social and physical layout

influenced by the Fulani emirs in the eighteenth century (Boyowa, 2005). Similarly, the Hausa ethnic group

had the domination of the Fulani kingdom between 1804 and 1810 (Nwanodi, 1989). Moreover, there exist

semblance and uniformity in housing patterns across the major regions in the country (Olotuah and

Bobadoye, 2011). In addition, these groups have lived mutually as communal neighbours adopting each

other’s languages and cultures with socio-economic and socio-political benefits (Otite, 1990). This justifies

the possible existence of commonalities in their space use. In a heterogeneous urban housing Olowoyo and

Khan (2012), suggested the consideration and reflection of core cultural intangibles towards sustainability

rather than kindle user dissatisfaction by ignoring their cultural factors. Thus, necessitates the need to

identify core attributes of culture related to space use that can be adapted in urban housing delivery.

2.4 Spatial Configuration of House Form of Major Ethnic Communities

Although, it is argued that ethnic groups in Nigeria have cultural contrast in their social content, they shares

some similarities in social activities and space use which appears in the configuration of their layouts. Thus,

meaning of spaces is significantly defined by the activity around it in justifying its spatial nature. This can

be critically attributed to their key occupation such as farming and the regional geography.

Scholars in the last two decades have advocated for socio-culture inclusion in Nigerian housing schemes

despite the dynamic process of housing and steadiness in the production process (Daramola, 2006). This is

evident from the morphology of the initial house form transformed by including basic household socio-

cultural activities.

2.4.1 Hausa Compound

The Hausas have had influence on other ethnic neighbours within the region. A typical Hausa compound

comprises of an outside open space, an entrance hall which opens into an outer courtyard where senior

males of the compound are living. The inner section is accessed through a transition which leads to the

central courtyard where the women live and carry out domestic life (Boyowa, 2005; Muhammad-Oumar,


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2008). Home, (sometimes a group of buildings) reflects kingship structure configured to suit social

associations of its inhabitants as an expression of their cultural perception of man’s relationship with fellow

man and the world (Nwanodi, 1989). Even though same concept is repeated in other compounds, they vary

in sizes, patterns and arrangement. Flexibility in function, changes the pattern of space use sometimes

across seasons in most compounds. For instance, rooms are used for sleeping during cold and rainy seasons

while the courtyards accommodate same function during the heat period.

2.4.2 Fulani Compound Layout

Fulani ethnic can be categorized into the nomads who move across state boundaries living in makeshift

shelters and those in settled communities. While the settled Fulani adopted the similitude of Hausa spatial

concepts as a result of interactions and social contacts, the nomads use temporary structures with scattered

huts accessed from various routes in the absence of a defined entrance. The settled Fulani on the other hand

live in compounds with define entrance hut, fore and inner courtyards, with rooms around the courtyards.

2.4.3 Tiv Housing Layout

Typical Tiv compound is curvilinear with sleeping and grain storage huts arranged around a central hut

which functions as living room, similar to the entrance hall of the Hausas (Philips, 2010). The oval

compound concept allows for social equality with equal visual and physical proximity to the courtyard, a

cultural attribute associated with the Tiv culture (Ikejiofor, (1998). Between the central hut (Ate) and the

room lies the courtyard for domestic activities. Although the huts are not attached to one another they form

the boundary of the compounds. In complex compounds with multiple nucleus families, dumb-bell

arrangement is adopted by brethren of same mother; while multiple signifies siblings from a polygamous

family background (Osasona, 2007).

2.4.4 Kanuri Compound Layout

The Kanuri major settlements have mainly round huts in circular layouts fenced with matting and few

rectangular mud structures which are surrounded by mud walls (Temple and Temple, 1967). Each hut is

secluded with a mat fence around the entrance creating a private activity area at the entrance into the huts.

Women carry out private domestic activities in these spaces while major domestic chores are done within

the larger courtyard.


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2.4.5 Nupe Compound Layout

Nupe compounds consist of huts usually surrounded by thick wall fence; series of clusters of round, later

rectangular huts are grouped for a kingship of brothers from the same paternal descendants. Each cluster is

linked with a smaller entrance hall beside the main entrance hall which is usually distinguished by size.

Rooms open to a central courtyard where domestic activities are carried out. Larger families separate

female section by using huts to demarcate additional courtyards leaving an entry path into the women

section.

2.4.6 Gwari Compound

Typical Gwari compound accommodates multi-family units each with a cluster of huts around a courtyard

similar to the Nupe. These huts provide shelter for inhabitants, chickens, stables, guests and corn storage.

Although the compounds usually have a central entrance hall, each cluster has an exit leading outside

(Temple and Temple, 1967).

In summary, these characterize the distinct activity spaces of the ethnic groups. Typical layout

configurations of the various ethnic communities are illustrated in figures 2 and 3 respectively.

3. Methodology

In the first instance, dominant ethnic groups were established for ethnographic study of households’ spatial

configuration. The study operationalized factors based on the theory of Man Environment Relations (MER)

by relating culture components with space configuration (Rapoport, 2000). As a result, factors of social

values, family lifestyle, social activities, family structure and social identity were considered and related

with spatial layout of the ethnic dwellings. Conditional survey method was adopted to purposively study 15

household in each ethnic domain. Focused participant observation was adopted in deriving the emic

perception of ethnics’ socio-cultural activities and space use pattern (Patton, 2002). Hence, the

consideration of salient issues of dissimilar and minority space use which guided the adoption of qualitative

analytic technique. Surely, salient issues are better magnified through qualitative techniques (Creswell,

2015; Brewer, 2000; Blommaert and Jie, 2010). Thus, exploring the data from field observation via

qualitative factor analysis, the study identified 20 item variables through constant comparison analysis

strategy as underlying themes use to assess the spatial configurations of the ethnic groups in order to

determine similarities in their core space use. Although, constant comparison analysis is ideal for

developing codes and going back to field, it has been modified for analysing data collected on one time


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field engagement research study (Leech and Onwuegbuzie, 2007). Next, qualitative comparative analysis

with domain analysis technique was used to develop semantic functional relationship (Spradley, 1979),

between the themes and activity space use, compared between the six ethnic groups via focused inquiry by

participant observation.

Then, semantic relationship ascertain the relationship between the concept of activities with spaces; and

where such activities take place in the dwellings for each ethnic group. The relationship patterns developed

are represented with gamma diagrams and correlated to discover the similarities and common pattern

(Figure 1).

Fulani Tiv Nupe & Gbagi Hausa Kanuri

Legend

Figure 1 Showing the flow similarities in layout pattern arrangement across ethnic communities.

Figure 2. Typical Nupe (A) and Gwari (B) compound layouts respectively.

A B

LEGEND

Entrance (reception) 1

Room 2

Store 3

Kitchen 4

Animals 5

Courtyard 6

Mosque 7

Toilet 8

Master bedroom 9


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Figure 3. Typical Kanuri (C), Tiv (D), Hausa (E) and Fulani (F) compound layouts respectively

4. Outcome and Findings

4.1 Taxonomy of activities and activity spaces

Qualitatively, variables identified were subjected to factor analysis (reducing the chunk of variables by

grouping related tangible elements) through taxonomic representation. This was adopted to determine the

latent variables in the relationship. A taxonomic representation with XY relationship where Y= Activity;

X= Activity spaces, and function as the relationship between X and Y was therefore developed to pictorially

view varying space uses. Table 1 shows the taxonomic presentation of accessibility; guest reception and

overnight accommodation; outdoor relaxation; household distribution; social gathering spaces; cooking

space; and gender restrictions and connections pattern. These formed the core space use attributes across the

diverse ethnic communities.

C D

F

LEGEND

Entrance (reception) 1

Room 2

Store 3

Kitchen 4

Animals 5

Courtyard 6

Mosque 7

Toilet 8

Master bedroom 9

E


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Table 1. Taxonomy of activity and activity space

Activity (X) Gender privacy Activity Space (Y)

Accessibility Entrance hall, Multiple exits

Guest Guest reception Male guest Outdoor, entry hall & house heads’ room

Female guest Courtyard & Front of female rooms

Overnight Guest

accommodation

Male guest Outer courtyard

Female guest Inner female apartment

Outdoor

relaxation

Male folks Outdoor space, Entry hall & Outer yards

Female folks Inner courtyards

Household

organization &

Family

distribution

Social

connections,

Adolescent children

& ethnic identity

Hierarchical &

Gender

separated

Buffer huts and courtyards

Flexible

(Screen barriers)

Clustered & sharing facilities

Social

Gatherings

Male venue Outdoor, Entrance hall & central court.

Female Venue Inner female courtyard

Cooking &

Pantry

Wet kitchen, front of wives’ room &

courtyard.

Multi-functionality associated to some activity spaces revealed the social meaning in space use. Such spaces

are recognised by terms not usually derived from the function(s) it hosts. Also, activity tools are

impermanent due to the multi-functionality of the space. Rather they are arranged as the activities are set to

be performed. Courtyard is identified as the core activity space as it accommodates domestic activities

extending from enclosed spaces. For example, cooking activities combines kitchen and inner courtyard

spaces as activity space. Most compounds visited had more than one courtyard with multiple accesses into

the compounds, habitually gender influenced or public-private defined. Outdoor areas are multi-functional

open spaces functionally linked with the entrance hall. The study identified layout patterns among the

ethnic groups with the discovery of a key pattern that include defined outdoor activity areas intangibly

fused to the building through the entrance hall. Male dominated living areas; fore courtyard; transitional

spaces; and female dominated inner courtyard. Enclosed spaces such as rooms are usually linked to the

courtyards. Space use tends to exhibit sensitivity to gender dominance. Although this arrangement can be in

clusters depending on the household size and the ratio of male to female members, the pattern remains

consistent. The existing complexity that occurs while describing and relating space and function in

traditional house over contemporary design, (Habraken, 1998) calls for consideration of minority space use.


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5. Conclusion

Findings shows significant space use attributes and core spaces that are crucial in housing delivery in the

region. Similarly, it has shown that culture responsive design is crucial because, it thrive the socio-

economic drive of households as the nucleus of socialization and integration in the family unit and the

society at large. It also appeases the need and requirement of inhabitants’ housing satisfaction. Thus, the

findings of this study clearly shows that cultural attributes in activities and space use are crucial to housing

consumption within the region hence should be reflected in design decisions. Consideration of activities is

therefore an essential requirement that defines the configuration of space. Most significantly, the

implication of the research findings focuses on the need for housing developers to consider the space use

attributes discovered by the study in achieving qualitative housing designs and sustain orderliness.

Moreover, developers’ sensitivity to culture attributes in housing provision will enhance the satisfaction of

the occupants and the value for their properties. Thereby, overcoming housing provision challenges, by

successfully and ably incorporating core elements of space use in both policy and execution.

Acknowledgement

The authors sincerely acknowledge Research Management Centre (RMC) of the Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia (UTM), and the Ministry of Education (MoE) of the Government of Malaysia, for the funding of

this research through research grant no. 4S104, and 07H37.

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Research Article

Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in West and Central Africa:

Development and Challenges

Hassan, M. A.1, Njeshu, G1, Raji, A.1, Zhengwuvi, L1 and Salisu, J.2

1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria,

2Department of Chemical Engineering, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

The extraction of palm oil from oil palm fruits is practiced in many countries

in Africa. The technologies for these processes are, in most cases, either still

traditional or very modern. Traditional technologies usually have the

advantage of requiring low investments, but are labour-intensive, inefficient

and time-consuming. Sophisticated large scale technologies, on the other hand,

are generally beyond the financial reach of the rural population. The present

review aims at throwing more light on a third option: small scale or

intermediate technologies for palm oil processing in West and Central Africa.

These technologies have been developed by various institutions to varying

degrees of success, and are presented in the hope that it will spur up research

for the development of more appropriate designs, find solutions and generate

additional income for families, entrepreneurs, common initiative groups and

co-operatives, in these regions.


appropriate solution, extraction efficiency, free fatty acid, fresh fruit bunches, palm oil processing, small scale, traditional technologies.

1. Introduction

The origin of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is traced to the tropical rain forest region of Africa with the

main belt running through the southern latitudes of Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria,

Sierra Leone and Togo into the equatorial region of Angola and the Congo. (Ajani et al, 2012). Originally

growing in grooves in the wild in these localities, the oil palm is today grown in plantations and has become

an important crop for both industrial, retail and consumer markets. Despite its numerous industrial uses,

palm oil is still indispensible in traditional life in Africa. It is extensively used in its cuisine, in local and

industrial soap making, and in the food industry.


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In 2013, West Africa’s palm oil output was 2.2 million metric tons (MT), and this accounted for only 3.5%

of global output. Today, the demand for palm oil in the West African region exceeds its supply, and the

region is a net importer of palm oil, with a deficit of between 850,000 to 900,000 tons, per year that is

provided for by imports from countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. Cote D’Ivoire is the only net

exporter in West Africa, and exports an estimated 275,000 MT with about 75% of its export going to West

Africa. (SAHEL, 2015).

Before the crude oil boom, Nigeria was the world’s largest producer (Ajani et al, 2012; Greenpeace, 2012)

but today it’s production accounts for less than 2% of global total (Greenpeace, 2012); while up to 90

percent of global production occurs in South-East Asia alone, in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.

(Institute for public policy Analysis (IPPA), 2010; Ofosu-Budu and Sarpong, 2013).

Unlike in South-East Asia where the processing of crude palm oil is entirely undertaken by agro-industries

in high-technology well equipped mills, palm oil processing in Africa is undertaken by three distinct groups

of actors in the sector: the traditional producers who use methods which are basically manual with the use

of rudimentary tools, small-scale (or non-industrial) producers that use a variety of low-efficiency

machinery ranging from simple hand presses and other stand-alone machines, to a very varied combination

of machines which cater for the various unit operations in the processing; and lastly the industrial mills with

technologically up-to-date machinery, established by agro-industrial complexes for the production of palm

oil that normally meets international norms to supply downstream industries in the sector.

The quality of palm oil obtained in each case, is a function of the degree of sophistication of the processing

equipment. Perhaps the varied uses for palm oil somewhat justifies its diverse processing methods in Africa

since quality demands of the processed crude palm oil varies according to its use.

