Chemical Nomenclature

Kevin Pyatt, Ph.D.Donald Calbreath, Ph.D.

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Printed: August 20, 2014

AUTHORSKevin Pyatt, Ph.D.Donald Calbreath, Ph.D.

EDITORSDonald Calbreath, Ph.D.Max Helix

www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Chemical Nomenclature

CHAPTER 1 Chemical NomenclatureCHAPTER OUTLINE

1.1 Ionic Compounds

1.2 Molecular Compounds

1.3 Acids and Bases

1.4 References

The opening image shows crystals of the mineral cinnabar, which is the most common mercury-containing ore. Itis primarily composed of the compound mercuric sulfide, HgS. Cinnabar has been mined since the Stone Age forits uses as a pigment and as a source of pure mercury. Mercury can be easily harvested from cinnabar by roastingcinnabar powder (vermillion), which actually vaporizes the mercury metal. The hot mercury vapor can then berecondensed to yield pure liquid mercury.

Cinnabar is one of thousands of minerals that occur naturally on earth. Some minerals are common (like cinnabar)while others are rarer (like ores of gold and silver). Another less common mercury-containing mineral is mon-troydite, which is composed primarily of mercuric oxide (HgO). The composition of mercuric oxide was firstdetermined in 1774 by the English chemist Joseph Priestley. Priestley showed that heating montroydite powderproduced mercury metal and a gas, which he called phlogiston-free air. The gas was later determined to be oxygen.The revised name, based on information gained from experiments, allowed chemists to have a better understandingof chemical composition and chemical reactions. Clear unambiguous naming makes communication much easierand more reliable.Parent Gry. commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cinabre_macl%C3%A9_%28Chine%29_. jpg. Public Domain.

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1.1 Ionic Compounds

Lesson Objectives

• Define and give examples of chemical formulas for ionic compounds.• Be able to name and write the formulas for both monatomic and polyatomic ions.• Explain and use the Stock system for naming ionic compounds, when necessary.• Memorize the list of polyatomic ions, including both the formulas and the charges.• When given the chemical formula for an ionic compound, be able to write its name.• When given the name of an ionic compound, be able to write its chemical formula.

Lesson Vocabulary

• empirical formula: The lowest whole-number ratio between two ions.• binary ionic compound: A compound made up of a cation and an anion.• ternary ionic compound: An ionic compound that is composed of more than two elements.• monatomic ion: Form when a single atom gains or loses electrons.• polyatomic ion: An ion composed of more than one atom.• oxoanion: Anions in which one or more oxygen atoms are all bonded to a central atom of some other element.

Introduction

As we saw in the previous chapter, ions are formed when atoms gain or lose electrons. If an atom loses one or moreelectrons, the resulting ion has a positive charge (more protons are present than electrons). If the atom gains one ormore electrons, the resulting ion has a negative charge (more electrons are present than protons). Positive ions arecalled cations, and negative ions are called anions. Because opposite charges attract one another, cations and anionsare held together by strong electromagnetic forces. An ionic compound consists of a large three-dimensional arrayof alternating cations and anions. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is composed of Na+ and Cl− ions arrangedinto a structure like the one shown in Figure 1.1.

The most straightforward way to describe this structure with a chemical formula is to give the lowest whole-numberratio between the two ions, which is known as an empirical formula. In the case of NaCl, there are equal numbersof sodium ions and chloride ions in the salt crystal. In contrast, a crystal of magnesium chloride has twice as manychloride ions as magnesium ions, so it has a formula of MgCl2.

Naming Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds are composed of one type of cation and one type of anion. The name of an ionic compound canbe formed by writing the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion. For example, NaCl is composed

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FIGURE 1.1A crystal of table salt, sodium chloride, is a large array of alternatingpositive and negative ions. The purple spheres represent the Na+ ions,while the green spheres represent the Cl− ions.

of sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl−), so its name is sodium chloride. Ionic compounds like NaCl thatare composed of only two elements are referred to as binary ionic compounds. Similarly, KOH is composed ofpotassium ions (K+) and hydroxide ions (OH−), so its name is potassium hydroxide. Ionic compounds like KOHthat are composed of more than two elements are referred to as ternary ionic compounds. To learn how to namevarious ionic compounds, we simply need to learn the names of individual ions.

