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Министерство образования и науки РФ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение

высшего образования «Сибирская государственная автомобильно-дорожная академия (СибАДИ)»

И.Н. Ефименко, Т.П. Сидорова, Е.В. Цупикова

ИЗ ИСТОРИИ АРХИТЕКТУРЫ

Учебно-методическое пособие на английском языке

по развитию речи и мышления

Омск 2016

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УДК 811.111ББК 81.432.1 Е91

Рецензенты: канд. пед. наук, доц. В.В. Бесценная (ОАБИИ (филиал) ВАМТО);

канд. пед. наук, доц. Е.В. Федяева (ОАБИИ (филиал) ВАМТО)

Работа утверждена редакционно-издательским советом СибАДИ в качестве учебно-методического пособия.

Ефименко, Ирина Николаевна. Е91 Из истории архитектуры [Электронный ресурс] : учебно-методическое пособие на английском языке по развитию речи и мышления / И.Н. Ефименко, Т.П. Сидорова, Е.В. Цупикова. – Электрон. дан. − Омск : СибАДИ, 2016. – Режим доступа: http://bek.sibadi.org/fulltext/esd208.pdf, свободный после авторизации. – Загл. с экрана.

Структура пособия включает такие вопросы, как сущность архитектуры как научной дисциплины, архитектура религиозных зданий, исторические архитектурные объекты, мемориальные сооружения, жилые здания и учреждения.

Приложения содержат рисунки, методические указания к написанию докладов и созданию презентаций, библиографический список, а также темы самостоятельных работ.

Имеет интерактивное оглавление в виде закладок. Рекомендовано для обучающихся всех форм обучения по направлениям

«Архитектура» и «Строительство», изучающих английский язык, может быть использовано как на аудиторных занятиях, так и для самостоятельной работы.

Работа выполнена на кафедре «Иностранные языки».

Текстовое (символьное) издание (4,0 МБ) Системные требования : Intel, 3,4 GHz ; 150 МБ ; Windows XP/Vista/7 ; DVD-ROM ;

1 ГБ свободного места на жестком диске ; программа для чтения pdf-файлов Adobe Acrobat Reader ; Google Chrome

Редактор И.Г. Кузнецова Техническая подготовка − Т.И. Кукина

Издание первое. Дата подписания к использованию 18.11.2016

Издательско-полиграфический центр СибАДИ. 644080, г. Омск, пр. Мира, 5 РИО ИПЦ СибАДИ. 644080, г. Омск, ул. 2-я Поселковая, 1

© ФГБОУ ВО «СибАДИ», 2016

Согласно 436-ФЗ от 29.12.2010 «О защите детей от информации, причиняющей вред их здоровью и развитию» данная продукция маркировке не подлежит.

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Введение

Изучение английского языка как иностранного языка для специальных целей является одной из задач высшего образования. Данное учебно-методическое пособие направлено на освоение терминологии архитектуры, обучение чтению, развитие навыков устной и письменной профессионально-ориентированной речи. Обучение работе с информацией (анализу, синтезу, обобщению, реструктурированию информации), развитие логического мышления обучающихся осуществляется на основе специальных текстов по истории архитектуры в процессе выполнения коммуникативно-ориентированных упражнений. Пособие состоит из 5 разделов и вводной части с методическими указаниями по написанию докладов, созданию презентаций, построению дефиниций, а также составлению аннотаций, методические указания к написанию докладов и созданию презентаций, темы для самостоятельной работы, сообщений и проектов, рекомендации по подготовке к пересказу научно-популярных текстов.

Каждый раздел посвящён одному из этапов истории развития архитектурной отрасли.

Упражнения включают такие основные типы заданий, как построение дефиниций понятий, составление устной аннотации текста, описание архитектурного объекта с опорой на иллюстрацию.

Методические пояснения к основным разделам пособия 1. Структура дефиниций может быть схематично представлена

так: Видовое понятие (термин) – связка + родовое понятие (сооружение) + видовые признаки (особенности объекта).

Для построения дефиниций используются следующие модели: The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as… The notion “…” contains such ones as… Описание архитектурного объекта включает следующие сведения: - дефиницию; - историческую справку (местонахождение, время возведения,

автор); - архитектурные особенности объекта. Для построения описания используются такие модели: The first picture illustrates …

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We can see a…in the second picture. The buildings we can see on the …picture are... The building, we can see on the …picture, is a very famous

architectural monument. It is situated in… The characteristic features of the object are… The figure illustrates the… It was built in (by)… It is used for (as)… 2. Составление устной аннотации осуществляется в соответ-

ствии с указанными ниже этапами и предполагает использование перечисленных ниже моделей:

1. Вводная часть. The subject of my report is… My aim is to explain... The purpose of my report is to give you some information on I’ll provide some examples of... The aim of the report is to provide you with some material (data) on… My report is devoted to the problem of… My report suggests some information on... It touches upon… My report is provided with… 2. Описание основных вопросов темы. Let me review the period of… I would like to begin (to open my report) with a detailed examination

of... It’s a description of how people built (create)… Let me start with a brief account of... Passing on to…, I’d like to say that… I’ll give you detailed (brief) analyses of… I tried to find answers (solutions)… One of the most interesting question, problem, theory, point of view

is… I’ve compared different theories, points of view, results… Let me call your attention to the fact that… Let me attract your attention to the main idea (theme, events)… Let me emphasize the fact that… In examining the problem I paid much attention to…the phenomenon

of... (the nature of...)

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Now I’ll give you a chance (possibility) to think about… Let me determine the nature of... Touching upon the problem of… It necessary to mention… It’s necessary (important, interesting) to note (to report) that… It should be noted … 3. Вывод, выражение собственного мнения по данному вопросу. The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating … The text……carries a photograph of … I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date, and

disputable), because… The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say… The concluding part of my report contains notes on... We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on… In summing up I’d like to tell… From my point of view… As far as I understood… I’d like to quote… I wanted to show my attitude to… To my opinion… As for me… To my mind… I think… One of the most interesting questions is that… При составлении устной аннотации целесообразно использовать

следующие лексемы: Глаголы: to illuminate – освещать to include – включать to mention – yпоминать to refer to – упоминать, ссылаться to serve – служить to show – показывать to concern – рассматривать, полагаться to contain – содержать to cover – охватывать

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to deal with – касаться to describe – описывать to develop – развивать to compare – сравнивать to define – определять Существительные: comparison – сравнение review, survey – обзор data – данные point of view – точка зрения determination – определение

Прилагательные: general – общий conventional – общепринятый accurate, precise, exact – точный effective – результативный versatile – применимый в разных случаях promising, perspective – перспективный foolproof – безошибочный convincing – убедительный doubtful – сомнительный ambiguous – двусмысленный poor – плохой elaborate – тщательно разработанный efficient – экономичный Наречия: thoroughly – тщательно vastly – значительно conventionally –обычно fairly – довольно, вполне, весьма markedly – заметно previously – ранее repeatedly – неоднократно virtually – фактически Слова, указывающие на причинно-следственные связи или на по-

рядок изложения информации: at first, first of all, to begin with, firstly – прежде всего, во-первых

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nevertheless – тем не менее secondly – затем further – далее also – кроме того, также finally – наконец on the whole – в целом in other words – иными словами on the one hand – с одной стороны on the other hand – с другой стороны thus – таким образом therefore – поэтому consequently – следовательно hence – отсюда, следовательно Словосочетания: Basic information – основная информация Characteristic feature – характерная черта The point of view – точка зрения Basic problems – основные вопросы Overall view – общее представление Source of information – источники информации Variety of problems – ряд вопросов 3. Определение взаимосвязи понятий в опорных логических

схемах. Опорные схемы наглядно представляют не только взаимосвязь понятий, но их содержание и объем таким образом, что в мышлении обучающегося формируется целостный образ понятия, обозначенного тем или иным термином. Каждая опорная схема является эквивалентом небольшого учебного текста по предъявленной теме. Составление опорных схем требует учета частотности терминов, определения их места в лексической системе языка и понятийной сфере науки и синтагматических возможностей лексем.

Связи понятий осуществляются посредством следующих лексем: is is used in (for) reacts with is made by (of) must be stored may be divided into contain

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Развернуть опорную схему в текст можно, используя и некоторые другие модели:

Architectural objects are divided into two groups according to the… They are (+groups). The notion basement includes… Types of basement are… We can enumerate such as…as basilica buildings. To the octagon buildings we can refer … There are four main classifications of buildings: according to their

purpose. According to the form of…there are two groups of buildings. They

are… For example… For instance…

Понятия, представленные целостно и всесторонне, требуют напряженной работы механизмов наглядно-образного и логического мышления. Учебная информация, содержащая указания на то, как она должна быть усвоена, является активным и оптимальным средством обучения.

4. Методические указания к написанию докладов и созданиюпрезентаций. Требования к оформлению презентаций

Общие требования к презентации: 1. Презентация не должна быть меньше 10 слайдов.2. Первый лист – титульный, на нём обязательно указывается

название проекта, имя автора, группа, курс, образовательное учреждение.

3. Последними слайдами презентации должны быть глоссарий исписок литературы. В оформлении презентаций выделяют два блока: оформление слайдов и представление информации на них. Для создания качественной презентации необходимо соблюдать ряд требований, предъявляемых к оформлению данных блоков.