Some African governments like Cameroon, Liberia, Nigeria, Gabon, Cote D’Ivoire etc, where oil palm

giants from South-East Asia are grabbing land for the development of oil palm plantations are targeting oil

palm as a key sector for agricultural growth and to address rural poverty (Sayer et al, 2012). However,

despite environmental concerns, the sector’s current expansion is driven largely by large-scale agro-industry

and favours large plantations for economies of scale, which raises the question of whether and to what

extent small-scale farmers and palm oil producers can successfully compete with the giants, capture a share

of the value addition of the growing sector and improve their incomes. According to SAHEL (2015),


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Nigeria’s population is expected to reach 450 million by 2050. Such a population would definitely drive

continued demand for palm oil and its derivatives.

This paper thus attempts an assessment of small-scale palm oil processing in West and Central Africa with

the view of highlighting the socio-economic importance of this activity, both to those involved as

individuals, and to the economy as a whole. Steps to improve on the activity have equally been suggested.

a) The Evolution of Small Scale Palm Oil Processing in West and Central in Africa

Before the colonial masters introduced plantation agriculture to Africa, palm oil production was carried out

by the use of rudimentary tools. This is a very laborous process and in fact the UN Economic Commission

for Africa (1983), after studying traditional palm oil production in three African countries namely

Cameroon, Cote D’Ivoire and Sierra Leone, qualified the activity as ‘long, tedious and laborious’. Various

authors (Ukwuteno, 2011; Olagunju, 2008; Gilbert, 2013; Nchanji et al, 2013; Nkongho et al 2014a, 2014b)

have described the process for different localities in the continent. Generally, the palm bunches are

quartered and left overnight for easy separation of fruits from the spikelets. The fruits are boiled for about 2

hours, pounded in a mortar or macerated with feet in a canoe-like container or hole dug in the ground.

Water is added and well-shoveled up. All nuts are carefully picked out by hand. The fibres are well-shaken

over in the sludge until oily foam floats to the surface of the sludge. The foams continue to collect in a

container until the operation is completed. This is later boiled in pots for about an hour to evaporate the

water from the oil. The clean edible oil then collects on the surface leaving the dirty oil at the bottom of the

pot. The surface oil is then scooped off and preserved in containers for sale or domestic consumption while

the bottom sludge could be used as animal feed or in soap making. This process will normally have slight

variations from one country to another but basically the above is a general procedure.

With the rapid increase in population and a consciousness of industrialization in the continent, came the

introduction of simple machines to reduce labour requirements and increase oil yield from a given quantity

of fruit. Mechanical devices worth mentioning here include the Duchscher press, the perforated cylindrical

metal cage, the Colin expeller, the screw press, the hydraulic press (by Stork of Amsterdam), etc. These

presses gained widespread acceptance in all of west and central Africa and provided a relatively efficient

process (compared to the manual process that existed), for the step of pressing out the oily liquid during oil


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production. The other unit operations in the crude palm oil processing business however, remained labour-

intensive.

From the simple stand-alone press, small scale palm oil processing has evolved and attempts have been

made to mechanize other unit operations like digesting, threshing and clarification. Outstanding examples

of successful local equipment developed in the region, in this domain are the small scale palm oil

processing equipment (NIFOR-Mini and NIFOR Medium), designed by the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm

Research (NIFOR). Orewa et al (2009) reports an increase in processing efficiency by this equipment, from

45-60% to 80-85%. The major advantage of these equipment is that they enable the processing of fresh fruit

bunches immediately after harvest. This assures a high quality of the palm oil produced.

Ghana has recorded similar advances by small-scale palm oil producers who use the WACAPOL mini mills

which is available in throughputs ranging from 1.0 to 4.0 tonnes FFB per hour. This mill, manufactured in

the United Kingdom, has oil extraction efficiency greater than 90% and produces crude palm oil with Free

Fatty Acid (FFA) content less than 5.0% (www.wacapol.com).

The Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) in association with the United Nations Industrial Development

Organization (UNIDO) is currently financing a project entitled “Improving the Income Generating Potential

of the Oil Palm in West and Central African Region (Cameroon and Nigeria)” with an objective to establish

and equip four medium scale palm oil processing centers in Cameroon and one center in Nigeria. The

project is being implemented under the supervision of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN

(FAO) and aims at introducing new processing technologies. When established, the plant to be located in

Akwa Ibom state in Nigeria and the three which are to be located at Teze/Ngie, Sombo and Mkpot in

Cameroon are expected to have a capacity of 2 tons per hour while the other one to be located at Bakingili

in Cameroon would have a capacity of 5 tons per hour (CFC, 2013).

Since the introduction of these mechanical devices, the structure of the palm oil industry in the continent

has been shaped by the presence of two different markets: home consumption and industrial use in domestic

manufacturing (Asamoah, T. E. O., 1998; Ofosu-Budu and Sarpong, 2013). One of Wacapol’s installations

presently run at Weppa farm in Edo state, Nigeria. Hence palm oil processing in the region operates in two

sub-sectors which are largely separate, with each satisfying its own market. Thus the crude palm oil (CPO)

processed is either deemed to be Technical Palm Oil (TPO) or Special Palm Oil (SPO) based on how it is


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processed and the quantity of free fatty acid. The minimum requirement for SPO is an FFA content of less

than 5%. SPO can be consumed or used in products such as creams or further refined for soaps and

bleaches. Oil, with FFA greater than 5%, which does not meet the quality grades of SPO characteristics is

qualified as TPO, and is mainly used for food consumption (PIND, 2011; SAHEL, 2015; Tiku and Bullem,

2015; Basiron, Y., 2007; Owolarafe O.K, Taiwo E.A and Oke O.O., 2008). Elijah I.O., Sylvester C.I. and

Amanda D.F. (2013) investigated the quality of crude palm oil produced by small scale producers in

Bayelsa state, Nigeria using standard analytical processes. They reported an average impurity level of

19.87%, an average FFA content of 8.43%, moisture content of 0.17%.

According to recent estimates, Ghana alone counts about 400 small-scale processing units and process

about 68% of palm fruits, with a share of 55% on the total palm oil production. (Poku, 2002), though they

are characterized by a weak milling capacity as well as the low quality of the oil produced (Kajisa, K.,

Mardia M. and Boughton D., 1997). The World Rainforest Movement (2010) records the percentage of

African domestic palm oil markets supplied by small scale processors as 50% for Liberia, 58% for Cote

D’Ivoire, 80% for Cameroon, Nigeria and Ghana, and up to 83% for Benin Republic; this is enormous.

Despite the disadvantages of small scale palm oil processing, the following factors still favour its promotion

in West and Central Africa:

(i) Smallholders are geographically dispersed and oil palm is intercropped with other crops, there are

high transaction and transportation costs involved in assembling and conveying harvested fruits in

accordance with the mill processing capacity. These factors make modern, high-scale processing

mills uneconomical.

(ii) Domestic consumers prefer palm oil produced using traditional processing methods, which yield oil

with higher levels of fatty acids than in modern mill-processed palm oil. In other words,

environmental factors and the lack of coordination mechanisms would have made it difficult for the

voluntary emergence of large scale, modern processing mills. (Kajisa et al, 1997).

(iii)The rapid increase in FFB production as a result of an increase in the surface area planted.

(iv) The irregular payment of smallholder dues by agro-industries in some countries.


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(v) The very poor state of roads in rural areas of the continent makes crop transportation very difficult

and expensive. This leads to delays in the transportation of smallholder crop by agro-industries,

leading to payment of penalties at the weighbridge by smallholders

(vi) Low FFB prices offered by the agro-industries, despite the fact that they will equally use by-

products like kernel, fiber and kernel shells.

(vii) The complete absence of an industrial plant in some localities to process the FFB from

small scale farmers.

Considering the diverse agro-systems and supply models that exist in the region, it becomes evident that the

continued existence of small-scale palm oil processing either as family businesses, community investments

or Entrepreneurial ventures in the Sub-Region is largely inevitable. This continued existence is, however,

not without problems which in some cases are peculiar.

b) Problems of Small Scale CPO Producers in the Sub-Region

Orewa et al (2009) and Adjei-Nsiah, S., Zu, A. K. S., & Nimo, F. (2012). identified low oil extraction rate

and high FFA content as the major problems of palm oil from small scale producers. The same author puts

the national annual estimate of palm oil losses in Nigeria as result of inefficient processing

methods/techniques at about 42% of total possible production in the country. This fact is directly reflected

by what obtains in other countries of the sub region.

Two separate studies by Orewa et al (2009) and Adeniyi et al (2014) show that semi-mechanized palm oil

processing is characterized by over-utilization of resources such as cost of labour and farm size. In their

own study, Akangbe, J. A. et al (2011) identified the training needs of palm oil processors to include the

need for expertise in sterilization, stripping, mixing, skimming and clarification activities of palm oil

extraction. They also singled out poor transportation network and water scarcity as the major constraints

faced by extractors. Still on the problems of small scale palm oil producers, Daniel S.U(2009) and Soyebo

K.O., Farinde A.J. and Dionco-Adetayo E.D. (2005) identified the use of low yielding varieties, limited

land for cocoa and oil palm cultivation, high cost of establishing nurseries and plantations, high cost of

labour and unavailability of skilled and unskilled labour as the major problems encountered by small scale

palm oil production. The same author further posited that other constraints of this class of producers include

fluctuations in market prices, lack of market information as well as spoilage and low quality products.


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Okolo et al (2015) analyzed the level of participation of Women in oil palm processing. They observed that

80% of the women studied were involved in palm oil processing mainly at the small scale level. They also

identified Lack of capital, inadequate land and lack of information on modern oil palm processing

equipment as the major constraints confronting the women. Ohimain E.I. and Izah S.C. (2014). Found out

in their study that, using the prevalent technology of palm oil production in small scale oil processing

concerns in Nigeria, an estimated 1.2709 MJ of manual energy is required for the processing of one tonne

of fresh fruit bunch. Of the total manual energy expended, women accounted for 32% and was restricted to

two operations (sieving and nut and fiber separation) and the remaining 68% was input by men and

involved five operations (bunch reception, bunch slicing, threshing, pressing and fiber repressing). The

study of Adoption of improved oil palm production Technologies by Onoh P.A and Peter-Onaoh C.A

(2012) revealed that Gender , Educational level , Total farm size as variables have positive effect on the

adoption of improved technology ,while age and house-hold size had negative effects. Major constraints

identified by the research included small farm size, lack of fund and poor extension contacts.

SAHEL (2015) and Ofosu-Budu and Sarpong (2013) have also identified that some technical constraints

encountered by small-scale Palm oil producers in Ghana include scarcity or total absence of demand-driven

research, limited access to finance, high production costs, inefficient milling methods which, in most cases,

are associated with low levels of mechanization, low levels of technology and poor quality CPO, and

inadequacy of government support.

In his analysis of palm oil production and consumption in Ghana between the year 2005 and 2010,

Angelucci F. (2013) reported that the country imported a total 134,600 tonnes of palm oil in 2010, produced

a total of 120,000 tonnes in the same year out of which 80% was produced by smallholders. To encourage

local production, the country levied 20% and 10% import duties on all imported palm oil respectively for

human consumption and industrial use. The nominal rate of protection (NRP) of the country during the

study period indicated that local producers, despite the import levies, still suffer disincentives traceable to

high access costs, illicit taxation and costly, inefficient processing techniques. The report however noted

that notwithstanding the disincentives, local processing is gaining grounds. The Authors suggest that the

disincentives could be eliminated if processing techniques could be modernized and (or) upscaled. In a

similar work on Nigeria for the same study period, Gourichon H. (2013) reported that the country imported

up to 23% of its total palm oil need for the period despite being the world’s third largest producer of the


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commodity. For the period examined, the country charged 35% import levy to dissuade import. NRP

indicated that the local producers received minor incentives within 2007 and 2008 due, largely, to high food

price crisis while they suffered disincentives for the remaining three years of the study period. The study

identified low productivity at production and process level, lack of storage and transport facilities,

numerous intermediaries in the value chain an lack of or inadequately developed information channel as the

major factors that must be addressed to eliminate the disincentives militating against development of local

palm oil production in Nigeria.

These challenges, together with those faced at the oil palm cultivation and production level (plantation

level) contribute immensely in reducing the competitiveness of locally produced CPO in the sub-Region

and thus have a high influence on the resulting high prices of locally produced CPO. Notwithstanding the

import tariff duty on imported CPO in most of these countries, prices of locally produced CPO in the sub-

Region, as compared to imported CPO, are usually higher.. For Nigeria, locally produced CPO prices could

be as high 35% above their imported counterpart (Nwauwa, L.O.E., 2012).

Poku (2002) estimates that in Ghana processors, especially small-scale processors, experience a loss of 38%

for every cedi of palm oil sold during the peak period of fruit production. Generally, the processing and sale

of palm oil becomes a profitable business for small-scale producers only during the peak oil palm yield

period (the period between September and December) (Adjei-Nsiah S., Sakyi-Dawson O. and Kuyper T.

W., 2012).

For all the countries in the sub-Region, there exist a substantial gap between the present obtainable situation

and the desirable conditions for sustained self sufficiency in oil palm production, SAHEL (2015), quoting a

newspaper article, states that a recent study indicated that an investment of about 2 trillion Naira is needed

over the next 20 years for Nigeria to fill the existing gap so as achieve self sufficiency in oil palm

production.

c) Suggestions and Conclusion.

The Western and Central African sub-Region needs to move away from palm oil production by purely

artisanal traditional methods. The ideal in productivity is to move over on to the agro-industrial scale but

there exist lots of technical, geo-political and socio-economic factors that limit this choice. The

development of appropriate small-scale oil production technology thus becomes imperative. To develop


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suitable appropriate systems, a multidisciplinary approach is required. This should entail in the study of not

only activities in the technical field aimed at improving processes, equipment, realization of local

manufacturing of the required equipment as well as establishment of maintenance policies, but also

compulsorily include activities in the socio-economic arena during which the actual socio-economic

performance of proposed technologies would be monitored and evaluated in real-life social settings of the

proposed locality where the oil palm production venture is envisaged.