Monatomic Ions

Monatomic ions form when a single atom gains or loses electrons. For the main group elements, cations aregenerally formed by removing all of the valence electrons from the atom. Since the numbers of valence electronsfor the representative elements are constant within a particular group, all we need is the group number of a givenelement to know its charge when it becomes a cation. Group 1 elements form ions with a 1+ charge, Group 2 metalions have a 2+ charge, and the ions of Group 13 elements tend to have a 3+ charge. Heavier p-block metals such astin and lead are special cases and will be discussed with the transition metal ions. The name of a monatomic cationis the same as the name of the neutral element. For example, the sodium atom (Na) loses a single electron to formthe sodium ion (Na+), while Al3+ is an aluminum ion.

Anions form when an atom gains electrons. Nonmetallic atoms typically gain enough electrons to obtain the sameelectron configuration as the nearest noble gas. All the elements in Group 17 have seven valence electrons, which arearranged into a outer configuration of ns2np5. To achieve a noble gas configuration (ns2np6), each of these elementsneeds to gain just one electron, resulting in an anion with a 1− charge. Similarly, Group 16 elements can obtain anns2np6 valence configuration by forming ions with a 2− charge, and the Group 15 nonmetals will form ions with a3− charge. Naming anions is slightly different than naming cations. The end of the element’s name is dropped andreplaced with the –ide suffix. For example, when the chlorine atom (Cl) gains one electron, it becomes the chlorideion (Cl−). This structure has the same electron configuration as the noble gas argon. Similarly, sulfur can gain twoelectrons to become the sulfide ion (S2−), which also has a noble gas configuration.

Most main group elements, particularly those in groups 1, 2, 16, and 17, gain or lose enough electrons to form ionsthat have the same electron configuration as that of the nearest noble gas. Table 1.1 shows the names and chargesfor common monatomic ions of the representative elements:

TABLE 1.1: Common Monatomic Ions

1+ 2+ 3+ 3- 2- 1-lithium, Li+ beryllium, Be2+ aluminum, Al3+ nitride, N3− oxide, O2− fluoride, F−

sodium, Na+ magnesium,Mg2+

gallium, Ga3+ phosphide, P3− sulfide, S2− chloride, Cl−

potassium, K+ calcium, Ca2+ arsenide, As3− selenide, Se2− bromide, Br−

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TABLE 1.1: (continued)

1+ 2+ 3+ 3- 2- 1-rubidium, Rb+ strontium, Sr2+ telluride, Te2− iodide, I−

cesium, Cs+ barium, Ba2+

Transition Metal Ions

Most transition metals differ from the metals of Groups 1, 2, and 13 in that they are capable of forming more than onetype of stable cation. For example, iron sometimes loses two electrons to form the Fe2+ ion, but it is also commonfor iron to lose three electrons to form the Fe3+ ion. Although they are members of the p block and not the d block,tin and lead also form more than one type of ion. Because the charges of these ions cannot simply determined bylooking at the periodic table, they must have names that also indicate their charge. The Stock system, proposed byAlfred Stock (1876-1946), denotes the charge of these ions by using a Roman numeral in parentheses after the nameof the ion. For example, the previously mentioned iron ions are named the iron (II) ion and the iron (III) ion. Whensaid out loud, "iron (II) ion" should be read, “iron two ion.” Table 1.2 lists the names and formulas of some of themore common transition metal ions:

TABLE 1.2: Common Transition Metal Ions

1+ 2+ 3+ 4+copper (I), Cu+ cadmium, Cd2+ chromium (III), Cr3+ lead (IV), Pb4+

gold (I), Au+ chromium (II), Cr2+ cobalt (III), Co3+ tin (IV), Sn4+

silver, Ag+ cobalt (II), Co2+ gold (III), Au3+

copper (II), Cu2+ iron (III), Fe3+

iron (II), Fe2+

lead (II), Pb2+

manganese (II), Mn2+

mercury (II), Hg2+

nickel (II), Ni2+

platinum (II), Pt2+

tin (II), Sn2+

zinc, Zn2+

Notice in Table 1.2 that there are three cations whose names do not include a Roman numeral. Silver, cadmium, andzinc only form one common type of ion, so the charges on ions of these elements are considered to be implied by thename (1+ for silver, and 2+ for zinc and cadmium). By convention, the Stock system is not used for these elements,and their cations are named in the same way as those of the representative elements.