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Оформление слайдов

Стиль

Соблюдайте единый стиль оформления Избегайте стилей, которые будут отвлекать от

самой презентации. Вспомогательная информация (управляющие

кнопки) не должнa преобладать над основной информацией (текстом, иллюстрациями)

Фон Для фона предпочтительны холодные тона

Использование цвета

На одном слайде рекомендуется использовать не более трех цветов: один для фона, один для заголовка, один для текста.

Для фона и текста используйте контрастные цвета

Анимационные эффекты

Используйте возможности компьютерной анимации для представления информации на слайде.

Hе стоит злоупотреблять различными анимацион-ными эффектами, они не должны отвлекать вни-мание от содержания информации на слайде

Представление информации Содержание информации

Используйте короткие слова и предложения. Минимизируйте количество предлогов, наречий,

прилагательных. Заголовки должны привлекать внимание

аудитории Расположение информации на странице

Предпочтительно горизонтальное расположение информации. Наиболее важная информация должна располагаться в центре экрана.

Если на слайде располагается картинка, надпись должна располагаться под ней

Шрифты Для заголовков – не менее 24. Для информации – не менее 18. Нельзя смешивать разные типы шрифтов в одной

презентации. Для выделения информации следует использовать

жирный шрифт, курсив или подчеркивание Способы выделения информации

Следует использовать: рамки, границы, заливку; штриховку, стрелки; рисунки, диаграммы, схемы

для иллюстрации наиболее важных фактов Объем информации Наибольшая эффективность достигается тогда,

когда ключевые пункты отображаются по одному на каждом отдельном слайде

Виды слайдов Для обеспечения разнообразия следует использовать разные виды слайдов: с текстом, с таблицами, с диаграммами

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5. Темы для самостоятельных работ, сообщений и проектов

1. Религиозные учреждения. 2. Мемориальные сооружения. 3. Мегалитические сооружения. 4. Здания. 5. Из истории архитектуры. 6. Архитектурный дизайн и современные цифровые технологии. 7. Знаменитые архитекторы.

6. Рекомендации по подготовке к пересказу научно-популярных текстов

1. Прочитать и перевести текст. 2. Выделить главную мысль текста. 3. Выписать ключевые слова. 4. Подобрать определения для конкретных понятий. 5. Пользуясь схемой, пересказать текст. 6. Самостоятельно дополнить полученный текст известными вам сведениями. 7. Используя полученный материал, подготовить пересказ нового,

более полного по информации текста. 7. План развёртывания темы в письменном сообщении 1. Вступление. 2. Дефиниция. 3. Характерные черты сооружения. 4. Примеры. 5. Заключение.

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§ 1. ARCHITECTURE Architecture [1] (Latin architectura "builder, carpenter, mason") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. Architecture has to do with planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience to reflect functional, technical, social, environmental and aesthetic considerations. It requires the creative manipulation and coordination of materials and technology, and of light and shadow. Often, conflicting requirements must be resolved. The practise of Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost estimation and construction administration. Documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, defines the structure and/or behaviour of a building or other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed.

Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a craft, and "architecture" is the name given to the most highly formalized and respected versions of that craft.

It is widely assumed that architectural success was the product of a process of trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day. Early human settlements were mostly rural.

Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley Civilization in modern-day Pakistan, the Pyramids at Giza in Egypt (pic.1).

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Pic. 1. Mastabas in the Giza Necropolis with the Pyramid of Khafre in the background

1.1. Ancient architecture

In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state itself.

The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman military engineer Vitruvius. Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious as Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan (pic.2) [5]. Ancient Egyptian houses were made out of mud collected from the Nile river. It was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction. Many Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the millennia, or the mud bricks of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer. Others are inaccessible, new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. Fortunately, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the

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village Deir al-Madinah, the Middle Kingdom town at Kahun, and the fortresses at Buhen and Mirgissa. Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone.

Pic. 2. Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan

1.2. Asian architecture

Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China

from the 7th–5th centuries BCE; the Vaastu Shastra of ancient India and Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka.

The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe; Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many Asian countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape. Bronze Age

Before Greek poetry, the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age, at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost and alphabetic writing had not begun. Prior to then in the Bronze Age the records of the Assyrian Empire, the Hittite Empire and the various Mycenaean states of Greece mention a region undoubtedly Asia, certainly in Anatolia, including if not

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identical to Lydia. These records are administrative and do not include poetry.

The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BC by unknown agents although one school of thought assigns the Dorian invasion to this time. The burning of the palaces baked clay diurnal administrative records written in a Greek syllabic script called Linear B, deciphered by a number of interested parties, most notably by a young World War II cryptographer, Michael Ventris, subsequently assisted by the scholar, John Chadwick. A major cache discovered by Carl Blegen at the site of ancient Pylos included hundreds of male and female names formed by different methods.

Some of these are of women held in servitude (as study of the society implied by the content reveals). They were used in trades, such as cloth-making, and usually came with children. The epithet, lawiaiai, "captives," associated with some of them identifies their origin. Some are ethnic names. One in particular, aswiai, identifies "women of Asia." Perhaps they were captured in Asia, but some others, Milatiai, appear to have been of Miletus, a Greek colony, which would not have been raided for slaves by Greeks. Chadwick suggests that the names record the locations where these foreign women were purchased. The name is also in the singular, Aswia, which refers both to the name of a country and to a female of it. There is a masculine form, aswios. This Aswia appears to have been a remnant of a region known to the Hittites as Assuwa, centered on Lydia, or "Roman Asia." This name, Assuwa, has been suggested as the origin for the name of the continent "Asia". The Assuwa league was a confederation of states in western Anatolia, defeated by the Hittites under Tudhaliya I around 1400 BC.

Alternatively, the etymology of the term may be from the Akkadian word (w)aṣû(m), which means 'to go outside' or 'to ascend', referring to the direction of the sun at sunrise in the Middle East and also likely connected with the Phoenician word asa meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for Europe, as being from Akkadian erēbu(m) 'to enter' or 'set' (of the sun).

T.R. Reid supports this alternative etymology, noting that the ancient Greek name must have derived from asu, meaning 'east' in Assyrian (ereb for Europe meaning 'west'). The ideas of Occidental (form Latin Occidens 'setting') and Oriental (from Latin Oriens for 'rising') are also European invention, synonymous with Western and Eastern. Reid further emphasizes that it explains the Western point of view of placing all the peoples and cultures of Asia into a single classification, almost as if there were a need for setting the distinction between Western and Eastern civilizations on the Eurasian continent. Ogura Kazuo and Tenshin Okakura are two outspoken Japanese figures on the subject.

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Pic. 3. Statue representing Asia at Palazzo Ferreria, in Valletta, Malta

Classical antiquity Latin Asia and Greek Ἀσία appear to be the same word. Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia. The Romans named a province Asia, which roughly corresponds with modern-day central-western Turkey. There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major located in modern-day Iraq. As the earliest evidence of the name is Greek, it is likely circumstantially that Asia came from Ἀσία, but ancient transitions, due to the lack of literary contexts, are difficult to catch in the act. The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians, such as Herodotus, who were all Greek. Ancient Greek certainly evidences early and rich uses of the name. The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus (about 440 BC), not because he innovated it, but because his Histories are the earliest surviving prose to describe it in any detail. He defines it carefully, mentioning the previous geographers whom he had read, but whose works are now missing. By it he means Anatolia and the Persian Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three women's names were "given to a tract which is in reality one" (Europa, Asia, and Libya, referring to Africa), stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of Prometheus (i.e. Hesione), but that the Lydians say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at Sardis. In Greek mythology, "Asia" (Ἀσία) or "Asie" (Ἀσίη) was the name of a "Nymph or Titan goddess of Lydia" (рic. 3).

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In ancient Greek religion, places were under the care of female divinities, parallel to guardian angels. The poets detailed their doings and generations in allegoric language salted with entertaining stories, which subsequently playwrights transformed into classical Greek drama and became "Greek mythology." For example, Hesiod mentions the daughters of Tethys and Ocean, among whom are a "holy company", "who with the Lord Apollo and the Rivers have youths in their keeping." Many of these are geographic: Doris, Rhodea, Europa, Asia.

1.3. Islamic architecture

Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating

architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Spain and the Indian Sub-continent. The widespread application of the pointed arch was to influence European architecture of the medieval period [4]. Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day. What today is known as Islamic architecture owes its origin to similar structures already existing in Roman, Byzantine and Persian lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. The principal Islamic architectural types are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. From these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as baths, fountains and domestic architecture.