At present, most R&D activities in agricultural machinery for rural farmers focuses mostly on farm

implements, animal traction, simple irrigation systems, and other mechanized solutions most appropriate in

rural areas and the different topographical contexts with little or no attention being paid to post-harvest and

processing technologies. The governments of West and Central African countries could think of a research

institute in the like of WAIFOR of the early 60s, with particular attention to technological development of

post-harvest and processing equipment and technologies. A possible easy way of doing this in the palm oil

sector could be for the governments to enter into public-private partnerships (PPP) for the development of

improved local facilities for the processing of FFBs at the small-scale level. This will demand that adequate

research be carried out in the various countries of the sub-region in order to determine the appropriate

technology and equipment design best suited for the locality. The governments could as well enter into

some sub-Regional agreements that could facilitate collaborative researches as well as easy exchange of

resources and knowledge.

Most non-industrial processors of oil palm cook, rather than sterilize, palm fruits before processing.

Unfortunately, when palm oil fruit is cooked in water, the intercellular cement dissolves, giving a

suspension of still-intact cells, from which it is difficult to obtain the oil. This is a major contributor to the

low extraction efficiencies recorded by the small-scale producers of palm oil. These problems can be

resolved by the design of veritable steam generators and corresponding sterilization vessels. Such an

approach will enable the sterilization (not fruit cooking) of FFB, thereby drastically reducing the FFA

values of the final product thus improving the quality of crude palm oil produced. The provision of steam

will equally increase productivity since FFB will be processed as soon as it arrives the mill.

Another major issue is the clarification and drying of the oil. To prevent enzymatic reactions, oxidation

and/or mould growth, vegetable oils and fats should be stored in relatively low temperature, airtight, dry,

clean and dark conditions. An adequately robust design of clarification sections of small-scale palm oil


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production systems will enable the achievement of a long shelf-life of the palm oil produced thus adding

value to the product and improving their competitiveness.

A government policy to financially support or facilitate the establishment of small-scale palm oil production

systems, especially in areas where relevant agro-industrial setups do not exist will go a long way to cater for

the farmers in these areas and help alleviate poverty.

There is a wide range of affordable technologies that could be harnessed to improve on the current small

scale processing methods. However, a number of points must be examined prior to selecting the most

appropriate technology to satisfy particular needs in a given environment. These include social, economic

and technological factors, as well as knowledge of the technologies currently in use and an assessment of

the competitiveness of small-scale processing methods in the given conditions. A careful study of these

factors could determine which of the various stages in small scale palm-oil processing still require

technological innovations so that improvements may offer maximum benefits (labor savings, increased

income and/or higher productivity) to intended beneficiaries. UN (1983) notes that for any suggestions

towards the improvement of artisanal palm oil production to be worthwhile, two factors must be held in

perspective. First, the proposal must give consideration to the pattern and present stage of development of

the palm-oil industry in country or region of interest; secondly, it must take into account the time element -

short term, medium term as well as the long term. Studies carried out in Nigeria showed that 75% of the

mechanized processors are below 46 years of age at the same time when only 47% of the manual palm oil

production ventures are in the same age bracket. (Adeniyi et al; 2014). Thus majority of the mechanized

palm oil processors are still young, active and agile and could be more enthusiastic to accept and implement

new technologies on palm oil processing.

References

Adeniyi O. R., Ogunsola G.O. and Oluwusi D. (2014). Methods of Palm Oil Processing in Ogun state,

Nigeria: A Resource Use Efficiency Assessment. American International Journal of Contemporary

Research Vol. 4, No. 8. Pp 173-179.

Adjei-Nsiah S., Sakyi-Dawson O. and Kuyper T. W. (2012). Exploring Opportunities for Enhancing

Innovation in Agriculture: The Case of Oil Palm Production in Ghana. Journal of Agricultural Science; Vol.

4, No. 10. pp 212-223.


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Adjei-Nsiah, S., Zu, A. K. S., & Nimo, F. (2012). Technological and financial assessment of palm oil

production in Kwaebibrem District, Ghana. Journal of Agricultural Science, 4 (7), 111-120.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jas.v4n7p111

Ajani E. N; Onwubuya E. A.; and Nwalieji H. U. (2012): Assessment of oil palm production and

processing among rural women in Enugu North agricultural zone of Enugu State, Nigeria. International

Journal of Agricultural Sciences ISSN: 2167 – 0447 Vol 2 (12), pp. 322-329.jo

Akangbe, J. A., Adesiji, G. B., Fakayode, S. B., & Aderibigbe, Y. O. (2011). Towards palm oil self-

sufficiency in Nigeria: constraints and training needs nexus of palm oil extractors. Journal of Human

Ecology, 33 (2), 139-145.

Amata, I.A and E Ozuor, (2013). The effect of different processing methods on the quality of crude palm oil

(CPO) in delta north agricultural zone Of Delta State Nigeria. Inter J Agri Biosci, 2(3): 116-119.

Angelucci F. (2013). Analysis of incentives and disincentives for palm oil in Ghana. Technical notes series,

MAFAP, FAO, Rome.

Asamoah, T. E. O. (1998). Farming and cropping systems: agro-management practices for sustainable oil

palm production in Ghana. A paper submitted for the first biennial National Agricultural Systems (NARS)

workshop, organised by NARP of Ghana, 16-20thNovember, 1998, International Conference Centre,

Accra.

Basiron, Y. (2007). Palm oil production through sustainable plantations. European Journal of Lipid Science

and Technology, 109, 289-295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200600223

CFC (2013) Procurement of Palm oil processing Equipment. Retrieved from http://common-

fund.org/news-and-events/news/newsdetail/news/procurement-of-palm-oil-processing-equipment-for-

cameroon-and-nigeria/ on February, 15, 2017.

Daniel S.U. (2009). Problems and Prospects of Commercial Small and Medium Scale Cocoa and Oil Palm

Production in Cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 5(7): 827-832, pp 827-832

Dyer J., Tallontire A.and Ziv G. (2014). The Future of Palm Oil in West and Central Africa: Workshop

Report. SRI Briefing Note Series No.3. retrieved from http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/sri/ on 02/23/2017.

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Semi-Mechanized Processor in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Discourse Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences,

Vol. 1(11): 171-181, November 2013

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Journal of Plant Science (ISSN: 2141-5447) Vol. 4(6) pp. 158-167.

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rainforests. Greenpeace International, Ottho Heldringstraat, 51066 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Recommendations for the World Bank’s 2010 Palm Oil Strategy (August 2010)

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a comparison between Malaysia and Nigeria,” Staff Paper No. 97-5 (East Lansing: Michigan State

University)

Nchanji Y. K., Tataw O, Nkongho R. N. and Levang P. (2013). Artisanal Milling of Palm Oil in Cameroon.

Working Paper 128. Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR.

Nkongho R.N., Feintrenie L. and Levang P. (2014). Strengths and weaknesses of the smallholder oil palm

sector in Cameroon. OCL 2014, 21(2) D208. EDP Sciences.

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Milling in Cameroon. African Journal of Agricultural Research. Vol. 9 (20) pp. 1586-1596.

Nwauwa L.O.E. (2012). Palm oil marketing and distribution pattern in Imo state, Nigeria: An application of

linear programming model. E3 Journal of Agricultural Research and Development Vol. 2(1). pp. 037-043.

Ohimain E.I., Emeti C.I., Izah S.C. and Eretinghe D.A. (2014). Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing Business

in Nigeria; A Feasibility Study. Greener Journal of Business and Management Studies Vol. 4 (3), pp. 070-

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Nigeria. Sky Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 3(7), pp. 137 – 141.

Ofosu-Budu, K., and Sarpong D. (2013). Oil palm industry growth in Africa: A value chain and

smallholders study for Ghana, In: Rebuilding West Africa’s Food Potential, A. Elbehri (ed.), FAO/IFAD.

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Dekina LGA of Kogi state, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Agriculture, Food and Environment. 11(2):157 -

160.

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Agricultural Economics & Rural Development - 1 (2).

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farmers in Aboh Mbaise Local Government Area of Imo state. International Journal of Agriculture and

Rural Development, SAAT Federal University of Technology Owerri, Volume 15 (2): 966 – 971, 2012

Orewa S.I., Adakaren B., Ilechie C.O., and Obulechei S. (2009). An Analysis of the Profitability of using

the Nifor Small Scale Palm Oil Processing Equipment (SSPE). American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy 2

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Owolarafe O.K, Taiwo E.A and Oke O.O. (2008). Effect of processing conditions on yield and quality of

hydraulically expressed palm oil. International Agrophysics, 22 (4), 349-352.

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partnership initiatives in the Niger Delta (PIND), Abuja, Nigeria.

Poku, K. (2002), Small-scale palm oil processing in Africa. Agricultural Services Bulletin 148, Food and

Agriculture Organisation of the UN, Rome

SAHEL Newsletter (2015). Unlocking the Palm Oil Potential in West Africa. Vol 10.

Sayer J., Ghazoul J., Nelson P., Boedhihartono A.K. (2012): Oil palm expansion transforms tropical

landscapes and livelihoods. Global Food Security 1 114–119

Soyebo K.O., Farinde A.J. and Dionco-Adetayo E.D. (2005) Constraints of Oil Palm Production in Ife

Central Local Government Area of Osun State, Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences, 10(1): 55-59

Tiku N. E. and Bullem F. A. (2015). Oil palm marketing, Nigeria-lessons to learn from

Malaysia experience, opportunities and foreign direct investment in Cross River State. Journal of

Development and Agricultural Economics. Vol. 7(7), pp. 243-252.

Ukwuteno, S.O. (2011). Economics of small-scale oil palm production in Kogi state Nigeria. An

unpublished Ph.D Thesis presented to the department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agriculture,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of doctor of

philosophy in agricultural economics.

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and the application of appropriate technology. Addis Ababa :. © St. George Printing Press.

http://hdl.handle.net/10855/2065

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Africa. Industry and Human Settlements Division (1990-11). Back to office report to Cameroon and Côte

d'Ivoire on small scale palm oil extraction and cassava processing: 20 October to 6 November 1990. Addis

Ababa. © UN. ECA,. http://hdl.handle.net/10855/11809

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http://wrm.org.uy/bulletins/issue-161


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Research Article

Proposed Market Survey Framework for Build Green in Malaysia

Rozana Zakaria1*, Yakubu Aminu Dodo2, Rosli Ahmad1, Nur IzieAdiana binti Abidin1

1Construction Technology and Management Centre (CTMC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti of Teknologi

Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Malaysia 2Centre for the Study of Built Environment in the Malay World (KALAM), Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Malaysia

*Corresponding Authors: [email protected],

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

The approach developed in this research builds on earlier work which argues

that CO2 reduction in the built environment demands more informed early

design planning to support improvements in the selection of the materials used

in the construction of buildings in terms of their impact on energy performance

and embodied energy which is lacking in some green rating system green

building index (GBI) Malaysia inclusive. BUiLDGREEN is a software design

by construction technology and management center (CTMC), universiti of

teknologi Malaysia (UTM) to include life cycle assessment in the current GBI

ratings. This paper proposes a frame work that would enhance the

marketability of BUiLDGREEN as new software product. Through review of

literatures as well as analyzing consumer culture theory (CCT) the study

propose a frame work that suit market feasibility for the BUiLDGREEN

penetration in Malaysia.


BUiLDGREEN conceptual,

framework Malaysia, market

survey

1. Introduction

The so-called ‘sustainable or green building’ is the practice of designing, constructing, operating,

maintaining and removing buildings in ways that conserve natural resources and reduce their impact on

climate change. By implementing sustainable practices in the facilities it owns, government, organizations

and other building owners reduce energy consumption, conserve financial and environmental resources and

also reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A green building focuses on increasing the efficiency of resource use

of energy, water, and materials while reducing building impact on human health and the environment



116 | P a g e

during the building’s life cycle, through better sitting, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and

removal. Green Buildings should be designed and operated to reduce the overall impact of the built

environment on its surroundings. In recent years, building owners and designers, researchers, and others

have begun performing studies related to the costs and benefits of sustainable design. Among the studies

available, this research will choose, focus and elaborate more on the so-called life cycle costing (LCC)

analysis in measuring the performance of green buildings. The approach developed in this research also

builds on earlier work which argues that CO2 reduction in the built environment demands more informed

early design planning to support improvements in the selection of the materials used in the construction of

buildings in terms of their impact on energy performance and embodied energy (Crosbie et al., 2010; Terry,

2008; Roberts 2008 and Halliday 2007).

Figure 1: Frame work for choice of criteria to optimize point


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Is a web based application tools for building stakeholders to make a decision for design optimization as to

achieve the green building certification. This innovative tool will apply Life Cycle Costing Analysis in

software computations that integrate Green Building Index criteria in a multiple code programming to

enhance reward for an effective Return on Investment.

Table 1: Proposed Green Building Index Assessment Score of measurable items in the

Energy Efficiency Criteria

PART

CRITERIA

ITEM

GB

I P

OIN

T

TO

TA

L

Init

ial

Ex

pen

ses

Fu

ture

Ex

pen

ses

Mea

sura

ble

LC

C P

oin

t

EE Energy Efficiency

Design

EE1 Minimum EE Performance 1 1

EE2 Lighting Zoning 3 3

EE3 Electrical Sub-metering 1 1

EE4 Renewable Energy 5 5

1 EE5 Advanced EE Performance - BEI 15 15

Commissioning

EE6 Enhanced Commissioning 3

EE7 Post Occupancy Commissioning 2

Verification & Maintenance

EE8 EE Verification 2

EE9 Sustainable Maintenance 3

35 25


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1.1 Life-Cycle Costing (LCC)

Life-cycle costing (LCC) assessment is a method for assessing the total cost of facility ownership. It takes

into account all costs of acquiring, owning, and disposing of a building or building system. LCC analysis is

especially useful when project alternatives that fulfill the same performance requirements, but differ with

respect to initial costs and operating costs, have to be compared in order to select the one that maximizes

net savings (Sieglinde, 2010). Life cycle costing (LCC) analysis is a method of determining the entire cost

of a structure, product, or component over its expected useful life (Kathleen, 2008).

The importance of life cycle costing (LCC) in building construction stems from the actual distribution of

costs incurred over the life span of a construction project. Buildings are typically long term investments of

significant magnitude, and valuation models must account for all costs and benefits throughout the length

of ownership.