There is also an older system for naming some of these cations that is still occasionally used. The Latin root of themetal name is written with one of two suffixes: (1) –ic for the ion with a higher charge, and (2) –ous for the ionwith a lower charge. For example, the Latin name for iron is ferrum, so the Fe3+ ion is called the ferric ion, and theFe2+ ion is called the ferrous ion. The primary disadvantage of this system is that the suffixes do not tell you exactlywhat the charge is for a given ion. For copper, the two most common charges are 1+ and 2+, so Cu2+ is called thecupric ion and Cu+ is the cuprous ion. The Stock system is a much more informative system and will be used as theprimary method for naming transition metal compounds throughout this book.

Example 7.1

What are the names of the following compounds?

1. CuCl (composed of Cu+ and Cl−)

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2. HgO (composed of Hg2+ and O2−)3. Fe2O3 (composed of Fe3+ and O2−)4. MnO2 (composed of Mn4+ and O2−)

Answers:

1. copper (I) chloride2. mercury (II) oxide3. iron (III) oxide4. manganese (IV) oxide

In the above example, we gave you the charges of the cations, but what if all you had was the formula? Ioniccompounds must be electrically neutral, so if the charge on the anion is known, the charge of the cation can bedetermined from the ratio given by the formula. For example, we know that chlorine forms an ion with a charge of-1. If we see the formula CuCl, we know that copper must have a charge of +1, because in order for the chargesto cancel, we would need to combine these ions in a 1:1 ratio. Similarly, the formula CuCl2, we would know thatcopper has a charge of +2, because two Cl− ions are required to balance out the charge of each Cu2+ ion. In general,the charge on the anion can be determined from inspection, and the charge on the cation can be indirectly determinedfrom the ratio by which the cation and anion combined.

Polyatomic Ions

A polyatomic ion is an ion composed of more than one atom. For example, the ammonium ion consists of onenitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. Together, they comprise a single ion with a 1+ charge and a formula ofNH4

+. The carbonate ion consists of one carbon atom and three oxygen atoms, and it carries an overall charge of2−. The formula of the carbonate ion is CO3

2−. The atoms of a polyatomic ion are tightly bonded together, so theentire ion behaves as a single unit. Figure 1.2 shows several models, and Table 1.3 lists many of the most commonpolyatomic ions.

FIGURE 1.2(A) The ammonium ion (NH4

+) is a nitro-gen atom (blue) bonded to four hydrogenatoms (white). (B) The hydroxide ion(OH−) is an oxygen atom (red) bonded toa hydrogen atom. (C) The carbonate ion(CO3

2−) is a carbon atom (black) bondedto three oxygen atoms.

TABLE 1.3: Common Polyatomic Ions

1- 2- 3- 1+acetate, CH3COO− carbonate, CO3

2− arsenate, AsO33− ammonium, NH4

+

bromate, BrO3− chromate, CrO4

2− phosphite, PO33−

chlorate, ClO3− dichromate, Cr2O7

2− phosphate, PO43−

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TABLE 1.3: (continued)

1- 2- 3- 1+chlorite, ClO2

− hydrogen phosphate,HPO4

2−

cyanide, CN− peroxide, O22−

dihydrogen phosphate,H2PO4

−sulfate, SO4

2−

hydrogen carbonate,HCO3

−sulfite, SO3

2−

hydrogen sulfate, HSO4−

hydrogen sulfide, HS−

hydroxide, OH−

hypochlorite, ClO−

nitrate, NO3−

nitrite, NO2−

perchlorate, ClO4−

permanganate, MnO4−

Oxoanions

Note that the vast majority of polyatomic ions are anions, many of which end in –ate or –ite. In some cases,such as nitrate (NO3

−) and nitrite (NO2−), there are multiple anions that consist of the same two elements. This is

particularly common for oxoanions, which are anions in which one or more oxygen atoms are all bonded to a centralatom of some other element. A given element may form several oxoanions that all have the same charge but differin the number of oxygen atoms present. When there are two common oxoanions for a particular element, the onewith the greater number of oxygen atoms gets an –ate suffix, while the one with the lower number of oxygen atomsgets an –ite suffix. Some elements form more than two common oxoanions, such as chlorine:

• ClO−, hypochlorite• ClO2

−, chlorite• ClO3

−, chlorate• ClO4

−, perchlorate

For larger families of oxoanions, the ion with one more oxygen atom than the –ate anion is given a per- prefix,and the ion with one fewer oxygen atom than the –ite anion is given a hypo- prefix. Organizing oxoanions in thefollowing format (in Table 1.9) may help with memorization:

TABLE 1.4: Common Oxoanions

Central Atom Root 1 more oxygen “normal” 1 less oxygen 2 less oxygensChlorine chlor- ClO4

−perchlorate ClO3− chlorate ClO2

− chlorite ClO−hypochloriteBromine brom- BrO4

− BrO3− BrO2

− BrO−

Iodine iod- IO4− IO3

−

Sulfur sulf- SO52− SO4

2− SO32− SO2

2−

Nitrogen nitr- NO3− NO2

−

Phosphorus phosph- PO43− PO3

3− PO23−

Carbon carbon- CO32−

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Writing Formulas from Names

Binary Ionic Compounds

If you know the name of a binary ionic compound, you can write its formula. Start by writing the metal ion andits charge, followed by the nonmetal ion with its charge. The overall compound must be electrically neutral, so theions must combine in a ratio that allows the positive and negative charges to cancel each other out. Consider thecompound aluminum nitride. The charges on each of these ions can be determined by looking at the groups in whichaluminum and nitrogen are found. The ions are:

Al3+ N3−

Since the ions have charges that are equal in magnitude, 1:1 is the lowest ratio of ions that will produce a neutralcompound. As a result, the formula of aluminum nitride is AlN. Another compound, lithium oxide, contains thefollowing ions:

Li+ O2−

In this case, two lithium ions are required to balance out the charge of each oxide ion. The formula of lithium oxideis Li2O.

For compounds in which the ratio of ions is not as obvious, an alternative way to determine the correct formula is touse the crisscross method. In this method, the numerical value of each charge crosses over to become the subscript ofthe opposite ion. The signs of the charges are dropped. The crisscross method is demonstrated below for aluminumoxide.

The red arrows indicate that the 3 from the 3+ charge will cross over to become the subscript for O, while the 2 fromthe 2− charge will cross over to become the subscript for Al. The formula for aluminum oxide is Al2O3.

For aluminum oxide, the crisscross method directly produces the correct formula, but in some cases, another step isrequired. Because ionic compounds are always described by their empirical formulas, they must be written as thelowest whole-number ratio of the ions. In the case of aluminum nitride, the crisscross method would yield a formulaof Al3N3, which is not correct. A second step must be performed in which the subscripts are reduced but the ratio iskept the same. Al3N3 can be reduced to AlN, because both formulas describe a 1:1 ratio of aluminum ions to nitrideions. Following the crisscross method to write the formula for lead(IV) oxide would involve the following steps:

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The crisscross method first yields Pb2O4 for the formula, but that must be reduced to PbO2, which is the correctformula.

Ternary Ionic Compounds

Writing a formula for a ternary ionic compound involves the same steps as for a binary ionic compound. Write thesymbol and charge of the cation followed by the symbol and charge of the anion. Use the crisscross method to ensurethat the final formula is neutral. For example, calcium nitrate is composed of calcium cations and nitrate anions.

The charge is balanced by the presence of two nitrate ions and one calcium ion. Parentheses are used around thenitrate ion because more than one of the polyatomic ion is needed. If only one polyatomic ion is present in a formula,parentheses are not used. For example, the formula for calcium carbonate is CaCO3. The carbonate ion carries a 2−charge, so it exactly balances the 2+ charge of the calcium ion.

Lesson Summary

• Ionic compounds are composed of cations and anions, which combine in a ratio that makes the overallcompound electrically neutral.

• Ionic compounds are named by writing the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion.• Monatomic cations have the same name as their parent element, whereas monatomic anions end in -ide.• For main group elements, the charges of monatomic cations and anions can be determined by looking at which

group the element belongs to on the periodic table.

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• Cations that can possess more than one possible charge are named by the Stock system, in which the chargeis indicated in the name with Roman numerals.

• Polyatomic ions consist of more than one atom and act as a single unit. Their names and charges must bememorized.