Pic. 4. Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem

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The Dome of the Rock (рic. 4) is a shrine located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem. It was initially completed in 691 CE built on the site of the Roman temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which had in turn been built on the site of Herod's Temple, destroyed during the Roman Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. The original dome collapsed in 1016 and was rebuilt in 1021. The Dome of the Rock is in its core one of the oldest extant works of Islamic architecture. Its architecture and mosaics were patterned after nearby Byzantine churches and palaces, although its outside appearance has been significantly changed in the Ottoman period and again in the modern period, notably with the addition of the gold-plated roof, in 1959–1961 and again in 1993. It has been called "Jerusalem's most recognizable landmark," and it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

1.4. The medieval builder In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted

from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.In Europe during the medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents. The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From about 900 CE onwards, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic [2]. Religious architecture

The Latin cross plan, common in medieval ecclesiastical architecture, takes the Roman basilica as its primary model with subsequent developments. It consists of a nave, transepts, and the altar stands at the east end. Also, cathedrals influenced or commissioned by Justinian employed the Byzantine style of domes and a Greek cross (resembling a plus sign), with the altar located in the sanctuary on the east side of the church. Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defence. Castles and fortified walls provide the most notable remaining non-religious examples of medieval architecture. Windows gained a cross-shape for more than decorative purposes. They provided a perfect fit for

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a crossbowman to safely shoot at invaders from inside. Crenulated walls (battlements) provided shelters for archers on the roofs to hide behind when not shooting invaders. While much of the surviving medieval architecture is either religious or military, examples of civic and even domestic architecture can be found throughout Europe. Examples include manor houses, town halls, almshouses and bridges, but also residential houses. European architecture in the Early Middle Ages may be divided into Early Christian, Romanesque architecture, Russian church architecture, Norse Architecture, Pre-Romanesque including Merovingian, Carolingian, Ottoman, and Austrian ones. While these terms are problematic, they nonetheless serve adequately as entries into the era. Considerations that enter into histories of each period include Trachtenberg's "historicising" and "modernising" elements, Italian versus northern, Spanish, and Byzantine elements, and especially the religious and political manoeuvrings between kings, popes, and various ecclesiastic officials. Romanesque, prevalent in medieval Europe during the 11th and 12th centuries, was the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent. The term was not contemporary with the art it describes, but rather, is an invention of modern scholarship based on its similarity to Roman Architecture in forms and materials. Romanesque is characterized by a use of round or slightly pointed arches, barrel vaults, and cruciform piers supporting vaults. The various elements of Gothic architecture emerged in a number of 11th and 12th century building projects, particularly in the Île de France area, but were first combined to form what we would now recognise as a distinctively Gothic style at the 12th century abbey church of Saint-Denis in Saint-Denis, near Paris. Verticality is emphasized in Gothic architecture, which features almost skeletal stone structures with great expanses of glass, pared-down wall surfaces supported by external flying buttresses, pointed arches using the or give shape, ribbed stone vaults, clustered columns, pinnacles and sharply pointed spires. Windows contain stained glass, showing stories from the Bible and from lives of saints. Such advances in design allowed cathedrals to rise taller than ever, and it became something of an inter-regional contest to build a church as high as possible.

Задание 1. Переведите слова и словосочетания, учитывая их контекстуальное окружение: a craft, a process of trial and error, a surplus in production, the divine, pointed arch, a pantheistic religion, to enhance, ambience.

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Задание 2. Переведите:

Задание 3. Дайте определение понятию architecture. Используйте следующие модели:

The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as… The notion “…” contains such ones as…

Definition Translation Architecture (Latin architectura "builder, carpenter, mason") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.

In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically the political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state itself.

Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society.

Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th centuries BCE; the Vaastu Shastra of ancient India and Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri Lanka.

The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of Europe; Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity.

In Europe during the medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect.

Was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.

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Задание 4. Продолжите предложения: 1. It is widely assumed that architectural … 2. Asian architecture … 3. Islamic architecture … 4. In Europe during the medieval period … 5. The major architectural undertakings were… Задание 5. Разделите текст на смысловые части и озаглавьте

каждую. Задание 6. Составьте простые распространенные и сложные

предложения, используя данные ниже слова, словосочетания и фразы: Let me describe… The characteristic feature of…is… Overall view … It is necessary to mention… Задание 7. Составьте план текста, используя слова, указывающие

на причинно-следственные связи или на порядок изложения информации:

at first, first of all, to begin with, firstly – прежде всего, во-первых nevertheless – тем не менее secondly – затем further – далее also –кроме того, также finally – наконец on the whole – в целом in other words – иными словами on the one hand – с одной стороны on the other hand – с другой стороны thus – таким образом therefore – поэтому consequently – следовательно hence – отсюда, следовательно Задание 8. Сделайте вывод об информации текста, используя

следующие модели: The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating … The text……carries a photograph of …

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I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date, and disputable), because…

The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say… The concluding part of my report contains notes on... We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on…..

1.5. Renaissance and the architecture

In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of

Classical learning accompanied by the development of Renaissance Humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the medieval period. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, and Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference. A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings [2]. The Renaissance often refers to the Italian Renaissance that began in the 14th century, but recent research has revealed the existence of similar movements around Europe before the 15th century; consequently, the term "Early Modern" has gained popularity in describing this cultural movement. This period of cultural rebirth is often credited with the restoration of scholarship in the Classical Antiquities and the absorption of new scientific and philosophical knowledge that fed the arts. The development from Medieval architecture concerned the way geometry mediated between the intangibility of light and the tangibility of the material as a way of relating divine creation to mortal existence. This relationship was changed in some measure by the invention of perspective which brought a sense of infinity into the realm of human comprehension through the new representations of the horizon, evidenced in the expanses of space opened up in Renaissance painting, and helped shape new humanist thought. Perspective represented a new understanding of space as a universal, a priori fact, understood and controllable through human reason. Renaissance buildings therefore show a different sense of conceptual clarity, where spaces were designed to be understood in their entirety from a specific fixed viewpoint. The power of Perspective to universally represent reality was not

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limited to describing experiences, but also allowed it to anticipate experience itself by projecting the image back into reality. The Renaissance spread to France in the late 15th century, when Charles VIII returned in 1496 with several Italian artists from his conquest of Naples. Renaissance chateaux were built in the Loire Valley, the earliest example being the Château d'Amboise, and the style became dominant under Francis I . The Château is a combination of Gothic structure and Italianate ornament, a style which progressed under architects such as Sebastiano Serlio, who was engaged after 1540 in work at the Château de Fontainebleau. Architects such as Philibert Delorme, Androuet du Cerceau, Giacomo Vignola, and Pierre Lescot, were inspired by the new ideas. The southwest interior facade of the Cour Carree of the Louvre in Paris was designed by Lescot and covered with exterior carvings by Jean Goujon. Architecture continued to thrive in the reigns of Henry II and Henry III. In England the first great exponent of Renaissance architecture was Inigo Jones (1573–1652), who had studied architecture in Italy where the influence of Palladio was very strong. Jones returned to England full of enthusiasm for the new movement and immediately began to design such buildings as the Queen's House at Greenwich in 1616 and the Banqueting House at Whitehall three years later. These works with their clean lines and symmetry were revolutionary in a country still enamoured with mullion windows, crenulations and turrets [2].

1.6. Early Modern and the Industrial Age

With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles. Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at Ecole des Beaux Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughts men or clerks.

Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle

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class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.

Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals [10].

Pic. 5. Paris Opera Garnier (1875) Paris

The Palais Garnier (рic. 5) has been called "probably the most famous opera house in the world, a symbol of Paris like Notre Dame Cathedral, the Louvre, or the Sacred Coeur Basilica. Besides being the most expensive, it has been described as the only one that is "unquestionably a masterpiece of the first rank." This opinion is far from unanimous however: the 20th-century French architect Le Corbusier once described it as "a lying art" and contended that the "Garnier movement is a décor of the grave".

The Hôtel de Ville ( City Hall) in Paris, France, (рic. 6) is the building housing the city's local administration. It serves multiple functions, housing the local administration, the Mayor of Paris (since 1977), and also serves as a venue for large receptions.

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Pic. 6. A building in Paris, France (Paris City House, 1628)

Definition Translation In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards,

there was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the development of Renaissance Humanism which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the medieval period.

A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings.

There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles.

The Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.

Задание 1. Переведите слова и словосочетания: medieval period, a burgeoning of science, the scope of the generalist.

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Задание 2. Дайте определение понятию gentleman architect. Используйте следующие модели:

The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as… The notion “…” contains such ones as…

Задание 3. Продолжите предложения: 1. A revival of the Classical style in architecture …2. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects …3. Effective architects generally received their training …4. Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open …5. Vernacular architecture became…

Задание 4. Заполните пустые графы таблицы:

Word combinations Translation Expensive craftsmanship Feasibility Regional preference Dividing line Current architectural design

Задание 5. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите на рис. 5, 6. Используйте следующие модели:

The first picture illustrates … We can see a…in the second picture. The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are...

The characteristic features of the object …

Задание 6. Сделайте вывод об информации текста, используя следующие модели:

The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating… The text……carries a photograph of… I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date, disputable), because… The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say… The concluding part of my report contains notes on... We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on…..

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1.7. Modernism and reaction

Around the turn of the 20th century, a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis – the apex – of art, craft, and technology.

When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms.

Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed Organic architecture in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being Robbie House and Falling Water.

Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made pos sible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic epitomized in many ways.

Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles and as the founders of that movement lost influence in the late 1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against its austerity. Postmodernism viewed Modernism as being too extreme and even harsh in regards to design. Instead, Postmodernists combined Modernism with older styles from before the 1900s to form a middle ground. Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building

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which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (an ungainly building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of these approaches [8].

Задание 1. Определите значения словоформ в минимальном

контексте: revivalist architecture, precursors, ultimate, synthesis, meeting the needs, functionalist details, a "decorated shed".

Задание 2. Переведите: Definition Translation

Когда впервые появился стиль модерн, это было авангардное движение со своим моральным, философским и эстетическим обоснованием. Сразу же после Первой мировой войны передовые современные архитекторы стали делать попытки создать полностью новый стиль, подходящий для нового послевоенного общественного и экономического порядка, нацеленного на ожидания среднего и рабочего класса

When Modern architecture …

Постмодернизм рассматривал модернизм как чересчур экстремальный и даже грубый cтиль с точки зрения дизайна. Наоборот, постмодернизм сочетал в себе модернизм с боле старыми стилями, существовавшими до 1900-х годов для создания среднего уровня

Postmodernism viewed Modernism…

Задание 3. Дайте определение понятию modernism. Используйте

следующие модели: The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as… The notion “…” contains such ones as… Задание 4. Классифицируйте понятие postmodernism по форме: The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as… The notion “…” contains such ones as… Задание 5. Составьте простые распространенные и сложные

предложения, используя данные ниже слова, словосочетания и фразы: It should be noted … It’s necessary (important, interesting) to note (to report) that… The basic information of the text concerns…

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Задание 6. Разделите текст на смысловые части и озаглавьте каждую.