2. Methodology

The study presented in this article draws on data gathered over a period of stages during the conceptual

stages of establishing the software BUiLDGREEN. Through review of literatures as well as analyzing

consumer culture theory (CCT) the study propose a frame work that suit market feasibility for the

BUiLDGREEN penetration in Malaysia The aim initially was to examine individual perceptions on

emphasis on local interpretations of marketing which was prevalent in the technical vocabulary of

marketing but from the literature review it is glaring that Gabriel sales (2011)Top 10 sales strategies for

new product is adopted for the conceptual framework for marketing BUiLDGREEN


3.1 Marketing Strategies

Responding to the necessity need for marketing our product BUiLDGREEN the research proposed a

conceptual framework with consumer culture theory as underpinning, the results shows how marketing

strategies can be of great influence (Wagne 2015) in here research shows that: Audience Analysis Deciding

which marketing strategies to use, the end user’s demographics, including their interests, the reasons why


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they would buy the product. Resellers and Distributors Finding an independent representative require Web

Content Buyers of manufactured goods often start their search online, so you need to create content on your

website that grabs their attention and makes them want to get in touch with you. Promotions Buy

advertising space in industry-specific magazines related to your products. Get word out about your products

by renting a booth at industry tradeshows

3.2 Marketing Concept

Guerilla marketing exploring low budget advertising, give away T-shirts or market your business at

promotional events through low-cost trades. Positioning; through creating a brand, image or position in the

marketplace. This might be as simple as pricing a product on the high end to create an air of quality, or

pricing it on the low end to make it seem a good value. Cause marketing through proposed sponsor charity

Sponsor a tennis tournament or marathon that raises money for a charity. This is an effective way to

introduce new products or services into the market place. Sports Marketing People who are loyal to a sports

team may appreciate your supporting their team as well, helping you create an affinity between those fans

and your product or service. Sponsoring a sporting event offers many opportunities.

3. 3 Sales Strategies for New Products

Gabriel Sales (2011) have establish 10 strategies for sales of new products Rapid Communication – It’s

critical that direct feedback loops are created from the sales team directly back to product development, the

marketing team. The right internal feedback loops will improve the product and align sales and marketing

for shared success. Commit to Digital Content…especially Blogging (video, landing page, short demo).

Prepared to Educate the Market – Most new products are offering a new solution that is disruptive to the

market. Educating customer how to calculate return on investment (ROI). Sell from Scripts –It gives us

something to measure and a way to anchor the success of the sale in the message and the story as opposed

to the personality. Commit Focused Energy to your Initial Ideal Customer Profile –Measure the Right

Success Metrics – You need to measure the success of your early pipe efforts from day one Know Why

You Win and Why You Lose – If you are measuring the right data you will already be well on the way to

knowing why your new product launch is successful. Commit to Marketing Automation and Nurturing

Prospects “Not Yet Ready to Buy” –Lead with Value Proposition but Sell with Differentiators – Selling Be

starts when a customer says “


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Figure 3: The Proposed Conceptual Framework

The latest World Green Building Trends report, released by McGraw-Hill Construction in

conjunction with the World Green Building Council (World GBC), surveyed professional services

firms in more than 60 countries, revealing that green building is accelerating around the world as it

is recognized as a long-term business opportunity. 46% of South East Asian architects already

pursue formal certification for their projects and 79% declare their intention to do so in the future.

(Green Building Market Report South East Asia http://www.bciasia.com) Figure 2 shows the

Positioning

Promotions

Educate the

Market

Web

Content

Audience

Analysis

Marketing

Concept Commit to Digital

Content

Guerilla

Marketin

g

Cause

Marketi

ng Sports

Marketi

ng

http://www.bciasia.com/


122 | P a g e

statistic of practicing architects and engineers in Malaysia the statistic is astonishing for the

professionals and the registered contractors as well.

Figure 2a Architect Malaysia

Figure 2b Engineers Malaysia

The first stage would be targeting the population of total registered contractors registered in Johor

6,383 only as well as professionals Architect 2,045 and Engineer10, 366 and other professional

will follow suit


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Figure 3: Contractors in Malaysia Registered With CIDB

4. Conclusion

Marketing, often confused with advertising, promotions and public relations, is the function that

guides the development and sales of products and services. Depending on your product or service,

competition, budget and customer type, your small business can use one or more marketing

strategy to grow your company. Finally, there are other sales channels besides the traditional

brick-and-mortar retail store. Catalogs, TV shopping networks and online stores can also be

excellent methods to enable you to learn how to market a product online. Therefore this research

have adopt a conceptual frame work from analysis of consumer culture theory and Gabriel Sales

(2011) top 10 sales strategies for new product launches sales outsourcing best practices.


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Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge Construction Technology and Management Centre

(CTMC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti of Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Malaysia

for supporting this research.

References Ardley, B. C. (2014) Practitioner accounts and knowledge production: An analysis of three marketing discourses Marketing Theory 2014, Vol. 14(1) 97–118 Crosbie T., Nashwan D and Dean J. (2010). Energy profiling in the life-cycle assessment of buildings, Management of environmental quality, Vol. 21, No. 1, 20-31.

Earley, A. (2014) Connecting contexts: A Badiouian epistemology for consumer culture

theory Marketing Theory 2014, 14(1) 73–96 Edmunds, S-E (2008) Examples of Marketing Strategies Used to Sell a Product file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Examples of Marketing Strategies Used to Sell a Product _ Chron.com.html Gabriel Sales (2011) Top 10 Sales Strategies for New Product Launches Sales Outsourcing Best Practices retrieved on 15 July 2015 from file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Sales%20Strategies%20for%20New%20Products%20-%20Selling%20New%20Products.html Green Building Market Report (2015) South East Asia Retrieved on 12 January 2015 from

http://www.bciasia.com

Halliday, S. (2007). Green Guide to the Architect’s Job Book: second edition, RIBA publishing, London.

Kathleen, S. (August 2008). Life Cycle Cost Analysis Tools for Buildings. USDA Technology and

Development Center. Missoula, MT, U.S.

Monosoff, T. (2007) How To Market A New Product Start small and create a timeline for taking your

product to national distribution retrieved on 16th July 2015 from

file:///F:/Market/How%20To%20Market%20A%20New%20Product.html

Roberts, S. (2008). Altering existing buildings in the UK, Energy policy, Vol. 36, 4482–4486.

Sieglinde, F. (2010, June 28). Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA). American National Institute of Standards

and Technology, 2010. Retrieved on October 11, 2010 from http://www.wbdg.org/resources/lcca.php

../../samsung/Desktop/Market/Sales%20Strategies%20for%20New%20Products%20-%20Selling%20New%20Products.html



http://www.wbdg.org/resources/lcca.php


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Wagner N. (2015). Manufacturing Marketing Strategies retrieved on 15th July 2015 from

file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Manufacturing Marketing Strategies _ Chron.com.html

../../samsung/Desktop/Market/Manufacturing%20Marketing%20Strategies%20_%20Chron.com.html


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Research Article

An Appraisal of the Benefits of Building Information Modelling (BIM)

in Architecture

Anumah John James1, Anumah Lesado2, Gofwen, Chalya1, Melchizedek Malson1

1Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos-Nigeria

2Archshel Development Ltd, Jos-Nigeria


ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

Building Information Modelling (BIM) represents the development and use of

computer-generated n-dimensional (n-D) models to simulate the planning,

design, construction and operation of a facility. Architectural designs were

communicated through the medium of 2-dimensional hand drawings and

written specifications produced by applying ink or pencil to a medium of

paper. With the help of BIM, projects can be completed faster and within

budgeted limits. Proposals are understood through accurate visualization.

Reworks can also be minimized due to better understanding of project. The

purpose of this research is to develop a clear understanding about BIM and

identify the benefits of BIM leading to it being considered in projects by

architects in Nigeria. Relevant literatures were reviewed and practising

architects in architectural firms were interviewed to analyse their knowledge

and/or usage of BIM. The findings reveal that while the awareness of BIM

amongst architects is high, the usage is relatively low.


reserved.

Building Information Modelling (BIM), Architecture, n-dimension modelling

1. Introduction

Housing Construction projects have always been complex and continue to be more complex with increase

in sophistication in the world. As the desires of man continue to expand, so do the interests of the stake

holders in the architectural, engineering and construction (AEC) industry. The vast advances in Information

and Communication Technology (ICT) have brought about research on approaches and applications to

reduce the burdens of the AEC. One of these new advances is BIM.

During much of modern history, architectural designs were communicated through the medium of 2

dimensional hand drawings and written specifications. These technical drawings were produced by applying

ink or pencil to a medium of paper. The 1990’s brought the advent of computer-aided design (CAD) as the

popular medium to draw a building. At the dawn of the 21st century, BIM was introduced to the architecture


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and engineering professions as the latest medium for designing and drawing a building (Fox 2016). In spite

of the evolution of technology over the years, construction disputes continue to occur.

In the earliest stages of a project, particularly during the schematic and preliminary stages, critical design

decisions are made that largely dictate the economics of the project. BIM provides both the owner and the

management organization with detailed specific information about the building (Kreider and Messner

2013). BIM supports collaboration; operation of a facility; and management of a virtual building model

within a building life cycle (Smith, 2010; Ahmad et al., 2012).

The principal difference between BIM and 2D Computer Aided Design (CAD) is that the latter describes a

building by independent 2D views such as plans, sections and elevations. Editing one of these views

requires that all other views must be checked and updated, a process prone to mistakes, which is one of the

major causes of poor documentation. In addition, data in these 2D drawings are graphical entities only, such

as lines, arcs and circles, in contrast to the intelligent contextual semantic of BIM models, where objects are

defined in terms of building elements and systems such as spaces, walls, beams and columns (CRC

Construction Innovation, 2007).

In addition to the parametric properties of 3D BIM, the technology also has 4D and 5D capabilities (cost

and scheduling) to models to facilitate value engineering studies;

Wang (2011) explained BIM types as the following:

3D: three-dimensional means the height, length, and width.

4D: 3D plus time for construction planning and project scheduling.

5D: 4D plus cost estimation.

6D: BIM for life-cycle facility management

Figure 1: 3-D architectural model; showing the relationship between the building and the site.


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At its most basic level, BIM provides three-dimensional visualization to owners. It is also used as a

marketing tool for potential clients and designers and can be employed to demonstrate design ideas (Azhar

et al., 2008, Weygant 2011) viewed BIM as a tool that is used for model analysis, clash detection, product

selection, and whole project conceptualization. The different uses of BIM in construction as the followings:

3D model

Clash detection; Architects and contractors can go through the model and make adequate and agreeable

corrections before proceeding to the construction site. BIM enables potential problems to be identified early

in the design phase and resolved before construction begins.

Project visualization provides a very useful and successful marketing tool which can show the owner what

the building will look like when completed.

4D time

BIM tools can be used to enhance planning and monitoring. Schedule visualization; by watching the

schedule visualization, project members will be able to make decisions based upon multiple sources of

accurate real-time information.

5D cost

BIM model includes information that allows a contractor to accurately and rapidly generate an array of

essential estimating information, such as materials; quantities and costs; size and area estimates. As changes

are made, estimating information automatically adjusts, allowing greater contractor productivity. Cost data

can be added to each object enabling the model to automatically calculate a rough estimate of material

costs.

6D facilities management (FM)

Data Capture; sensors can provide feedback and record data relevant to the operation phase of a building,

enabling BIM to be used to model and evaluate energy efficiency, monitor a building's life cycle costs and

optimize its cost efficiency.

2. Why BIM

(Hardin 2009) agreed with (Smith and Tardiff 2009) and said that BIM is a revolutionary CAD technology,

and building process that has transformed the way buildings are designed, analysed, constructed, and

managed. BIM model ties all the components of a building together as objects embedded with information

that tracks its manufacture, cost, delivery, installation methods, labour costs, and maintenance (Smith and

Tardiff, 2009). Therefore, BIM can be said to have emerged to improve the process of design and enhance

the design and construction output, thereby, increasing efficiency.


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In a survey conducted in Egypt, 19% firms require the knowledge of BIM basics in newly recruited staff

even though BIM have only been in use there for five (5) years. (Khodeir and Nessim 2017)

2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of BIM to Architects

Mineer (2015) stated the advantages of BIM as follows:

2.1.1 Advantages

Better planning and design: completed buildings with all its components are visualized

before mobilizing to site.

Fewer reworks: potential problems are seen and fixed before errors are committed.

Thereby, reducing the need for costly reworks and renovations.

Savings on materials: helps to estimate exactly what one needs, thereby, eliminating

wastages

Support for prefabrication: prefabrication of components offsite saves time and money

2.1.2 Disadvantages

(Kuehmeier 2008) stated the following as disadvantages of BIM:

Garbage in garbage out: will suppliers be held accountable for incorrect data from the

data base or will the architect be blamed for not cross checking

No standard BIM contract documents: if standards are not developed, reciprocal

interaction with others will not be efficient

Electronic data transfer: architects are always reluctant to provide digital data to

contractors for fear of modification.

Interoperability: when a BIM is opened by a different program, who checks to ensure that

the data is still correct from the one transferred as BIM cannot interface with other

programs yet.

2.2 BIM Acceptability

(Arayici et al. 2009); (Khosrowshahi and Arayici 2012); (Elmualim and Gilder 2013); and Aibinu and

Venkatesh (2014), concluded that there is poor knowledge of BIM and its advantages in the construction

industry. They found that there is a lack of expertise that professionals need to have for using the BIM


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software as well as ignorance of how to implement the BIM software to be helpful in construction

processes.

According to (Gu et al. 2008), BIM is quite ill-understood across the board. Only 54% of the architectural

practices are currently aware of BIM (NBS, 2013).

(Newton and Chileshe 2012), (Mitchell and Lambert 2013), (Löf and Kojadinovic 2012), on their part

found out that there is little understanding of the concept of BIM, and the usage was found to be very low in

South Australia, Australia and Sweden respectively. (Kassem et al. 2012) found that in the UK there is an

overall lack of knowledge and comprehension of BIM.

Jung and Lee (2015) investigated the use of BIM on the six (6) continents and summarized their findings as

shown in figure 2 below:

Fig. 2 Use frequencies of BIM services used in each continent (Jung and Lee 2015)


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2.3 BIM Software

Table 1; showing some BIM soft wares, Manufacturers and their uses

Architects can gain from going beyond the traditional 2D CAD approach throughout the different stages of

pre-design, design and post-design. BIM is an innovative way to preconstruction, design, construction, and

post construction of a building project in comparison to the traditional way of drawing (Eastman et al.,

2011). A dearth of knowledge regarding BIM has led to a slow uptake of this technology and ineffective

management of adoption (Mitchell and Lambert, 2013).