Задание 7. Определите, какие модели аннотирования применимы к следующей информации:

Historical civilizations are often identified with their architectural achievements.

In examining the problem the author points out that… It’s necessary to note that… The author emphasizes the fact that…

Задание 8. Какие из представленных ниже предложений можно описать, используя следующую модель аннотирования:

The author mentions, that…

Задание 9. Сделайте вывод об информации текста, используя следующие модели:

The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating … The text……carries a photograph of … I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date, disputable), because… The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say… The concluding part of my report contains notes on... We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on…..

Задание 10. Составьте план текста, используя слова, указывающие на причинно-следственные связи или на порядок изложения информации:

at first, first of all, to begin with, firstly – прежде всего, во-первых nevertheless – тем не менее secondly – затем further – далее also – кроме того, также finally – наконец on the whole – в целом in other words – иными словами on the one hand – с одной стороны on the other hand – с другой стороны

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thus – таким образом therefore – поэтому consequently – следовательно hence – отсюда, следовательно Задание 11. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите на

рис. 7 и 8. Используйте следующие модели: The first picture illustrates … We can see a…in the second picture. The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are... The characteristic features of the object are… The figure illustrates the…

Pic. 7. Large - panel system

Pic. 8. Modernized large-panel buildings in Rostock, Germany

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1.8. Architecture today

Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability. The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many. Modernism and Postmodernism have been criticized by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create livable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

Green roof planted with native species at L'Historial de la Vendée, a new museum in western France.

Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with profound affect on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and more attention to a structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the 1960s by Buckminster Fuller and in the 1970s by architects such as Ian McHarg and Sim Van der Ryn in the US and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. There has been acceleration in the number of buildings which seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques (рic. 9). The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this (рic. 10). An example of an architecturally innovative green building is the Dynamic Tower which will be powered by wind turbines and solar panels (рic. 11) Designed by Italian

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architect David Fisher, the Dynamic Tower will be made up of 80 pre-fabricated apartments rotating around a central column. Ole Scheeren’s ‘vertical village’ was named World Building of the Year 2015 (pic. 12) [9].

Pic. 9. Some of Denver's multi-story buildings

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Pic. 10. The BB&T Building in Macon, Georgia is constructed of aluminium

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Pic. 11. The Dynamic Tower in Dubai

Pic. 12. Modern architecture

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Задание 1. Определите значения словоформ в минимальном контексте:

matters of liability, preliminary studies, sustainability, pursuit, livable environments, biodegradable materials, a structure's energy usage.

Задание 2. Классифицируйте понятие acceleration по форме. Задание 3. Продолжите предложения: - The field of architecture became multi-disciplinary … - Major examples of this can be found in greener … - This major shift in architecture has also … - An example of an architecturally innovative green… Задание 4. Дайте определение понятию modern architecture.

Используйте следующие модели: The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as… The notion “…” contains such ones as… Задание 5. Разделите текст на смысловые части и озаглавьте

каждую. Задание 6. Определите, какие модели аннотирования применимы к

следующей информации: Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with

profound affect on the architectural profession. In examining the problem the author points out that… It’s necessary to note that… The author emphasizes the fact that… Задание 7. Какие из представленных ниже предложений можно

описать, используя следующую модель аннотирования: The author mentions, that… - Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in

terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods.

- Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with profound affect on the architectural profession.

- Many developers those who support the financing of Buildings

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have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost.

Задание 8. Составьте простые распространенные и сложные предложения, используя данные ниже слова, словосочетания и фразы:

It should be noted, that… It’s necessary (important, interesting) to note (to report) that… The basic information of the text concerns…

Задание 9. Составьте план текста, используя слова, указывающие на причинно-следственные связи или на порядок изложения информации:

at first, first of all, to begin with, firstly – прежде всего, во-первых nevertheless – тем не менее secondly – затем further – далее also – кроме того, также finally – наконец on the whole – в целом in other words – иными словами on the one hand – с одной стороны on the other hand – с другой стороны thus – таким образом therefore – поэтому consequently – следовательно hence – отсюда, следовательно

Задание 10. Выпишите из текста и составьте самостоятельно модели, которые могут быть использованы при аннотировании любого текста по архитектуре.

Задание 11. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите на рис. 12–16. Используйте следующие модели:

The first picture illustrates … We can see a…in the second picture. The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are... The characteristic features of the object are… The figure illustrates the…

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Pic.13. Modern architecture of Kazakstan

Pic. 14. Modern architecture

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Pic. 15. Trump International hotel

Pic.16. Modern architecture of Kazakhstan

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§2. TYPES OF BUILDINGS

A building (pic. 17) is a man-made structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place. Buildings come in a variety of shapes, sizes and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons. Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work.

A building as a shelter represents a physical division of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) and the outside (a place that at times may be harsh and harmful).Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have also become objects or canvass of artistic expression. In recent years, interest in sustainable planning and building practices has also become an intentional part of the design process of many new buildings. The word building is both a noun and a verb: the structure itself and the act of making it. As a noun, a building is 'a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place’. In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building. However, the word structure is used more broadly than building including natural and man-made formations and does not necessarily have walls. Structure is more likely to be used for a fence. The first shelter on Earth constructed by a relatively close ancestor to humans is believed to be built 500,000 years ago by an early ancestor of humans, Homo erectus. There are well known types of buildings Residential buildings Agricultural buildings, Commercial buildings, Educational buildings, Power Stations, Renaissance and Ancient and the Medieval buildings, Early Modern and the Industrial Age.

Residential buildings (рic. 18) are called houses or homes, though buildings containing large numbers of separate dwelling units often called apartment buildings or apartment blocks to differentiate them from 'individual' houses. Houses may also be built in pairs (semi-detached), in terraces where all but two of the houses have others either side; apartments may be built round courtyards or as rectangular blocks surrounded by a piece of ground of varying sizes. Houses which were built as a single dwelling may later be divided into apartments or bedsitters; they may also be converted to another use e.g. an office or a shop. Building types may range from one-room wood-framed, masonry, or adobe dwellings to multi-million dollar high-rise buildings able to house thousands of people. Increasing settlement density in buildings (and smaller distances between buildings) is

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usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar attractors. Other common building materials are brick, concrete or combinations of either of these with stone.

A multi-storey (рic. 17, 18) is a building that has multiple floors above ground in the building. Multi-storey buildings aim to increase the floor area of the building without increasing the area of the land the building is built on, hence saving land and, in most cases, money (depending on material used and land prices in the area). The building with the most storeys is the Burj Khalifa (рic. 19), with 162 storeys.

Centric constructions (рic. 20) are buildings which are symmetrical relative to the vertical axes in the centre of the main building (round, square or multi-angular).

An octagon (рic. 21) is an octahedral construction. An octagon is superimposed by the octahedral hipped roof.

Large panel constructions (рic. 22) are made of fabricated large panels. Any building requires a certain amount of internal infrastructure to function, which includes such elements like heating / cooling, power and telecommunications, water and wastewater etc. Especially in commercial buildings (such as offices or factories), these can be extremely intricate systems taking up large amounts of space and constitute a big part of the regular maintenance required. The present day apartment house has increased the requirements for using modem forms. Varied buildings solids, implementation of the new materials, determine a new level of those buildings. Quantity of the architectural forms and spatial compositions joined with usage of materials and surface textures requires implementing of different constructional solutions [11]. Си

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Pic. 17. The Glass Palace, a celebration of transparency in Teerlen, the Netherlands

Pic.18. Modernized large-panel buildings in Rostock, Germany

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Pic.19. Burj Khalifa in Dubai (Tallest in the world since 2010)

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Pic. 20. A cylindrical building made in steel frame and aluminium. The Rotunda in Hellerup / Denmark

Pic. 21.The Octagon House in Jefferson County, Watertown, WI (built c. 1854), photographed in 2007

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Pic. 22. A large - panel system

Задание 1. Переведите слова и словосочетания, учитывая контекст их употребления:

Words and word combinations Translation formations perceived sustainable planning human habitat to store belongings man-made formations privacy an imposing edifice

Задание 2. Дайте определение понятию building. Используйте следующие модели:

The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as… The notion “…” contains such ones as…

Задание 3. Продолжите предложения: An octagon is a …

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A building is … Large panel constructions … Buildings serve … In recent years … A multi-storey …

Residential buildings are called … Centric constructions are buildings….

Задание 4. Составьте простые распространенные и сложные предложения, используя данные ниже слова, словосочетания и фразы:

Let me describe… The characteristic feature of…is… Overall view … It is necessary to mention…

Задание 5. Заполните пустые графы таблицы.

Definition Translation Здание – построенное человеком

сооружение с крышей и стенами, стоящее на одном месте более или менее продолжительное время.

A building is …

Жилыми называются здания или дома, содержащие большое количество единиц, часто называемых квартирными зданиями или блоками в отличие от индивидуальных домов.

Residential buildings are called …

Многоэтажным является здание, которое имеет множество этажей над фундаментом здания. Такие здания строятся с целью увеличения площади здания, не увеличивая площадь занятой земли, на которой оно построено.

A mmulti-storey is …

Крупнопанельные сооружения строят из заранее изготовленных крупных панелей. Для функционирования любого здания требуется определенная инфраструктура, которая включает такие элементы, как отопление, охлаждение, энергоснабжение, телекоммуникация, горячая и холодная вода.

Large panel constructions are …

Задание 6. Разделите текст на смысловые части и озаглавьте каждую.

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Задание 7. Используя план текста, составьте отрывок устной аннотации по следующим моделям:

My report suggests some information on... I would like to begin (to open my report) with a detailed examination

of.. The aim of the report is to provide you with some material (data) on… The purpose of my report is to give you some information on… Passing on to…, I’d like to say that… One of the most interesting questions is… Let me call your attention to the fact that… In summing up I’d like to tell… To my opinion…

Задание 8. Сделайте вывод об информации текста, используя

следующие модели: The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating … It……carries a photograph of … I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date,

disputable), because… In conclusion I can say… My conclusions (results) based on…..

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§3. CHRISTIAN CHURCH ARHITECTURE

A cross-in-square or crossed-dome plan (рic. 23) was the dominant architectural form of middle- and late-period Byzantine churches, featuring a square centre with an internal structure shaped like a cross, topped by a dome. The first cross-in-square churches were probably built in the late 8th century, and the form has remained in use throughout the Orthodox world until the present day. In the West, Donato Bramante's first design (1506) for St. Peter's Basilica (рic. 21) was a centrally-planned cross-in-square under a dome and four subsidiary domes. In German it is such a church is a Kreuzkuppelkirche, or ‘cross-dome church’. In French, it is a ‘church with an inscribed cross’. A chetverik (рic. 23) in the Russian and Ukrainian both stone and wooden architecture is a quadrangular construction in the plan or a component of compositions of tent and tier temples, the basic architectural form of the Russian church before the 18th century including a combination with an octahedral part (vosmeric on chetveric). A vosmerik (рic. 24) in the Russian stone and wooden architecture is an octagonal construction in the plan or part of a construction. It is widespread mainly in church architecture. Vosmeriks were usually put on the quadrangular basis; less often they finish crosswise volume in the plan. A rotunda (рic. 25) is a centric construction, round construction in the plan (a temple, a mausoleum, a pavilion, a hall), usually topped with a spherical vault.The rotunda has historical and architectural value because it was widespread in medieval Central Europe. A great number of parochial churches were built in this form in the 9th to 11th centuries in the Central Europe. This type of circular shaped parochial building can be found in great number in Hungary, Bohemia, Poland, Croatia, Austria, Bavaria, Dalmatia, Germany, and the Czech Republic. It was thought of as a structure descending from the Roman Pantheon. However, it can be found mainly not on former Roman territories, but in Central Europe. Generally its size was 6–9 meters inner diameter and the apses were directed toward the east. Sometimes 3 or 4 upsides were glued to the central circle and this type has relatives even in the Caucasus. A basilica (рic. 26, 27) is a drawn-out, rectangular building in the plan, separated inside by longitudinal rows of columns or poles on some (preferentially odd quantity) parts (naves) having independent overlapping. The average nave is always a higher side so the upper part of its walls which has been cut through by windows, appears over roofs of side naves. The first Christian basilicas had wooden open construction overlapping which was replaced later by the stone vaulted one. The term basilica, when applied to a church, may be used in two ways. In architectural parlance, it signifies a

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building that has similarities to the basilica structures of Ancient Rome, being of longitudinal rather than central plan, having a central nave with an aisle on either side separated by a colonnade, and an apse at one end.

In the ecclesiastical sense, a basilica is a church that has been designated as such by the pope, and has accordingly received certain privileges. A building that is designated as a basilica might be a cathedral, an abbey, a shrine or a parish church. The four so-called "Major Basilicas" are four churches of Rome of 4th century foundation, St. Peter's Basilica, the Basilica of St. John Lateran, the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore and the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls.

There are more than 1,500 churches in the world which are designated as “Minor Basilicas”. The reason for such a designation is often that the church is a pilgrimage site and contains the relics of a saint, or an object of religious veneration, such as a fragment of the True Cross. These churches are often large and of considerable architectural significance. They include the Basilica of St. Francis, Assisi (рic. 27); the Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem; the Basilica of Our Lady of Fatima, Portugal; the Basilica of Our Lady of Sheehan, Shanghai, the Basilica of the Immaculate Conception in Manila, and the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City [10].

Pic. 23. Moscow, Bogoslovsky Lane Chirch (a chetverik)

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Pic. 24. A vosmerik on chetverik, Ubory Church (1694–1697)

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Pic. 25. Romanesque Rotunda of St.George in Skalica, Slovakia from 11th century

Pic. 26. Remains of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in Rome

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Pic. 27. Basilica of St Francis of Assisi, Assisi, Italy

Задание 1. Определите значения словоформ в минимальном кон-тексте:

basilica, nave, vaulted, glued, aisle, quadrangular basis, pilgrimage site, architectural parlance.

Задание 2. Переведите слова и словосочетания, учитывая контекст их употребления:

Words and word combinations Translation Сhristian church architecture Сhetverik Vosmerik Rotunda Odd quantity Similarities Designated Object of religious veneration

Задание 3. Дайте определение понятию a cross-in-square or crossed-

dome plan. Используйте следующие модели: The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as…

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Задание 4. Продолжите предложения: A vosmerik in the Russian both stone and wooden architecture is … These churches are often … In architectural parlance … The average nave is … A rotunda is a … In the ecclesiastical sense…

Задание 5. Определите, какие модели аннотирования применимы к следующей информации:

Historical civilizations are often identified with their architectural achievements.

In examining the problem the author points out that… It’s necessary to note that… The author emphasizes the fact that…

Задание 6. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите на

рис. 21 – 25. Используйте следующие модели: The first picture illustrates … We can see a…in the second picture. The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are... The characteristic features of the object are… The figure illustrates the … Задание 7. Используя план текста, составьте отрывок устной

аннотации по следующим моделям: My report suggests some information on... I would like to begin (to open my report) with a detailed examination

of… The aim of the report is to provide you with some material (data) on… The purpose of my report is to give you some information on… Passing on to…, I’d like to say that… One of the most interesting questions is… Let me call your attention to the fact that… Let me attract your attention to the main idea… My report is devoted to the problem of… It touches upon… The subject of my report is… In summing up I’d like to tell… In conclusion I can say… To my opinion…

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I think… The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating … The text……carries a photograph of … I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date, and

disputable), because… The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say… The concluding part of my report contains notes on... We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on… In summing up I’d like to tell… From my point of view… As far as I understood… I’d like to quote… I wanted to show my attitude to… To my opinion… As for me… To my mind… I think… One of the most interesting questions is that…

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§ 4. MEMORIAL CONSTRUCTIONS

4.1. Megalithic constructions

Megalithic constructions are cult constructions of the III-II thousand BC from the huge raw or semi-processed boulders. They served as mostly sepulchral monuments and sanctuaries (Megalith, Menhir, Dolmen and Cromlech).

A megalith (pic. 28) is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. The word "megalithic" describes structures made of such large stones, utilizing an interlocking system without the use of mortar or cement, as well as representing periods of prehistory characterized by such constructions. For later periods the term monolith, with an overlapping meaning, is more likely to be used.

A menhir (French "a long stone") is a large upright standing stone (pic. 29). Menhirs may be found singly as monoliths, or as part of a group of similar stones. Their size can vary considerably, but their shape is generally uneven and squared, often tapering towards the top. Menhirs are widely distributed across Europe, Africa and Asia, but are most numerous in Western Europe; in particular in Ireland, Great Britain and Brittany. There are about 50,000 megaliths in these areas, while there are 1,200 menhirs in northwest France alone. Standing stones are usually difficult to date, but pottery found underneath some in Atlantic Europe connects them with the Beaker people. They were constructed during many different periods across pre-history, erected as a part of a larger megalithic culture that flourished in Europe and beyond. A dolmen (pic. 30), also known as a portal tomb, portal grave or quoit, is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal capstone (table), although there are also more complex variants. Most date from the early Neolithic period (4000 to 3000 BC). Dolmens were typically covered with earth or smaller stones to form a barrow. In many instances, that covering has weathered away, leaving only the stone "skeleton" of the burial mound intact. It remains unclear when, why, and by whom the earliest dolmens were made. The oldest known dolmens are in Western Europe, where they were set in place around 7000 years ago. Archaeologists still do not know who erected these dolmens, which makes it difficult to know why they did it. They are generally all regarded as tombs or burial chambers, despite the

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absence of clear evidence for this. Human remains, sometimes accompanied by artefacts, have been found in or close to the dolmens which could be scientifically dated. However, it has been impossible to prove that these archaeological remains date from the time when the stones were originally set in place.

A cromlech (pic. 31) is a Brythonic word used to describe prehistoric megalithic structures, where crom means "bent" or "curved" and lech means "slab" or "flagstone ". The term is now virtually obsolete in archeology, but remains in use as a colloquial term for two different types of megalithic monument. In English it usually refers to dolmens, the remains of prehistoric stone chamber tombs. However, it is widely used in French and Spanish to describe stone circle. Confusingly, some English-speaking archaeologists, such as Aubrey Burl, use this second meaning for cromlech in English too. In addition, the term is occasionally used to describe more complex examples of megalithic architecture, such as the Amenders Cromlex in Portugal [10].