Table 2: shows the application of BIM in the design phase.

Source: Azhar, S et al. (2012)

Product Name Manufacturer Primary Function

Revit Architecture Autodesk 3D Architectural Modelling and Parametric

Design

Revit Structure Autodesk 3D Architectural Modelling and Parametric

Design

DProfiler

Beck Technology 3D Conceptual Modelling with real time cost

estimating

Bentley BIM Suite

(Micro Station, Bentley

Architecture, Structural,

Mechanical , Electrical

Generative Design)

Bentley Systems 3D Architectural, Structural, Mechanical,

Electrical and Generative Components

Modelling

Graphisoft 3D Architectural Modelling

Vectorworks

Designer

3D Architectural

Modelling

Nemetschek 3D Architectural Modelling

Schematic Design Detailed Design Construction Detailing

Options Analysis (to compare

multiple design options)

Photo Montage (to integrate

photo realistic images of project

with its existing conditions)

3D exterior and interior

models

Walk-through and fly-through

animations

Building performance

analyses (e.g. energy

modelling)

Structural analysis and design

4D phasing and scheduling

Building systems analysis (e.g.

clash detections)

Shop or fabrication drawings


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Figure 3 Figure 4

Figures 3 and 4: 3D architectural models.

Figures 3 and 4 above is showing 3D architectural models. Proposals are understood through accurate

visualization, better production quality – documentation output is flexible and exploits automation.

Figures 2 and 3 are 3-D architectural models of the same building. Options for the colour of the paint,

building element or even the shrubs for landscaping can be proposed and agreed on from the model. Where

a proposal is made and there is the need for adjustments, documentation output is flexible and exploits

automation. This saves the client, contractor and the architect the stress of having to redo an aspect of the

building after it has been constructed, thereby, saving cost and time. Proposals are better understood

through accurate visualization. Cost estimates are easily extracted and updated with changes made.

The basic difference in the building element between figure 3 and 4 is the use of hardwood as fascia board

in the former and concrete fascia in the latter. The 5D aspect of BIM i.e. costing automatically realises this

and changes the specification and cost of fascia board in the former to that of concrete fascia in the latter.

By so doing, chances for mistakes and/or omissions in specifications and detailing are eliminated. On the

4D aspect, the time allotted for construction of fascia board is also automatically changes to the time for

concrete fascia. If it will take longer to construct concrete fascia, it will increase the total time of

construction by the time difference. Figure 4 shows and example of the 5D aspect of BIM.


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Figure 4: showing the final material take off with cost and total cost of walls in Autodesk Revit

Architecture 2014

3. Methodology

Interviews were carried out amongst architectural firms in Nigeria. The sample population constitutes forty

(40) registered architectural firms. Since the usage of BIM is being considered, firms that have been

involved in design and construction were sampled.

4. Results and Findings

The following data were obtained from the respondents:

0

10

20

30-35 36-40 41-45 46 and

above

AGE DISTRIBUTION

AGEDISTRIBUTION

Figure 5: Computer literacy Figure 6: age distribution of personnel using

CAD

100

0

COMPUTER LITERACY STATUS

COMPUTERLITERATE

COMPUTERILLITERATE


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Figure 7: Practice experience of architectural firms

Figure 8: Level of CAD usage of personnel

Table 3: Level of BIM awareness and usage

Bim Usage Response In Frequency Response In Percentage

Aware and currently using it 1 02.5%

Aware and actively using it 0 00.0%

Aware and considering it 26 65.0%

Aware but not considering it 10 25.0%

unaware 3 07.5%


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Figure 5 shows that 100% of the respondents are computer literate. This shows that computer literacy is

appreciated in architecture as a profession. Figure 6 shows that twenty four (24) of the personnel using

CAD in the architectural firms are between the ages of thirty six (36) and forty five (45). This shows the age

bracket actively practising architecture in Nigeria. Figure 7 shows that the architectural firms have been

practising for at least 5 years. 2D architectural software is mostly used by architectural firms as shown in

figure 8 with forty five percent of the respondents using both 2D and 3D architectural software.

Table 3 shows that the awareness of BIM was high amongst respondents with only 7.5% of the respondents

unaware about it. It also reveals that the usage of BIM was very low as only one architectural firm used it.

While probing further to know why the usage is low despite awareness being high, some respondents say

the unavailability of the software was a factor. It was learnt that the cost of the software is high and there

was an unavailability of pirated copies which is what is mostly used because of its affordability. Where

pirated copies were available, they were incompatible with other BIM software

5. Conclusion

Cost of BIM software should be subsidised such that is becomes affordable to enable more architects use it

as it is clear from the results presented that the willingness to use BIM high. As the usage of BIM increases,

architects will naturally become more interested in it. Just as Computer Aided Design (CAD) started as 2D

then evolved to 3D, it will develop and continue to evolve to BIM 6D and continue to n-D.

From the results obtained in this research, sixty five percent (65%) of the personnel using CAD are between

the ages of thirty five (35) and forty five (45) years. This shows that the youth should be targeted in BIM

education. Hence, BIM should be thought in higher institutions of learning to enhance its usage at ages

earlier than thirty five years. Just as 19% of firms in Egypt require the knowledge of BIM in newly

recruited staff it will gradually become a requirement in most firms as time evolves.

References

Ahmad, A. M, Demian, P., & Price, A. D. (2012). BIM implementation plans: a comparative

analysis. Smith, S: Proceedings of 28th Annual ARCOM. Edinburgh, UK: Association of

Researchers in Construction, pp. 33-42.

Ajibade Aibinu and sudha venkatesh (2014) Status of BIM adoption and the BIM experience of

cost consultants in Australia: Journal of professional issues in engineering education and practice.

Volume 140 issue 3

Arayici, Y., Khosrowshahi, F., Ponting, A. M., & Mihindu, S. (2009): Towards implementation of

building information modelling in the construction industry- Proceedings of the Fifth International

Conference on Construction in the 21st Century “collaboration and integration in Engineering,

Management and Technology.” Istanbul, Turkey: Middle East Technical University and Florida

International University, pp. 1342-1351.


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Azhar, S, Nadeem, A, Mok, J. Y, & Leung, B. H.(2008). Building Information Modelling (BIM): a

new paradigm for visual interactive modelling and simulation for construction projects: First

International Conference on Construction in Developing Countries (ICCIDC–I). Karachi, Pakistan:

Advancing and Integrating Construction Education, Research & Practice, pp. 435-446.

CRC construction innovation (2007) adopting BIM for facilities management: solutions for

managing the Sydney opera house, cooperative research center for construction innovation,

Brisbane, Australia

Donald Fox (2016) building information modelling (BIM) – expert article on construction disputes

Eastman, C, Teicholz, P, Sacks, R, and Liston, K (2011) BIM handbook: a guide to building

information modelling for owners, managers, designers, engineers and contractors, 2nd ed., NY:

John Wiley and Sons

Elmmualim, A. A. and Gilder, J. (2013) BIM: innovation, design, management, influence and

challenges of implementation. Architectural engineering and design management, 10(3-4). Pp.

183-199. ISSN 1752-7589

Gu, N, Singh, V, Taylor, C, London, K, and Brankovic, L. (2008) adopting building information

modelling BIM as collaborative platform in the design industry. Proceedings of CAADRIA

conference, Australia

Hardin (2009) BIM and construction management, Indianapolis: wiley publishing, IN

Kassem, M, Brogden, T, and Dawood, n. (2012) BIM and 4D planning: a holistic study of the

barriers and drivers to widespread adoption. KICEM journal of construction engineering and

project management, 2(4), 1-10

Khosrowshahi and Arayici (2012) roadmap for implementation of BIM in UK construction

industry, Engineering: construction and architectural management, 19(6) 2012, pp610-635

Joseph Carl Kuehmeier (2008) building information modelling and its impact on design and

construction firms

Laila Mohamed Khodeir and Ashrat Ali Nessim (2017) BIM to BEM INTEGRATED

APPROACH: examining status of the application of BIM and building energy models in Egyptian

architectural firms

Leonard Kym newton and Nicholas Chileshe (2012) (awareness, usage and benefits of building

information modelling) adoption- the south Australian construction organizations, ARCOM

conference, Scotland

Marcus Bjork Lof and Ivica Kojadionovic (2012) possible utilization of BIM in the production

phase of construction projects, KTH architecture and the built environment, thesis no. 154


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Miner (2015) pros and cons of using a BIM Model for your next project- construction monitor

Mitchell, D. and Lambert, S. (2013) rules of engagement, CIB world building congress (cibbc 13)

Brisbane Australia: cibwbc, pp 1-5

NBS. (2013). NBS International BIM report. The UK: The national BIM library.

Ralph G. Kreider and John I. Messner (2013) the uses of BIM; classifying and selecting BIM uses

Robert S. Weygant (2011) BIM content development: standards, strategies, and Best practices

Salman Azhar, Malik Khalfan and Tayyab Maqsood (2012) building information modelling (BIM)

now and beyond

Smith, D. K, & Tardif, M. (2009): Building Information modelling: a strategic implementation

guide for Architects, Engineers, constructors, and real estate asset managers. Hoboken, New

Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Wang, M. (2011): Building Information modelling (BIM): site-building interoperability methods.

MSc Thesis, Interdisciplinary Construction Project Management, Faculty of the Worcester

Polytechnic Institute, U.S.A.

Wooyoung Jung, Ghang Lee (2015) the status of BIM adoption on six continents-World Academy

of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural,

Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:9, No:5, 2015.


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Research Article

Proposed Market Survey Framework for Build Green in Malaysia

Rozana Zakaria1*, Yakubu Aminu Dodo2, Rosli Ahmad1, Nur IzieAdiana binti Abidin1

1Construction Technology and Management Centre (CTMC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti of Teknologi

Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Malaysia 2Centre for the Study of Built Environment in the Malay World (KALAM), Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Malaysia

*Corresponding Authors: [email protected],

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

The approach developed in this research builds on earlier work which argues

that CO2 reduction in the built environment demands more informed early

design planning to support improvements in the selection of the materials used

in the construction of buildings in terms of their impact on energy performance

and embodied energy which is lacking in some green rating system green

building index (GBI) Malaysia inclusive. BUiLDGREEN is a software design

by construction technology and management center (CTMC), universiti of

teknologi Malaysia (UTM) to include life cycle assessment in the current GBI

ratings. This paper proposes a frame work that would enhance the

marketability of BUiLDGREEN as new software product. Through review of

literatures as well as analyzing consumer culture theory (CCT) the study

propose a frame work that suit market feasibility for the BUiLDGREEN

penetration in Malaysia.


BUiLDGREEN conceptual,

framework Malaysia, market

survey

1. Introduction

The so-called ‘sustainable or green building’ is the practice of designing, constructing, operating,

maintaining and removing buildings in ways that conserve natural resources and reduce their impact on

climate change. By implementing sustainable practices in the facilities it owns, government, organizations

and other building owners reduce energy consumption, conserve financial and environmental resources and

also reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A green building focuses on increasing the efficiency of resource use

of energy, water, and materials while reducing building impact on human health and the environment



116 | P a g e

during the building’s life cycle, through better sitting, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and

removal. Green Buildings should be designed and operated to reduce the overall impact of the built

environment on its surroundings. In recent years, building owners and designers, researchers, and others

have begun performing studies related to the costs and benefits of sustainable design. Among the studies

available, this research will choose, focus and elaborate more on the so-called life cycle costing (LCC)

analysis in measuring the performance of green buildings. The approach developed in this research also

builds on earlier work which argues that CO2 reduction in the built environment demands more informed

early design planning to support improvements in the selection of the materials used in the construction of

buildings in terms of their impact on energy performance and embodied energy (Crosbie et al., 2010; Terry,

2008; Roberts 2008 and Halliday 2007).

Figure 1: Frame work for choice of criteria to optimize point


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Is a web based application tools for building stakeholders to make a decision for design optimization as to

achieve the green building certification. This innovative tool will apply Life Cycle Costing Analysis in

software computations that integrate Green Building Index criteria in a multiple code programming to

enhance reward for an effective Return on Investment.

Table 1: Proposed Green Building Index Assessment Score of measurable items in the

Energy Efficiency Criteria

PART

CRITERIA

ITEM

GB

I P

OIN

T

TO

TA

L

Init

ial

Ex

pen

ses

Fu

ture

Ex

pen

ses

Mea

sura

ble

LC

C P

oin

t

EE Energy Efficiency

Design

EE1 Minimum EE Performance 1 1

EE2 Lighting Zoning 3 3

EE3 Electrical Sub-metering 1 1

EE4 Renewable Energy 5 5

1 EE5 Advanced EE Performance - BEI 15 15

Commissioning

EE6 Enhanced Commissioning 3

EE7 Post Occupancy Commissioning 2

Verification & Maintenance

EE8 EE Verification 2

EE9 Sustainable Maintenance 3

35 25


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1.1 Life-Cycle Costing (LCC)

Life-cycle costing (LCC) assessment is a method for assessing the total cost of facility ownership. It takes

into account all costs of acquiring, owning, and disposing of a building or building system. LCC analysis is

especially useful when project alternatives that fulfill the same performance requirements, but differ with

respect to initial costs and operating costs, have to be compared in order to select the one that maximizes

net savings (Sieglinde, 2010). Life cycle costing (LCC) analysis is a method of determining the entire cost

of a structure, product, or component over its expected useful life (Kathleen, 2008).

The importance of life cycle costing (LCC) in building construction stems from the actual distribution of

costs incurred over the life span of a construction project. Buildings are typically long term investments of

significant magnitude, and valuation models must account for all costs and benefits throughout the length

of ownership.