Pic. 28. A trilithon at Stonehenge Monoliths erected for religious or commemorative purposes – such as the Stonehenge

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Pic. 29. A large menhir located between Millstreet and Ballinagree, Ireland

Pic. 30. Dolmen-Ural, Russia

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Pic. 31. Chambered cairn (cromlech) at Dyffryn Ardudwy, Wales

Задание 1. Определите значения словоформ в минимальном

контексте: interlocking system, overlapping meaning, flourished, barrow, evidence, artefacts, flagstone.

Задание 2. Дайте определение понятию Megalithic constructions. Используйте следующие модели:

The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as… Задание 3. Продолжите предложения: 1. Megalithic constructions are … 2. A megalith is a …. 3. A menhir is a …. 4. A cromlech is a …. 5. A dolmen, also known as … Задание 4. Составьте простые распространенные и сложные

предложения, используя данные ниже слова, словосочетания и фразы: Let me describe… The characteristic feature of…is…

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Overall view … It is necessary to mention…

Задание 5. Cоставьте отрывок устной аннотации по следующим моделям:

My report suggests some information on... It touches upon… The subject of my report is… I would like to begin (to open my report) with a detailed examination

of.. The aim of the report is to provide you with some material (data) on… The purpose of my report is to give you some information on… Passing on to…, I’d like to say that… One of the most interesting questions is… Let me attract your attention to the main idea… In summing up I’d like to tell… In conclusion I can say… To my opinion… I think…

Задание 6. Сделайте вывод об информации текста, используя следующие модели:

The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating … The text……carries a photograph of … I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date, and

disputable), because… The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say… The concluding part of my report contains notes on... We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on…..

Задание 7. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите нa pис. 28 – 31. Используйте следующие модели:

The first picture illustrates … We can see a…in the second picture. The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are... The characteristic features of the object are… The figure illustrates the…

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4.2. Memorial constructions of Ancient and Modern Times

A memorial (pic. 32, 33) is an object which serves as a focus for memory of something, usually a person (who has died) or an event. Popular forms of memorials include landmark objects or art object such as sculpture, statues or fountains, and even entire parks. The most common type of memorial is the gravestone or the memorial plaque.

Also common are war memorials commemorating those who have died in wars. Memorials in the form of a cross are called intending crosses. Online memorials and tributes are becoming increasingly popular especially with the increase in natural burial where the laying of gravestones, or memorial plaques, is often not permitted. When somebody has died, the family may request that a memorial gift (usually money) be given to a designated charity, or that a tree be planted in memory of the person.

A cemetery (рic. 34) or graveyard is a spatially defined area where the remains of dead people are buried or otherwise interred. The word cemetery (from Greek «sleeping place») implies that the land is specifically designated as a burial ground. The older term graveyard is often used interchangeably with cemetery, but primarily referred to a burial ground within a churchyard. The intact or cremated remains of people may be interred in a grave, commonly referred to as burial, or in a tomb an "above-ground grave" (resembling a sarcophagus, mausoleum, columbarium, or other edifice.

In Western cultures, funeral ceremonies are often observed in cemeteries. These ceremonies or rites of passages differ according to cultural practices and religious beliefs. Modern cemeteries often include crematoria, and some grounds previously used for both, continue as crematoria as a principal use long after the interment areas have been filled.

A necropolis (pic. 35) is a large ancient cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek necropolis, literally meaning "city of the dead". The term implies a separate burial site at a distance from a city as opposed to tombs within cities, which were common in various places and periods of history. They are different from grave fields, which did not have remains above the ground. While the word is most commonly used for ancient sites, it has also been used for some modern cemeteries such as the Glasgow Necropolis, the Motherland Calls a statue in Mamayev Kurgan in Volgograd (pic. 36) [10].

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Pic. 32. The Memorial “Brest Fortress”

Pic. 33. National September 11 Memorial & Museum commemorating the September 11 attacks

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Pic. 34. A Soviet military cemetery on the island of Saaremaa, Estonia

Pic. 35. Monuments on the summit of the Glasgow Necropolis hill

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Задание 1. Определите значения словоформ в минимальном кон-тексте: landmark objects, gravestone, intending crosses, plaque, designated charity, religious beliefs

Задание 2. Переведите слова и словосочетания, учитывая контекст их употребления:

Words The meaning Memorial Necropolis Landmark objects Cemetery

Задание 3. Дайте определение понятию memorial constructions. Используйте следующие модели:

The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as...

Задание 4. Составьте простые распространенные и сложные предложения, используя данные ниже слова, словосочетания и фразы:

Let me describe… The characteristic feature of…is… Overall view … It necessary to mention…

Задание 5. Сделайте вывод об информации текста, используя следующие модели:

The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating … The text……carries a photograph of … I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date, and

disputable), because… The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say… The concluding part of my report contains notes on... We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on…..

Задание 6. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите на pис. 32–36. Используйте следующие модели:

The first picture illustrates … We can see a…in the second picture.

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The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are... The characteristic features of the object are… The figure illustrates the…

Pic. 36. Statue of Liberty and the Motherland Calls. Russia

Задание 7. Дайте описание the “Memorial Brest – Fortress,”

используйте модели из предыдущего упражнения.

Memorial constructions are also mausoleums, obelisks, steles, monuments. A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A monument without the interment is a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum. A Christian mausoleum sometimes includes a chapel. The word is derived from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (near modern-day Bodrum in Turkey), the grave of King Mausolus, the Persian satrap of Caria, whose large tomb was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

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Historically, mausoleums were, and still now may be, large and impressive constructions for a deceased leader or other person of importance. However, smaller mausoleums soon became popular with the gentry and nobility in many countries. In the Roman Empire, these were often ranged in necropolis or along roadsides: the via Appia Antica retains the ruins of many private mausoleums for miles outside Rome. However, when Christianity became dominant, mausoleums were out of use. Later, mausoleums became particularly popular in Europe and its colonies during the early modern and modern periods. A single mausoleum may be permanently sealed. A mausoleum encloses a burial chamber either wholly above ground or within a burial vault below the superstructure. Mausoleum may be located in a cemetery, a churchyard or on private land.

An obelisk (pic. 37) is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. Like Egyptian pyramids, whose shape is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, an obelisk is said to resemble a petrified ray of the sun-disk. A pair of obelisks usually stood in front of a pylon. Ancient obelisks were often monolithic, whereas most modern obelisks are made of several stones and can have interior spaces.

Obelisks were prominent in the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in pairs at the entrance of temples. The word "obelisk" as used in English today is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, the Greek traveler, was one of the first classical writers to describe the objects. A number of ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus the "Unfinished Obelisk» found partly hewn from its quarry at Aswan. These obelisks are now dispersed around the world, and fewer than half of them remain in Egypt. The earliest temple obelisk still in its original position is the 68-foot (20.7 m) 120-ton red granite Obelisk of Senusret of the XII Dynasty at AL-Matatitiyyah part of Heliopolis (pic.35). The obelisk symbolized the sun god Ra, and during the brief religious reformation of Akhenaton was said to be a petrified ray of the Aten, the sun dick. It was also thought that the god existed within the structure.

The Ancient Romans were strongly influenced by the obelisk form, to the extent that there are now more than twice as many obelisks standing in Rome as remain in Egypt. All fell after the Roman period except for the Vatican obelisk and were re-erected in different locations. The tallest Egyptian obelisk is in the square in front of the Lateran Basilica in Rome at 105.6 feet (32.2 m) tall and a weight of 455 tons. Rome is the obelisk capital of the world. The most well-known is probably the 25 meter (82 ft), 331-ton

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obelisk at Saint Peter’s Square in Rome. The obelisk had stood since AD 37 on its site on the wall of the Circus of Nero, flanking St Peter's Basilica.

Pic. 37. Obelisk of Pharaoh Senusret I, Cairo

A stele or stela (pic. 38, 39) is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than it is wide, erected as a monument, very often for funerary or commemorative purposes. Stele may be used for government notices or as territorial markers to mark borders or delineate land ownership. They very often have texts and may have decoration, which may be inscribed, carved in relief or painted onto the slab. Traditional Western gravestones are technically stele, but are very rarely described by the term.

The term stele is generally used for other monumental standing inscribed sculpted stones. Steles have also been used to publish laws and decrees, to record a ruler's exploits and honors, to mark sacred territories or mortgaged properties, as territorial markers, as the boundary steles of Akhenaton at

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Amarna or to commemorate military victories. They were widely used in the Ancient Near East, Mesopotamia, Greece, Egypt, Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and, most likely independently, in China and elsewhere in the Far East, and, more surely independently, by Mesoamerican civilizations, notably the Olmec and Maya he huge number of steles surviving from ancient Egypt and in Central America constitute one of the largest and most significant sources of information on those civilizations.

An informative stele of Tiglath-Pileser III is preserved in the British Museum. Two steles built into the walls of a church are major documents relating to the Etruscan language.

Pic. 38. Stele from Yaxchilan (8th century), depicting Lady Eveningsta, the consort of king Shield Jaguar II

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Pic. 39. Ezana’s stele at Aksum

Most recently, in the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin (pic. 40), the architect Peter Eisenmann created a field of some 2,700 blank steles. The memorial is meant to be read not only as the field, but also as an erasure of data that refer to memory of the Holocaust.

Pic. 40. The Memorial to the murdered Jews in Berlin

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Steles have also been used to publish laws and decrees, to record a ruler's exploits and honors, to mark sacred territories or mortgaged properties, as territorial markers, as the boundary steles of Akhenaton at Amarna or to commemorate military victories. They were widely used in the Ancient Near East, Mesopotamia, Greece, Egypt, Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and, most likely independently, in China and elsewhere in the Far East, and, more surely independently, by Mesoamerican civilizations.