2. Methodology

The study presented in this article draws on data gathered over a period of stages during the conceptual

stages of establishing the software BUiLDGREEN. Through review of literatures as well as analyzing

consumer culture theory (CCT) the study propose a frame work that suit market feasibility for the

BUiLDGREEN penetration in Malaysia The aim initially was to examine individual perceptions on

emphasis on local interpretations of marketing which was prevalent in the technical vocabulary of

marketing but from the literature review it is glaring that Gabriel sales (2011)Top 10 sales strategies for

new product is adopted for the conceptual framework for marketing BUiLDGREEN


3.1 Marketing Strategies

Responding to the necessity need for marketing our product BUiLDGREEN the research proposed a

conceptual framework with consumer culture theory as underpinning, the results shows how marketing

strategies can be of great influence (Wagne 2015) in here research shows that: Audience Analysis Deciding

which marketing strategies to use, the end user’s demographics, including their interests, the reasons why


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they would buy the product. Resellers and Distributors Finding an independent representative require Web

Content Buyers of manufactured goods often start their search online, so you need to create content on your

website that grabs their attention and makes them want to get in touch with you. Promotions Buy

advertising space in industry-specific magazines related to your products. Get word out about your products

by renting a booth at industry tradeshows

3.2 Marketing Concept

Guerilla marketing exploring low budget advertising, give away T-shirts or market your business at

promotional events through low-cost trades. Positioning; through creating a brand, image or position in the

marketplace. This might be as simple as pricing a product on the high end to create an air of quality, or

pricing it on the low end to make it seem a good value. Cause marketing through proposed sponsor charity

Sponsor a tennis tournament or marathon that raises money for a charity. This is an effective way to

introduce new products or services into the market place. Sports Marketing People who are loyal to a sports

team may appreciate your supporting their team as well, helping you create an affinity between those fans

and your product or service. Sponsoring a sporting event offers many opportunities.

3. 3 Sales Strategies for New Products

Gabriel Sales (2011) have establish 10 strategies for sales of new products Rapid Communication – It’s

critical that direct feedback loops are created from the sales team directly back to product development, the

marketing team. The right internal feedback loops will improve the product and align sales and marketing

for shared success. Commit to Digital Content…especially Blogging (video, landing page, short demo).

Prepared to Educate the Market – Most new products are offering a new solution that is disruptive to the

market. Educating customer how to calculate return on investment (ROI). Sell from Scripts –It gives us

something to measure and a way to anchor the success of the sale in the message and the story as opposed

to the personality. Commit Focused Energy to your Initial Ideal Customer Profile –Measure the Right

Success Metrics – You need to measure the success of your early pipe efforts from day one Know Why

You Win and Why You Lose – If you are measuring the right data you will already be well on the way to

knowing why your new product launch is successful. Commit to Marketing Automation and Nurturing

Prospects “Not Yet Ready to Buy” –Lead with Value Proposition but Sell with Differentiators – Selling Be

starts when a customer says “


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Figure 3: The Proposed Conceptual Framework

The latest World Green Building Trends report, released by McGraw-Hill Construction in

conjunction with the World Green Building Council (World GBC), surveyed professional services

firms in more than 60 countries, revealing that green building is accelerating around the world as it

is recognized as a long-term business opportunity. 46% of South East Asian architects already

pursue formal certification for their projects and 79% declare their intention to do so in the future.

(Green Building Market Report South East Asia http://www.bciasia.com) Figure 2 shows the

Positioning

Promotions

Educate the

Market

Web

Content

Audience

Analysis

Marketing

Concept Commit to Digital

Content

Guerilla

Marketin

g

Cause

Marketi

ng Sports

Marketi

ng



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statistic of practicing architects and engineers in Malaysia the statistic is astonishing for the

professionals and the registered contractors as well.

Figure 2a Architect Malaysia

Figure 2b Engineers Malaysia

The first stage would be targeting the population of total registered contractors registered in Johor

6,383 only as well as professionals Architect 2,045 and Engineer10, 366 and other professional

will follow suit


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Figure 3: Contractors in Malaysia Registered With CIDB

4. Conclusion

Marketing, often confused with advertising, promotions and public relations, is the function that

guides the development and sales of products and services. Depending on your product or service,

competition, budget and customer type, your small business can use one or more marketing

strategy to grow your company. Finally, there are other sales channels besides the traditional

brick-and-mortar retail store. Catalogs, TV shopping networks and online stores can also be

excellent methods to enable you to learn how to market a product online. Therefore this research

have adopt a conceptual frame work from analysis of consumer culture theory and Gabriel Sales

(2011) top 10 sales strategies for new product launches sales outsourcing best practices.


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Acknowledgement

The authors would like to acknowledge Construction Technology and Management Centre

(CTMC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti of Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Malaysia

for supporting this research.

References Ardley, B. C. (2014) Practitioner accounts and knowledge production: An analysis of three marketing discourses Marketing Theory 2014, Vol. 14(1) 97–118 Crosbie T., Nashwan D and Dean J. (2010). Energy profiling in the life-cycle assessment of buildings, Management of environmental quality, Vol. 21, No. 1, 20-31.

Earley, A. (2014) Connecting contexts: A Badiouian epistemology for consumer culture

theory Marketing Theory 2014, 14(1) 73–96 Edmunds, S-E (2008) Examples of Marketing Strategies Used to Sell a Product file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Examples of Marketing Strategies Used to Sell a Product _ Chron.com.html Gabriel Sales (2011) Top 10 Sales Strategies for New Product Launches Sales Outsourcing Best Practices retrieved on 15 July 2015 from file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Sales%20Strategies%20for%20New%20Products%20-%20Selling%20New%20Products.html Green Building Market Report (2015) South East Asia Retrieved on 12 January 2015 from

http://www.bciasia.com

Halliday, S. (2007). Green Guide to the Architect’s Job Book: second edition, RIBA publishing, London.

Kathleen, S. (August 2008). Life Cycle Cost Analysis Tools for Buildings. USDA Technology and

Development Center. Missoula, MT, U.S.

Monosoff, T. (2007) How To Market A New Product Start small and create a timeline for taking your

product to national distribution retrieved on 16th July 2015 from

file:///F:/Market/How%20To%20Market%20A%20New%20Product.html

Roberts, S. (2008). Altering existing buildings in the UK, Energy policy, Vol. 36, 4482–4486.

Sieglinde, F. (2010, June 28). Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA). American National Institute of Standards

and Technology, 2010. Retrieved on October 11, 2010 from http://www.wbdg.org/resources/lcca.php




http://www.wbdg.org/resources/lcca.php


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Wagner N. (2015). Manufacturing Marketing Strategies retrieved on 15th July 2015 from

file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Manufacturing Marketing Strategies _ Chron.com.html

../../samsung/Desktop/Market/Manufacturing%20Marketing%20Strategies%20_%20Chron.com.html


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Research Article

The Factors Influencing Thermal Performance of Coatings on

Roofing Materials

Anumah John James1, Anumah Lesado2, Benjamin, Gideon Koyan1, Odoala, Michael1

1Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos-Nigeria

2Archshel Development Ltd, Jos-Nigeria


ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

Urban areas around the world are experiencing significantly higher

temperatures as a result of the replacement of land cover with urban

infrastructure which were before now vegetative giving rise to a phenomenon

known as Urban Heat Island. In the tropics, there is the challenge of longer

hours of incident solar radiation on building envelope which impacts the

microclimate around it by elevating temperatures. Generally, the most

important benefits of applying roof coatings on steep slope roofs are their

ability to protect the roof membrane from ultraviolet degradation and high

reflectance values especially in tropical climates with high humidity and

sunshine. This paper reviews determinants of coatings’ influence on thermal

performance of the roofing membrane. Evaluation of the spectral performances

of the coated materials determines best choices of the materials to be used. The

thermal performance of roofing materials is influenced by the material

properties and the coatings which together, influence its performance to

varying extents. Results show how coating pigment, durability, texture of the

coatings’ surface and thickness influence the thermal performance of coating

of a roofing material.


reserved.

Albedo, Coatings, Emissivity, Roofing materials, Thermal performance, Urban Heat Island.

1. Introduction

Increase in population has brought with it an increased demand for infrastructure, goods and services whose

production and maintenance require the use of energy. Urban Heat Island is a phenomenon whereby, urban

areas attain mean air temperatures higher than their surrounding rural areas. In most urban cities, roofs and


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pavements constitute about 60% of the total land cover (Akbari et al, 2008) and are major contributors to

elevated temperatures. In providing shelter from extreme outdoor weather conditions, roofs in hot, humid

regions receive energy loads that if not properly suited for adversely affect thermal balance of the

environment. Incident solar radiation on these surfaces, influence their immediate environment by elevating

temperatures and increasing cooling energy loads. Depending on the properties of the materials used in the

envelope of buildings and the urban infrastructure, they absorb and reflect solar energy to their environment

at different rates through convection and radiation (Hitchcock, 2009).

Roofing materials are also exposed to other conditions varying in intensity depending on their location such

as wind, sunlight, rain, atmospheric pollution, temperature variations and hail. The U. S Environmental

protection agency (U. S. E. P. A) and the Department Of Energy (U. S D. O. E) introduced the energy star

roof products program in 1999 which outlined minimum reflectivity levels that reflective roofing material

should meet according to their applications for high or low slopes Akbari et. al (2005). In tropical climates,

the use of cement based materials in roof and walls is quite popular owing to high resistance to weather

though they could manifest some undesirable thermal properties after some time of use if unprotected.

Hence, it is for protection from degradation and increased reflectance that the use of coatings over these

roofing materials became popular. Studies have shown that concrete tile painted with reflective coatings

present thermal performances superior to some cool materials such as white marble and mosaic tiles

Uemoto et. al (2010). The thermal performance of roofing materials is influenced by the material properties

and the coatings which together, influence its performance to varying extents. Measurement of albedo and

surface temperature were carried out by Taha et al (1997) on urban structures. They discovered that black

coatings with albedo of 0. 08 were 45ºC hotter than surfaces of white elastomeric coatings having albedo

values of 0.72. They also reported a difference of 5 ºC and 30 ºC warmer than ambient air for white surface

(albedo 0.61) and conventional gravel (albedo 0.09) respectively. Doulos et al (2004) concluded that both

construction materials’ property and color (coating) of materials influence the attainment of lower surface

temperatures of the materials. For the purpose of this paper, only the coating properties will be considered.

This paper reviews various studies on roofing material coatings into the factors influencing their

performance on the roofing membranes.

2. Assessment of Coatings on Roofs

The two most important functions of roof coatings include increasing the solar reflectance of the roofing

materials surface and protecting the materials from degradation. Increasing the solar reflectance lowers

surface temperatures since solar radiation is reflected rather than absorbed. In dealing with coatings, we

shall be discussing reflectance which is a surface property. High reflectance values decrease the heat

penetrating into the building which results in lower cooling loads in an air-conditioned building, or in more


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comfortable thermal conditions in buildings which are not air-conditioned Synnefa et al (2007). The

quantity per unit area of heat energy captured by exterior surfaces of buildings exposed to solar radiation at

a given time t, can be given as;

1

2

3

Where;

hw is the heat convection coefficient of the exterior surfaces of buildings (W/m2°C);

Ta and Tw denote the exterior air temperature and the temperature of the exterior surfaces of buildings

respectively (°C);

α is the albedo of the exterior surfaces of buildings;

I represents the solar radiation intensity (W/m2);

Tz is average integrated temperature of exterior air (°C);

ε stands for the long-wave radiation factor of the exterior surfaces of buildings; and

∆R is the difference of the long-wave radiation between the exterior surfaces of buildings and the sky and

also the exterior surfaces of surrounding objects (W/m2). 1989[7]

From the above equation, it can be seen that the quantity of heat energy absorbed by a building’s exterior

surface depends also on the albedo of the material used.

Heat exchanges can be reduced by an adequate selection of roofing materials and components. To

maximize cooling energy savings, high-albedo roof coatings should:-

(i) Have high solar reflectance (both in the visible and near-infrared bands),

(ii) have high infrared emissivity, and

(iii) maintain these properties for the service life of the coating Uemoto et. al (2010).

Solar absorptance, thermal emittance, convection coefficient, and heat conduction through a roofing

membrane determine the rate of absorption and dissipation (exchange) of this energy with their

environment and is a major influence on the roof surface temperature, energy consumption and comfort

conditions of individual buildings as well as their environment by either reducing or increasing ambient

temperatures Pomerantz et. al (2000).

Paints have four main constituents: binder, solvents, additives, and pigment, which are the major

component Uemoto et. al (2010). Their ability to limit the flow of heat into a building and increase its

service life depends on the following factors;


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2.1 Coating Pigment

Pigments are finely divided solids used to provide color and enhance film durability and hardness. They can

be classified as inorganic or organic Ramachandran et. al. (2002) Bingfeng and Pingjun (2007) calculated

albedos for colors of coatings and materials. They reported values of various coating shades as seen in the

table below;

Table 1 : Calculated Mean Value of Albedo of Coatings and the Corresponding Empirical Value

Material Albedo Empirical value Material Albedo Empirical value

Cement 0.21

0.10- 0.35

Yellow coating 0.54

0.50- 0.60 Grey coating 0.22 Pink coating 0.56

Blue coating 0.25 White napped

tile

0.71

0.70- 0.90 Reddish- brown

coating

0.36

0.20- 0.45

White smooth

tile

0.78

Deep red tile 0.43 White coating 0.86

Source; Bingfeng and Pingjun (2007)

It can be observed from the table that the lighter the pigment colour, the higher the albedo. However, it

should be noted that albedo is not restricted only to a good reflectance in the visible region because albedo

values are also directly related to the combination of reflectance of the materials in the Infrared range and

the visible which represents about 89% of the solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface Prado and

Ferreira (2005).

In their work, Prado and Ferreira(2005) also studied how the surface temperatures of materials are

influenced by the materials’ albedo. They found that surfaces with raised albedos attained lower surface

temperatures and remained cooler under solar radiation than surfaces with lower albedos. They also found

these high albedo materials transfer less heat to their surroundings. White roof coatings have the added

benefit of reducing cooling load because of their reflectivity. Byerley and Christian (1994) monitored

surface temperature, heat flux, and solar reflectance of a white roof coating and a black EPDM in Tennessee

over a 3.5-year period. The observations were that NIR-reflective roof tile coatings reduced peak roof

surface temperature by 5–14K and peak ceiling heat flux by 13–21%. Light colours generally present

greater reflectance in the region of the visible. They also tend to have greater reflectance in the near

Infrared.