A monument (pic. 41) is a type of a structure that was explicitly created to commemorate a person or important event, or which has become important to a social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, or as an example of historic architecture. The term 'monument' is often applied to buildings or structures that are considered examples of important architectural and/or cultural heritage.

Monuments have been created for thousands of years, and they are often the most durable and famous symbols of ancient civilizations. Prehistoric tumuli, dolmens, and similar structures have been created in a large number of prehistoric cultures across the world, and the many forms of monumental tombs of the more wealthy and powerful members of a society are often the source of much of our information and art from those cultures. As societies became organized on a larger scale, so monuments so large as to be difficult to destroy and the Egyptian Pyramids (pic. 42), the Greek Parthenon (pic. 43), the Tunisian Great Mosque of Kairouan (oldest Islamic monument in the Muslim West) or the Moai of Easter Island have become symbols of their civilizations. In more recent times, monumental structures such as the Statue of Liberty and Eiffel Tower have become iconic emblems of modern nation-states.

Monuments are frequently used to improve the appearance of a city or location. Planned cities such as Washington D.C., New Delhi and Brasília are often built around monuments. For example, the Washington Monument's (pic. 44) location was conceived by L'Enfant to help organize public space in the city, before it was designed or constructed.

Monuments are also often designed to convey historical or political information. They can be used to reinforce the primacy of contemporary political power, such as the column of Trajan or the numerous statues of Lenin in the Soviet Union. They can be used to educate the populace about important events or figures from the past.

Buildings designed as landmarks, usually built with extraordinary feature such as tallest, largest or distinctive design – such as the Burj Khalifa (pic. 45), the world's tallest structure as the landmark of Dubai. Grave stones

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constitute small monuments to the deceased – such as the tombs and vaults of veterans in Les Invalids’ and Srebrenica Genocide Memorial (pic. 46).

Pic. 41. Japan Hiroshima Peace memorial park Cenotaph monument

Pic. 42. Mausoleums and tombs to honor the dead – such as the Great Pyramid of Giza

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Pic. 43. Greek Parthenon in Athen

Pic. 44. Washington’s Monument

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Pic. 45. Burj Khalifa in Dubai (Tallest in the world since 2010)

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Pic. 46. Memorial cemetery in Srebrenica

Задание 1. Дайте определение словоформ

Words The meaning Obelisk Monument Stele Mausoleum

Задание 2. Продолжите предложения: A mausoleum may be considered … Steles have also been used to … Obelisks were prominent in the architecture … A Christian mausoleum sometimes … As societies became organized on a larger scale … Monuments are frequently used to improve … Confusingly, some English-speaking archaeologists …

Buildings designed as landmarks …

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Задание 3. Переведите:

Definition Translation Христианский мавзолей иногда

включает часовню. Слово происходит от «мавзолей Галикарнасский» (недалеко от современного Бодрума в Турции), могила короля Маузола, персидского властителя Карии, чья гигантская могила была одним семи из чудес Древнего мира.

A Christian mausoleum…

Термин «стела» обычно используется для других монументальных вертикальных каменных сооружений, включающих надписи и скульптуры. Таким образом, стелы использовались для опубликования законов, декретов, деяний и подвигов правителя, для обозначения священных мест, заложенного имущества, как территориальные маркеры, как межевые стелы Акхенатона у Амарна – ор в память военных побед.

The term stele is generally used…

Термин «монумент» часто применяется в отношении зданий или конструкций, считающихся образцами важного архитектурного и/или культурного наследия.

The term 'monument' …

Слово «обелиск», используемое в современном английском языке, скорее, греческого, чем египетского происхождения, потому что Геродот, греческий путешественник, был одним из первых классических писателей, давших описание этого объекта. Известно, что сохранилось большое количество древних египетских обелисков

The word "obelisk" as used in English …

Задание 4. Определите, какие модели аннотирования применимы к следующей информации:

Monuments have been created for thousands of years, and they are often the most durable and famous symbols of ancient civilizations.

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In examining the problem the author points out that… It’s necessary to note that… The author emphasizes the fact that…

Задание 5. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите на рис. 32, 34 – 36, 47 – 49). Используйте следующие модели:

The first picture illustrates … We can see a…in the second picture. The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are... The characteristic features of the object are… The figure illustrates the…

Задание 6. Найдите избыточную информацию в текстах и исключите ее.

Задание 7. Сделайте вывод об информации текста, используя следующие модели:

The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating … The text……carries a photograph of … I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date, and

disputable), because… The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say… The concluding part of my report contains notes on... We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on…..

Задание 8. Узнайте историю памятника В.И.Ленину (pic. 47) в Сиэтле (США) и расскажите её.

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Pic. 47. Statue of Lenin, Seattle, the USA

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§ 5. RELIGIOUS CONSTRUCTIONS

A nymphaeum or nymphaion in ancient Greece and Rome was a monument consecrated to the nymphs, especially those of springs. These monuments were originally natural grottoes, which tradition assigned as habitations to the local nymphs. They were sometimes so arranged as to furnish a supply of water, as at Pamphylian Side. A nymphaeum dedicated to a local water nymph, Coventina, was built along Hadrian's Wall, in the northernmost reach of the Roman Empire. Subsequently, artificial grottoes took the place of natural ones.

A temple (pic. 48) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities, such as prayer and sacrifice, or analogous rites. A temple constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template," a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Temples also became associated with the dwelling places of a god or gods.

Pic. 48. Temple of Hephaestus, a Doric Greek temple in Athens with the original entrance facing east, 449 BC (western face depicted)

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A pantheon in Ancient Rome is "the temple of all gods", constructed about 125 AD a tomb of outstanding people. Usually pantheons were settled down in the buildings having (or originally having) cult assignment (Westminster abbey, the Pantheon in Paris) Pantheon is a circular temple in Rome dedicated to all the gods, built by Agrippa in 27 BC, rebuilt by Hadrian 120-24 AD, and used since 609 AD as a Christian church. The Parthenon (Pic.66) is a temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the maiden goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron deity. Its construction began in 447 BC when the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power. It was completed in 438 BC, although decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece, Athenian democracy, western civilization and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a program of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure. The Parthenon itself replaced an older temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or Older Parthenon that was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 480 BC. The temple is archaeo-astronomically aligned to the Hyades. Like most Greek temples; the Parthenon was used as a treasury. For a time, it also served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the 5th century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

Pic. 49. Greek Parthenon in Athen

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A mosque (pic. 50) is a place of worship for followers of Islam, a Muslim cult construction. There are stringent restrictions on the uses of the area formally demarcated as the mosque (which is often a small portion of the larger complex), and, in the Islamic Sharia law, after an area is formally designated as a mosque, it remains so until the Last Day. Many mosques have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls, in varying styles of architecture. Mosques originated on the Arabian Peninsula, but are now found in all inhabited continents. The mosque serves as a place where Muslims can come together for prayer as well as a center for information, education, and dispute settlement. The imam leads the congregation in prayer.

Pic. 50. Quba Mosque in Medina is reportedly the oldest mosque in the world which appeared in the days of Muhammad

A minaret (pic. 51) is a distinctive architectural feature of mosques,

generally a tall spire with an onion-shaped or conical crown, usually either free standing or taller than associated support structure. The basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery. Styles vary regionally and by period. Minarets provide a visual focal point and are used for the call to prayer. Minaret is a tower (round, square or multi-faced in section) for an appeal of Muslims on a prayer; it is put near a mosque [10].

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Pic. 51. Qutub Minar

Задание 1. Определите значения словоформ в минимальном контек-сте: synagogue, a temple, a nymphaeum, a pantheon, a mosque, a minaret.

Задание 2. Дайте определение понятию religious constructions.

Используйте следующие модели: The concept of …can be determined as… The notion under review covers such points as... The notion “…” covers such points as… The notion “…” contains such ones as…

Задание 3. Определите, какие модели аннотирования применимы

к следующей информации: A temple constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or augur.

It has the same root as the word "template," a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Temples also became associated with the dwelling places of a god or gods.

In examining the problem the author points out that… It’s necessary to note that… The author emphasizes the fact that…

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Задание 4. Продолжите предложения: A temple is… A mosque is …

A pantheon in Ancient Rome is … The Parthenon is … Задание 5. Составьте простые распространенные и сложные

предложения, используя данные ниже слова, словосочетания и фразы: It should be noted … It’s necessary (important, interesting) to note (to report) that… The basic information of the text concerns… Задание 6. Заполните пустые графы таблицы.

Definition Translation Храм – культовое здание, предназначенное для богослужения и выполнения религиозных обрядов.

A cathedral is a…

Синагога – помещение, служащее местом общественного богослужения и центром религиозной жизни общины.

A synagogue is a …

Пагода – буддийское мемориальное сооружение и хранилище реликвий. Имеет форму павильона или башни (часто много-ярусной) с квадратным или 6-8 и 12-уголь-ным планом. Строительным материалом для пагод служат дерево, камень, кирпич, металл.

A pagoda is a …

Нимфей – в античной архитектуре святилище, посвященное нимфам. Сооружалось над источником и состояло из алтаря, открытого водоема или здания с фонтаном или бассейном.

A nymphaeum is …

Пантеон – в Древнем Риме «храм всех богов», построенный около 125 г. н. э., усыпальница выдающихся людей. Обычно пантеоны располагаются в зданиях, имеющих (или первоначально имевших) культовое назначение (Вестминстерское аббатство, Пантеон в Париже).

A pantheon is …

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Задание 7. Опишите, какие объекты архитектуры вы видите на pис. 52 – 54. Используйте следующие модели:

The first picture illustrates … We can see a…in the second picture. The buildings, we can see on the …picture, are... The characteristic features of the object are… The figure illustrates the… Задание 8. Сделайте вывод об информации текста, используя

следующие конструкции: The text…provides much information on… The text……gives figures illustrating The text……carries a photograph of I find the data on… useful (informative, interesting, up-to-date, disputable), because… The idea of... appears (seems) to have practical interest. In conclusion I can say… The concluding part of my report contains notes on... We can make a conclusion that… My conclusions (results) based on….. In summing up I’d like to tell… From my point of view… As far as I understood… I’d like to quote… I wanted to show my attitude to… To my opinion… As for me… To my mind… I think… One of the most interesting questions is that…

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Pic. 52. St Peter's Basilica, Vatican City

Pic. 53. Taj Mahal, in Agra, India is the world's most famous and most зhotographed mausoleum

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Pic. 54. Arc de Konstantine

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Приложение

Examples of notable monuments and buildings

The Statue of Liberty, the symbol of the United States' freedom. El Ángel national monument built to commemorate the independence of Mexico. National Monument, Jakarta, commemorates Indonesian struggle for independence. The Juche Tower, a symbol of communist North Korea's "self reliance" political stance. The TajMahal, a mausoleum in India Kościuszko Mound, Poland commemorates TadeuszKościuszko. Tomb of Manuel L. Quezon in Quezon Memorial Circlein Philippines. The Cristo-Redentor, a modern religious monument in Brazil. The Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela where Saint James is buried. The ColosseumFlavianamphitheatre in Rome, a popular monument of Roman Empire. The Bell Telephone Memorial, commemorates the invention of the telephone, Brantford, Ontario. The Hiroshima Cenotaph and Atomic Bomb Dome to remember the victims of August 6, 1945 atomic bombing. Srebrenica Genocide Memorial gravestones, remembering the victims of the 1995 Srebrenica genocide. The Chiang Kai-shek Memorial in Taipei is a monument to honor Chiang Kai-shek. Belvedere, Vienna, Austria, a palace complex Belvedere (Palace Chapel). Hotel Belvédère du Rayon Vert, Art Deco building at Cerbère, France. Belvedere auf dem Pfingstberg, a palace in Potsdam, Germany. Belvedere auf dem Klausberg, a building in Potsdam, Germany. Schloss Belvedere, Weimar, Germany, a small palaceCortile del Belvedere or Belvedere Courtyard, Vatican Palace, Rome. Belvedere Tower in the Buda Hills, Budapest, Hungary. Belvedere Estate, Calcutta, which houses the National Library of India. Belvedere House and Gardens, Ireland. Fort Belvedere (disambiguation). Belvedere (Wellington), New Zealand, a concrete apartment building. Belvedere Hotel, Baltimore, Maryland, the United States. Belvedere (Howard estate), Baltimore, Maryland, a historic Georgian/Federal mansion owned by Col. John Eager Howard and family, razed in 1874.

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Belvedere (West Virginia), United States, a mansion in the National Registerof Historic Places. Estadio Belvedere, a multi-use stadium in Montevideo, Uruguay. Belvedere, Cottesloe, a heritage site in Cottesloe, Western Australia. Belvédère tower, an observation tower near Mulhouse, Alsace, France. Belvedere water tower, Aachen, Germany. Belvedere Incinerator, Bexley, England. Belvedere Power Station, a former power station in Belvedere, England.

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Рекомендуемая литература

BOOKS ABOUT ARCHITECTURE ● Howard Davis. The Culture of Building. Oxford University Press, October 1999.

● Hugh Pearman. Contemporary World Architecture. London: Phaidon Press Inc., September.

● John Julius Norwich, ed. The World Atlas of Architecture. New York: Portland House, 1988.

● Roger H. Clark and Michael Pause. Precedents in Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.

Architectural Design and Digital Media

●.Rendering Real & Imagined Buildings : The Art of Computer Modeling. Book and CD-ROM edition, January 1999.

● Mohammed Saleh Uddin. McGraw Hill, April 1999.

●. Malcolm McCullough. MIT Press, Reprint edition, September 1998.

Digital Design Media

● William J. Mitchell, Malcolm McCullough. John Wiley & Sons,Paperback 2nd edition, December 1997.

● Herbert Zettl. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Hardcover - 408 pages 2nd edition, May 1990.

Architectural History

● Sir Banister Fletcher. A History of Architecture. London: The Butterworth Group, 1987.

●. William S. Saunders. Modern Architecture–Photographs by Ezra Stoller. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8109-3816-2.

● Marcus Whiffen and Frederick Koeper. American Architecture, 1860-1976. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984.

●. Sally Woodbridge, ed. Bay Area Houses. Salt Lake City: Gibbs-Smith Publisher, 1988. ISBN 0-87905-306-2. NA 7235.C22S353.

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● Edward R. Ford. The Details of Modern Architecture (Volume 1). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1990. ISBN 0-262-06121-X. LC 89-31772. NA2840.F67 1989.

●Edward R. Ford. The Details of Modern Architecture : 1928-1988 (Volume 2). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, August 1996. ISBN 0-2620-6185-6.

Selected Books on Individual Architects

● Karl Fleig (Editor). Alvar Aalto: The Complete Works/Das Gesamtwerk/L'Oeuvre. Artemis-Aidc, August 1992.

● Goran Schildt. Alvar Aalto: The Complete Catalogue of Architecture, Design & Art. New York: John Wiley & Sons, November 1996.

● Francesco Dal Co (Editor). Tadao Ando: Complete Works. Phaidon, April 1998.

● Dominique Gauzin-Muller, Flora Fischer (Translator), Gunter Behnisch (Photographer).Behnisch & Partners : 50 Years of Architecture. Academy Editions, January 1998.

● Kurt W. Forster, Hadley Soutter Arnold, Francesco Dal Co. Frank O. Gehry: The Complete Works. Monacelli Press, September 1998.

● Heinz Ronner, Sharad Jhaveri. Louis I. Kahn. Birkhauser Verlag, August 1996.

● James Steele, David Jenkins. Pierre Koenig. London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1998.

● Le Corbusier. Le Corbusier: Complete Works. Germany: Birkhauser Verlag, August 1996. Boxed set of 8 Volumes, 1708 pages.

● Sally B. Woodbridge, Richard Barnes (Photographer). Bernard Maybeck: Visionary Architect. Abbeville Press, Inc., August 1996.

● David Underwood. Oscar Niemeyer and the Architecture of Brazil. Rizzoli Publications, December 1994.

● Peter Buchanan. Renzo Piano Building Workshop: Complete Works Volume Two. Phaidon, May 1995.

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● Renzo Piano. Renzo Piano and Building Workshop: Buildings and Projects, 1971-1989.

● Jeffery Karl Ochsner. H. H. Richardson: Complete Architectural Works. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1982.

● Franz Schulze. Mies Van Der Rohe: A Critical Biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, September 1995.

● William Allin Storrer. The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1993.

● Le Corbusier. Towards a New Architecture. London: Dover Publications, February 1986.

● James MacAulay. Hill House: Charles Rennie MacKintosh (Architecture in Detail). London: Phaidon/Chronicle Books, July 1994. ISBN 0-7148-2780-0.

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Библиографический список

1. Architecture. Def. 1. Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) © Oxford University Press, 2009. – Режим доступа:public.oed.com/about/the-oed-in (дата обращения к ресурсу: 14.09.2016).

2. Robertson, D.S. Greek and Roman Architecture, 2nd edn., Cambridge1943.– p. 231.

3. Talk:Iranian architecture. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. – Режимдоступа: http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2631/pdf/i12.pdf ( дата обраще-ния к ресурсу: 12.10.2016).

4. Markus Hattstein. Peter DeliIslam. Art and Architecture, us. 2000.–p. 96. – Режим доступа: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special: Book Sources/3829 025580 (дата обращения к ресурсу:14.09.2016).

5. Historical Society of Ghana. Transactions of the Historical Society ofGhana, The Society, 1957. – p. 81. – Режим доступа: books. google.ru/books/about/ (дата обращения к ресурсу: 11.10.2016).

6. Davidson, Basil. The Lost Cities of Africa. Boston: Little Brown, 1959. – p. 86.7. Robin Middleton, Editor. The Beaux-Arts and Nineteenth-century French

Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson, 1982. – p. 187. 8. "Growth, Efficiency, and Modernism" (PDF). U.S. General Services

Administration, 2006 [2003]. – Р. 14–15. – Режим доступа: books. google.ru/books/about/. Retrieved March 2011 (дата обращения к ре-сурсу: 16.09.2016).

9. "Architect plans 3D-printed buildings". BBC. 21 January 2013.– Режимдоступа: 3http://www.ecochunk.com/5637/2013/01/21/architect-plans-to-build-worlds-first-3d-printed-building-in-2014/ (дата обращения к ресурсу: 16.09.2016).

10.Architecture. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. – Режим доступа: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture (дата обращения к ресурсу: 11.10.2016).

11. Architecture. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. – Режим доступа: http://www.google.de/url?url=http://www.greatbuildings.com/books.html (дата обращения к ресурсу: 11.10.2016).

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