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Figure 1: Representative 24hr distrbution of surface temperatures of selected samples (S1, S12; Aluminium

coatings. S7; Black Coating. S15, uncoated tile) and ambient temperature (T amb)

Source; Synnefa et. al(2006)

The emission qualities of the external painted surface helps to cool the roof by irradiating absorbed energy

therefore, it is necessary to consider absorbance of light across the entire solar spectrum by the pigments

used for coating. Pigments with high absorbance include; carbon black, lamp black, iron oxide black or

copper chromite black. The inclusion of these NIR absorbing pigments in the top coat or base coat will tend

to make the coated surface hotter Levinson et. al (2007). Reflective paints can further aid in maintaining

lower surface temperatures of highly emissive non-metals such as fiber cement tiles and restrict the flow of

heat into the interior environment. From the experiments, it can be observed that albedo has an obvious

influence on the building heat environment. Coating materials with different pigments have different

wavelengths which determine their solar radiation absorption intensity.

2.2 Durability under Weathering Conditions

The major cause of aging and material degradation in roofs is the absorption of Ultraviolet light by coating

pigments Bretz and Akbari(1997). The rate of change in albedo varies in consistency between roofs

depending on the climate, the slope of the roof, the roughness and condition of the substrate, atmospheric

pollution, nearby sources of dirt and debris, and the dirt resistance of the roof coating Bretz and Akbari

(1994).The degradation process is increased under higher temperatures Akbari et. al (2005) and humidity

constitute a favourable environment for degradation to take place faster.

Roofing materials are exposed to the elements of weather; wind, sunlight, rain, hail, snow, atmospheric

pollution, and temperature variations which impose undue stresses and consequently degradation on the

materials. Using the thermo gravimetric analysis method to predict service- life of coatings, Neag and co-

workers aged coatings with different additives at 140°C, 160°C, 180°C, and 200°C in a forced- air oven.

Ramachandran et. al (2002) reported blackening of film; a common phenomenon in hot humid regions.


143 | P a g e

Modification of roofing materials occurs even in the most durable of them. High temperatures and humidity

create a favourable environment for chemical reactions to take place such as; growth of cyanobacteria,

fungi and algae formation by deposition of ambient dust and debris Berdahl et. al (2008). As recommended

by Akbari et. al (2006), in order to achieve a reduced impact of sunlight, moisture and other elements of

weather on roofing materials, their contents should include robust inorganic materials such as metal oxide

pigments, minerals (such as the crushed stone for roofing granules), concrete, and clay should be employed.

Changes in albedo depend more on the formulation of the paint itself which could be either conventional or

non-conventional pigments. The conventional could be organic, with a rather limited service life (lightfast)

and opacity. It could also be inorganic, which are generally more durable and less susceptible to the

photochemical degradation caused by the ultraviolet light present in solar radiation. Conventional Inorganic

pigments also have more stability under higher temperatures and are chemically inert to acids, alkali, etc.

A new technology of inorganic paints simply known as “cool paints” exists with its notable technology of

formulation with complex inorganic coloured pigments (CICPs) or mixed metal oxide (MMO) pigments.

This special group of nonconventional pigments presents spinel structure and is known for its highly visible

opacity and high reflectance in NIR radiation. These pigments also present a long service life in normal

environments. They are heat stable and chemically inert. The rates of change may vary due to local

differences such as climate, microclimate, materials, costs, characteristics of the constructive systems, the

slope of the roof and the environment Uemoto et. al (2010).

2.3 Thickness

Roofs’ albedos are distinguished one from another by the roughness and condition of the substrate and the

thickness of the coating Bretz and Akbari (1994). This occurs because; Thickness of coating is one of the

factors that affect wavelength specific spectral reflectance. The other factors include spectral reflectance of

the substrate, absorbance and backscattering of light at specific wavelengths by pigment particles.

Yarbrough and Anderson (1993) provide overall solar reflectance values for some high-albedo roof

coatings. Their measurements indicate that coatings must be applied at a minimum critical thickness to

obtain optimum solar reflectance. Baneshi et. al (2009) applied the radiation element method by ray

emission mode to calculate the reflectivity of a pigmented coating. They calculated optimum coating

thickness to be first determining the volume fraction fv thus;

Thickness, 4

5

Where

fv is volume fraction

NT is the number density of the particles and

dp is the particle diameter.

For example, in the case where fv = 1% and number density is 0.04×1012, the optimum thickness is

calculated to be 27 mm which is an acceptable value for a paint coating. At the optimum state, ρNIR and

ρVIS are about 24% and 5.7%, respectively.


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Libbra et. al (2011) compared various materials and white coating types alongside closely related colors

and found that thick organic pigments provide highest reflectance values of 0.80/ 0.90 though they tended

to fall sharply above 1600nm. The ceramic tile, white glazed and unglazed mass colored tiles presented a

high and relatively flat spectral reflectivity value of 0.70/ 0.80 across the whole spectra. The lab- produced

glazed tiles presented the highest values of 0. 94 reflectivity.

Figure 2: Reflectivity spectra and solar reflectance of a multi-layer white paint. Source; Libbra et. al

(2011)

They found that, a cool roof surface can be achieved by increasing the coating thickness over a non-

reflective substrate and the effect of a substrate on the overall reflectance can be minimal as the coating

thickness increases. In their work, Levinson et. al[14] having tested various coating thicknesses on asphalt

shingles found that 5-mm thick coating of refractive index 1.5 that is pigmented with titanium dioxide rutile

white can increase the NIR reflectance of a smooth, flat, dark-gray surface (N = 0:10) to 0.35. A 10-mm

thick coating will increase NIR reflectance to 0.50; a 25-mm thick coating, to 0.65 concluded that a cool

visibly hiding top coat colors and back scatters in magnitudes dependent on its thickness.

Table 2: NIR Reflectances (rounded to nearest 0.05) of white and aluminum-flake coatings on a smooth,

flat, dark-gray substrate (N = 0.10)

Coating NIR reflectance of coated

substrate

None 0.10

White, 5 µm 0.35

White, 10 µm 0.50

White, 25 µm 0.65

White, 50 µm 0.75


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Aluminum flake, 25 µm 0.80

White, 100 µm 0.80

White, 200 µm 0.85

Source; Levinson et. al (2007)

The above table shows increase in reflectance value for various thickness increments.

2.4 Texture

Texture could be a material or a coating property influence as some degree of coating thickness can render

the surface texture of the substrate material irrelevant to the finished surface texture. Doulos et. al(2004)

carried out a study in which they used surface temperature values to determine the thermal performance of

93 different materials. In it, they found out that the texture of a material surface does not significantly affect

the thermal performance of the material during the daytime (between 09:00 and 15:00).

Table 3: Various material pairs comparison to examine the surface texture impact in the measured

nocturnal surface temperatures

Source; Doulos et. al (2004)

However, during the night-time, the texture of the material surface affected the thermal performance of

concrete and marble materials giving smooth surface concrete and marble lower surface temperatures.

Sulaiman et. al (2009) reported that glazing tiles that enhances the smoothness of tile surfaces can provide

increased protection of roof materials from entrapments of pollutants which quicken the rate of surface

degradation. In some cases, eventually lead to poor thermal performance as a result of darkening of the

surface as reported by Ramachandran et. al (2002). This darkening could drop the albedo of the material


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and cause elevated surface temperatures. Smooth surface texture helps to achieve higher reflectance values

at all wavelengths Levinson et. al (2007).

3. Conclusion

To reduce heat gain, roof coatings must have high albedo values comprising both their reflectance and

emissivity. In the day, highly reflective coating pigments (mostly light colors) help in maintaining lower

surface temperatures by absorbing less heat energy. This factor also aids in improving night time

performance of non-metals which are mostly highly emissive by enabling faster cooling rate as a result of

lower daytime heat absorbance. Although all materials are subject to degradation, durability of coatings on

roofs affects their performance by determining how long they can perform the function of cooling and

preserving the roof substrate from degradation. Chemically inert coatings are preferable because they can

resist the growth of cyannobacteria and other microbial growths in humid regions that cause surface

blackening. Smoother Surface texture will increase the probability of light photons to be reflected off a

surface therefore, rougher surfaces will reduce albedo although not significantly. The factors influencing the

thermal performance of coatings on roofing materials are not limited to these factors alone. Other factors

could in more detail include; constituent elements of the coatings themselves, the particle size of the

pigments to mention but a few. Further studies could include testing suitable thicknesses, texture for other

materials and their impact on thermal performance.

References

Akbari, H., Asmeret, A. B., Ronnen, M. L., Stanley, G., Kevin, F., Delgado, A. H., Ralph, M. P. (2005)

Aging and Weathering of Cool Roofing Membranes in Cool Roofing Symposium. Atlanta.

Akbari, H., S. Menon, and A. Rosenfeld, (2008) Global Cooling: Increasing World-wide Urban Albedos to

Offset CO2 Climatic Change. 94(3): p. 275-286.

Akbari, H., Levinson, R., Miller, W., Berdahl, P., (2006) Cool Colored Roofs to Save Energy and Improve

Air Quality, California Energy Commission PIER Program Hitchcock, D.,(2009) Dallas Sustainable

Skylines Initiative, in Dallas Urban Heat Island, U.S.E.P. Agency, Editor., Houston Advanced Research

Center.

Baneshi, M., Gonome, H., Komiya, A., Maruyama, S., (2012) A New Approach to Optimizing Pigmented

Coatings Considering both Thermal and Aesthetic Effects Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy &

Radiative Transfer. 110: p. 192–204.

Berdahl, P.,Akbari, H., Levinson, R., Miller, W. A., (2008). Weathering of roofing materials – An overview

Construction and Building Materials. 22: p. 423–433.


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Bingfeng, C.Z.Y. and S. Pingjun, (2007) A Calculating Method of Albedo and Experimental Study of its

Influence on Building Heat Environment in summer. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering. 129: p. 243-

248.

Bretz, S.E. and H. Akbari, Durability of High-Albedo Roof Coatings and Implications for Cooling Energy

Savings, (1994) Energy & Environment Division Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory University of California:

Berkeley, CA 94720.

Bretz, S.E. and H. Akbari, (1997) Long-term performance of high-albedo roof coatings

Energy and Buildings. 25: p. 159-167.

Byerley, A.R. and J.E. Christian (1994). The Long Term Thermal Performance of Radiation Control

Coatings in ACEEE's 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings. Vienna.

Doulos, L., M. Santamouris, and I. Livada, (2004) Passive cooling of outdoor urban spaces. The role of

materials Solar Energy. 77: p. 231–249.

Levinson, R., Berdahl, P., Akbari, H., Miller, W., Joedicke, I., Reilly, J., Suzuki, Y., Vondran, M., (2007)

Methods of creating solar-reflective nonwhite surfaces and their application to residential roofing materials

Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells.

Libbra, A., Muscioa, A., Siligardi, C., Tartarini, P. (2011), Assessment and improvement of the

performance of antisolar surfaces and coatings Progress in Organic Coatings.

Pomerantz, M., et al., Pon, B., Akbari, H., and Chang, S. C. ( 2000) Reflective surfaces for cooler buildings

and cities, in Philosophical Magazine B.. p. 1457–1476.

Prado, R.T.A. and F.L. Ferreira, (2005). Measurement of albedo and analysis of its influence the surface

temperature of building roof materials Energy and Buildings. 37: p. 295–300.

Ramachandran, V.S., et al., Handbook of Thermal Analysis of Construction Materials, V.S. Ramachandran,

Editor. (2002), Noyes Publications / William Andrew Publishing Norwich.

Sulaiman, F.R., P. Brimblecombe, and C.M. Grossi, (2009) Mobilization and loss of elements from roofing

tiles. Environ Geol, 58: p. 795–801.

Synnefa, A., M. Santamouris, and I. Livada (2006) A study of the thermal performance of reflective

coatings for the urban environment Solar Energy. 80: p. 968–981.

Taha, H., D. Sailor, and H. Akbari, (1992) High-Albedo Materials for Reducing Building Cooling Energy

Use. Lawrence Berkeley Lab: Berkeley, CA.

Uemoto, K.L., N.M.N. Sato, and V.M. John, (2010) Estimating thermal performance of cool colored

paintsEnergy and Buildings 42: p. 17–22.

Yarbrough, D.W. and R.W. Anderson (1993), Use of Radiation Control Coatings to Reduce Air-

Conditioning Loads. Energy Sources. 15: p. 59- 66.

©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 2 (5) 148 – 159, 2016 e-ISSN 2360-8013

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Research Article

Thermal Insulation Boards from Camel’s Foot (Piliostigma Thonningii L.)

Leave Fibres for Lagging Application A. Musa1, A. Raji2 and M.A. Hassan*2

National Space Research and Development Agency, Abuja1, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola2

ARTICLE INFO

Article history



A b s t r a c t

There has been a growing enthusiasm for renewable and biodegradable

thermal insulation materials motivated by the need for energy conservation,

global warming and environmental impact of the waste product after their

useful life. The synthetic thermal insulation materials currently in use have

some negative effects on human health and environment; which necessitated a

search for alternative materials from plants and agro-fibres. The potentials of

Camel’s foot (Piliostigma thonningii L.), a leguminous plant growing

abundantly as a wild uncultivated plant resource in many parts of Nigeria was

investigated. The leave fibres of the plant were prepared in form of insulation

boards of thickness of 10, 20, 30 40 and 50mm using natural rubber latex as a

binder. The ratio of the fibres to the binder in the composition was 1:1, 1:2,

1:3 and 1:4. To determine the suitability of the boards, density, water

absorption, thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal diffusivity were

studied. The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) show that both the

composition and thickness level have significant effect on the density which

was found to increases as the binder part in the composition increases and it

ranges between 388.5kg/m3 and 608.7kg/m3 over thickness level of 10-

50mm. The percentage water absorption of the boards differs significantly as

binder is increased in the composition with the values ranging between 42.04

and 6.02%. The thermal conductivity values are between 0.020091W/mK

while the specific heat capacity values are between 2044.46J/kg.K and

3656.48J/kg.K. The ANOVA of the thermal conductivity suggest that there is

insignificant difference between the boards as binder is increased in the

composition while the thickness affected the thermal conductivity

significantly. It was concluded that the Piliostigma thonningii fibre boards

offer a great potential for use as thermal insulation products having recorded

thermal conductivity that is comparable to that of the commercially available

products and published research data on biodegradable thermal insulation

from plants and Agricultural by-products.


Camel’s foot, insulation boards, lagging applications, leave fibres, specific heat, thermal conductivity.


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1. Introduction

In recent time, there has been high increase in the locally fabricated refrigerators, ice-making machines,

cold storage rooms and ice coolers as a means of getting cold drinks and beverages and for the storage of

perishable food items such as fish, meat, fruits and vegetables for commercial purposes. In the fabrication

of these refrigerators and cold storage rooms, large quantities of thermal insulation materials are required.

The use of the thermal insulation materials is regarded as one of the effective means of energy conservation.

Thus, thermal insulation materials play an important role in achieving energy efficiency resulting in

decrease in the cost of cooling/heating as well as decrease in the environmental pollution (Bhatia, 2011;

Tangjuank, 2011).

In Nigeria, the electricity sector is currently experiencing a serious crisis. With a population of over 140

million, the country generates only about 5000MW which is grossly inadequate to keep up with the demand

(United Nations Development Program {UNDP}, 2010). The epileptic supply of electricity has forced

Nigerians to locally fabricate refrigerators and cold storage rooms for commercial use. But the operators of

these systems rely on diesel and petrol generators as the primary or back-up source of electricity to power

them which is not only expensive but a source of environmental pollution. Moreover, substantial amount of

the energy generated is wasted in these systems because they are either un-insulated or under-insulated.

Manohar (2013) highlighted that in the low temperature insulation technology, low cost foam and

polystyrene are the most extensively used. He noted that continuous research has perfected the manufacture

and utilization of these materials for specialized applications which covers clothing, industrial and

residential buildings, refrigerators and ice-coolers. Hence, Ugwu and Ogbonnaya (2012) also proposed to

use the same materials in the design and adaptation of cold storage room for Umudike community and

environs. But the use of these conventional insulation materials have some disadvantages due to the fact

that they are expensive and may have a negative effect on human health and causes environmental pollution

due to non-decomposition abilities after their useful life cycles (Tangjuank and Kumfu, 2011). According to

Berge and Johansson (2012), thermal insulation materials such as polyurethane (PUR) foam are filled with

ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbon (CFC-11) which demanded research on how to replace them in thermal

insulation.

For these reasons, there is need to develop alternative insulation materials for these refrigerators and cold

rooms that will require less energy to produce, inexpensive and environmentally friendly.The application of


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natural fibres has drawn much attention in different engineering fields due to environmental concerns and

the need to conserve energy. The use of natural fibres as insulation materials provides optimistic

environmental profits with regard to ultimate disposability and better use of raw materials (Raju et al,

2012).Thus, a renewable thermal insulation materials from the locally available natural resources (plants)

will significantly reduce the cost of construction of our locally fabricated refrigerators and cold rooms, as

well as enhancing their energy efficiency thereby minimizing the environmental pollution resulting from the

use of diesel and petrol generators. Panyakaew and Fotios (2008) opined that in addition to the health and

environmental benefit, the renewable fibrous thermal insulation materials from plants and agricultural by-

products will generate economic development for farming and rural areas.

However, there have been very few studies on the use of uncultivated plants as insulating materials.

Therefore, this study investigates the potentials of Camel’s foot (Piliostigma thonningii L.), commonly

called “Kargo” in Hausa, which is one of the lignocellulose fibrous plants growing abundantly as a wild

uncultivated tree in many parts of Nigeria such as Zaria, Bauchi, Ilorin, Plateau, Lagos and Abeokuta

(Madara et al, 2010). The investigation of the thermal insulation properties of this plant is aimed at

developing an insulation boards for lagging of cold storage rooms and locally fabricated refrigerators.

Manohar (2013) investigated the thermal insulating ability of natural unprocessed coconut fiber by

comparative method using three (3) laboratory built ice coolers with coconut fiber insulation and compared

with two (2) commercially available coolers; Rubbermaid with foam insulation and polystyrene ice cooler.

The results indicated that the coconut fiber ice coolers performed consistently better than the Rubbermaid

cooler with foam insulation and the performance is comparable to that of the polystyrene ice cooler. The

thermal insulation properties of pineapple leaves were investigated by Tangjuank (2011) in boards form.

The thermal conductivity was found to be between 0.043 and 0.039 W/mK. He concluded that the thermal

insulation boards produced from the pineapple leaves fiber exhibited a considerably good thermal

insulation. Tangjuank and Kumfu (2011) also investigated thermal and physical properties of particle board

from Papyrus leaves fibres (Typha angustifoliaL.) as thermal insulation. The boards thermal conductivities

obtained are between 0.0296 and 0.0304W/mK which is lower than that of the commercial insulation

materials except polyurethane. Panyakaew and Fotios (2008) investigated the potentials of using

agricultural waste materials as thermal insulation focusing on six (6) agricultural wastes; rice hulls, coconut

husk, bagasse, corn cob, durian peel and oil palm leaves. They concluded that rice hulls, bagasse and


151 | P a g e

coconut husk offer greatest potentials for manufacturing into thermal insulation products as their properties

can be compared with that of the conventional insulation materials. The thermal conductivity of the oil palm

fibre as investigated by Manohar (2012) ranged between 0.05550W/mK to 0.05784W/mK which is a good

thermal insulator. Marian (2010) investigated the thermal conductivity of straw, the result was found to be

between 0.053 and 0.061W/mK. Paiva et al. (2012) carried out a parametric thermal insulation study of the

corn cob particles board in which the impact of its thickness on its thermal insulation performance was

investigated and the thermal conductivity value of 0.101W/moC was recorded.

Kozlowski et al. (2008) developed flexible, nonwoven environmental friendly thermal insulation composite

as filling material and as a facing for housing and transport using hemp fibre, flax fibre and wool. The

developed nonwoven composite has excellent insulation performance due to the optimal thermal

conductivity value of 0.043W/mK.Luamkanchanaphan, Chotikaprakhan and Jarusombati (2012) studied the

physical, mechanical and thermal properties of insulation boards from Narrow-leaved Cattail fibres. The

results show that the boards have good physical and mechanical properties with thermal conductivity values

ranging between 0.0438 and 0.0606W/mK which indicate excellent insulating ability for energy savings and

are environmentally friendly.

2. Methodology

2.1 Materials

The major raw material for this work is the leaves of Camel’s foot (Piliostigma thonningii L.) which were

collected from Girei Local Government Area of Adamawa State, Nigeria. Other materials include sodium

hydroxide (NaOH), distilled Water and Pre-treated natural rubber latex all of analytical grade obtained

from Northern Scientific chemicals shop in Yola, Nigeria.

2.2 Materials Preparation and Moulding

The major raw material, that is the leaves of Camel’s foot (Piliostigma thonningii L.) were mercerized

using 5%w/v Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution at room temperature for 24 hours to soften the fibres.

The fibres were thoroughly rinsed in a fresh tap water and air dried. The dried samples were ground into

small particle sizes using a commercial grinder. Five (5) rectangular wooden moulds or forming boxes of

sizes 200mm by 200mm were constructed with different thicknesses of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50mm. A

required quantity of the fibreand the binder was charged into a rotating mixer and continuously mixed until

the particles were thoroughly impregnated with the resin and the mixture was then poured into the mould.


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A force of 0.25kN was applied to ensure even settling of the product and was allowed to cure under the

sun. Four (4) types of boards were produced from each mould with particles to binder ratios of 1:1, 1:2,

1:3 and 1:4. After forming, the board were then cut into various test samples.

2.3 Test

To determine the suitability of the particleboards for insulation, the thermal properties are of prime

importance. But other physicaland thermo physical properties are also significant. Hence, the following

tests were conducted on the particle boards.

2.3.1 Density

The densities of the boards were determined in accordance with the American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM) C303-02 (Standard test method for dimensions and density of preformed block and

board type thermal insulation) (ASTM, 2004). From each of the boards prepared, four (4) specimens of

60mm x 60mm were cut. The thickness, length and the width were measured in three (3) different

locations, generally near the four corners of each specimen and the average of each was determined and

recorded.

The volume of each specimen was calculated using equation 1.

Volume (m3) = length (mm) x width (mm) x thickness (mm) x 10-9 (1)

Each specimen was weighed using a digital weighing balance and the mass recorded. The density of each

specimen was then calculated using equation 2

(2)

2.3.2 Water Absorption

The water absorption test was conducted according to ASTM D1037 (water absorption test method A)

(ASTM, 2004). The specimens used in the determination of the density were used since their masses and

volumes were recorded.The water absorption was expressed as the percentage increase in volume based on

the volume before submersion. The specific gravity of the water was assumed to be 1.0 for this purpose.

2.3.3 Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity of the boards was determined in accordance with ASTM C518-02 (Standard Test

Method for Steady –State Thermal Transmission Properties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus)

(ASTM, 2004).The equipment used for the test was Armfield HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit and

HT11C Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction Accessory. From each of the boards, four (4)

specimens were cut in form of a disc of diameter (d) 25±1mm and the thickness (Δx) was measured and


153 | P a g e

recorded. A specimen was clamped tightly in between two faces of heated and cooled brass sections, the

heater voltage (V) was set to 10 volts and the heater current (I) was read from the console and recorded.

After HT11C was stabilised, the temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7 and T8 were also read and recorded from

the console display. Where T1, T2 and T3 are the thermocouples connected to the heating section of the

instrument and T6, T7 andT8 are those connected to the cold section of the instrument.

For each set of readings, the derived results were tabulated under the following headings; heat flow Q = IV,

cross sectional area /4, temperature of hot face (Thot)and cold face (Tcold).

Where

(3)

(4)

The temperature difference across the specimen was determined as

(5)

The thermal conductivity (k) of the specimen was calculated using Fourier rate equation as

(6)

3.3.4 Specific Heat

The specific heat test was conducted according to ASTM C351-92b (Standard test method for mean

specific heat of thermal insulation) (ASTM, 2004).

3.3.5 Thermal Diffusivity

The thermal diffusivity of the material was calculated using equation 7 (Cengel, 2008) as shown

(7)

Where; are the thermal conductivity, density and the specific heat of the material respectively as

obtained from the experiments on thermal conductivity, density and specific heat.

3.0 Results and Discussions

3.1 Density

Figure 1 present the average densities of the boards. It reveals that the densities at fibre to binder ratio of

1:1 is between 388.5kg/m3 and 528.6 kg/m3 over thickness range of 10-50mm, for 1:2, the density is

between 528.1kg/m3 and 572.9kg/m3 and for 1:3, it is from 534.4kg/m3 to 591.8kg/m3 while for 1:4, the

density is between 538.4kg/m3 and 608.7kg/m3 over the thickness range of 10-50mm. It is observed that the


154 | P a g e

board’s densities increase as the part of the binder in the ratio of the binder to the fibre increases in the

composition. This may be as result of increase in fluidity of the binder which flows to close the air pores

between the fibres on the surfaces of the board, in addition to the fact that lignocellulose fibres have lower

densities compared to polymeric materials; therefore, increasing the binder in the composition will reflect

increase in density which is in agreement with the studies of Tangjuank and Kumfu (2011).The results of

the analysis of variance for leaves fibre boards at 95% confidence level show that the composition (fibre to

binder ratio) as well as the thickness has significant effect on the boards’ densities.

Figure 1: Relationship of density and Composition at different thickness levels

3.2 Percentage Water Absorption

The results of average water absorption of the boards at fibre to binder ratio of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4 are

presented in figure 2. The results indicate that at fibre to binder ratio of 1:1, the water absorption is between

43.28 and 15.25% over the thickness range of 10-50mm. At 1:2, it is between 27.25 and 11.63%, and at 1:3,

it is between 27.21 and 9.26% while for 1:4 average water absorption of 21.12 to 6.02% was obtained over

the same thickness range of 10-50mm.The results of analysis of variance for percentage water absorption

show that there is significant difference in percentage water absorption of the boards as binder ratio in the

composition increases. But on the other hand, the result shows that the thickness has no significant effects

on the percentage water absorption.


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Figure 2: Percentage water absorption at different compositions

From the figure, it can be seen that the percentage water absorption decreases as the binder to fibre ratio

increases. Thus, it can be deduced from the figures 1 and 2 that the percentage water absorption is inversely

proportional to the density. This is because the lower density boards have higher voids and pores as a result

absorbed more moisture. In addition, natural fibres derived from lignocellulose are hydrophilic in nature

which contain strongly polarized group, thus, increasing the quantity of the fibre in a composition increases

the percentage of water absorption (Rakeshet al, 2011).

3.3 Thermal Conductivity

Figures 3 present the results of thermal conductivity of the boards at various compositions. The thermal

conductivity values at 1:1 vary between 0.022928W/mK and 0.082551W/mK over a thickness range of 10-

50mm. At 1:2, the values are between 0.02009 and 0.088313W/mK, and for 1:3 it is between 0.023931 and

0.082451W/mK while at 1:4 the values ranges from 0.017961 to 0.080971W/mK. Hence, the lowest

thermal conductivity value occurs at 1:4; 10mm while the highest thermal conductivity occurs at 1:2;

50mm.


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Figure 3: Comparison of thermal conductivity at different composition

The results of the analysis of variance for thermal conductivity show that there is no significant relationship

between the composition and thermal conductivity of the boards. While on the other hand, the change in

thickness has a significant effect on the thermal conductivity

3.4 Specific heat

Figure 4 presents the results of specific heat of the boards at different fibre to binder ratios. The results

show that the boards have specific heat values of 2901.88J/kg.K to 3656.48J/kg.K as the composition of

fibre to binder ratio increases from 1:1 to 1:4. The results of analysis of variance for the leaves fibre boards

show that the binder ratio in the composition has a significant effect on the specific heat values of the

boards.

Figure 4:Specific heat versus Composition


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3.5 Thermal Diffusivity

Figure 5 shows the thermal diffusivity values at fibre to binder ratio of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4. The thermal

diffusivity values are between 2.03E-8m2/s and 8.07E-8m2/s. From the Figure, it can be observed that the

thermal diffusivity decreases as portion of binder in the fibre to binder ratio increases. This signifies that

the thermal diffusivity is inversely proportional to the density.The results of analysis of variance for

thermal diffusivity show that there is significant difference in thermal diffusivity of the boards as the binder

ratio in the composition increases.

Figure 5:Comparison of Thermal diffusivity at different composition

4.0 Conclusion

From the results obtained, it can be concluded that the Piliostigma thonningii fibre boards offer a great

potential for use as thermal insulation products having recorded thermal conductivity values that are

comparable to that of the commercially available products and published research data on biodegradable

thermal insulation from plants and Agricultural by-products.

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