Lesson Review Questions

1. What is the purpose of an empirical formula?2. Define binary and ternary ionic compounds.3. What is the difference between a monatomic and a polyatomic ion?4. For each of the following ionic compounds, what ions are present and in what ratio?

a. MgBr2b. Li2CO3c. Fe2(SO4)3

5. Predict the compound that forms when gallium combines with oxygen. What would the name of this com-pound be?

6. Give the formula for each of the following ionic compounds:

a. ammonium nitrateb. cobalt (II) sulfatec. nickel (II) cyanided. vanadium (III) oxidee. barium oxidef. calcium hypochlorite

7. Name the following ionic compounds:

a. MgBr2b. Li2CO3c. KHSO3d. KMnO4e. (NH4)2Sf. CuClg. CuCl2

8. Write the correct formulas for the following ionic compounds:

a. barium chlorideb. chromium(III) oxidec. potassium sulfated. zinc phosphate

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Martín-Gil, J., F. J. Martín-Gil, G. Delibes-de-Castro, P. Zapatero-Magdaleno, and F. J. Sarabia-Herrero. 1995.The first known use of vermillion. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 51 (8):759-761.

• "Chemical Nomenclature. Chem Team 2012." Available from http://www.chemteam.info/Nomenclature/Nomenclature.html .

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Points to Consider

• Ionic compounds result from the transfer of electrons from metal atoms to nonmetal atoms, but not allcompounds are ionic. A great many molecules are formed by the “sharing” of electrons rather than thecomplete exchange of electrons.

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1.2 Molecular Compounds

Lesson Objectives

• Define a molecule and give examples of molecules.• Be able to name a molecular compound when given its formula.• Be able to write the formula for a molecular compound when given its name.• Know the common names for some simple molecular compounds, such as methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3),

phosphine (PH3), water (H2O), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

Lesson Vocabulary

• covalent bond: Two or more atoms bonded together by sharing electrons.• molecule: A group of atoms are joined together by covalent bonds.• molecular formula: Designates how many of each atom are in a single molecule of that substance.• binary molecular compound: A molecular compound that is composed of two elements.

Check Your Understanding

• Give an example of a cation and an anion.• Give an example of an ionic compound.• Name the following compounds: MgO, CuO.

Introduction

So far we have looked at ionic compounds, in which atoms of various elements gain or lose electrons to produceions. The resulting ions are held together by strong attractions between oppositely charged particles. However, thisonly works for bonds between atoms in which one partner (the metal) has a tendency to lose electrons, and the other(the nonmetal) has a tendency to gain them. Then how might two nonmetals, such as nitrogen and oxygen, formchemical bonds? Neither is likely to lose electrons and become a cation, but both require more electrons to reacha noble gas configuration. Instead of a complete transfer of electrons, these atoms can bond by sharing electrons,producing what is called a covalent bond. When a group of atoms are joined together by covalent bonds, theresulting structure is called a molecule. Molecules are generally much smaller than the extended three-dimensionalnetworks of ions that are seen in ionic compounds. We will look much more at covalent bonding and molecules infuture chapters, but for now, we will focus on the ways in which molecules are named.

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Naming Binary Molecular Compounds

A binary molecular compound is a molecular compound that is composed of two elements. In general, the elementsthat combine to form binary molecular compounds are both nonmetals. This contrasts with ionic compounds, whichusually involve bonds between metal ions and nonmetal ions. Because ionic charges cannot be used to name thesecompounds or to write their formulas, a different naming system must be used for molecular compounds. Anotherdifference between ionic and molecular compounds is that two nonmetal atoms will frequently combine with oneanother in a variety of ratios. For example, nitrogen and oxygen combine to make several binary compounds,including NO, NO2, and N2O. Obviously they can’t all be called nitrogen oxide! How would someone know whichone you were talking about? Each of the three compounds has very different properties and reactivity. A system todistinguish between compounds such as these is necessary.

Prefixes are used in the names of binary molecular compounds to identify the number of atoms of each element.Table 1.5 shows the prefixes for one to ten atoms:

TABLE 1.5: Numerical Prefixes

Number of Atoms Prefix1 mono-2 di-3 tri-4 tetra-5 penta-6 hexa-7 hepta-8 octa-9 nona-10 deca-

The rules for using the prefix system of nomenclature of binary molecular compounds can be summarized as follows:

1. Generally, the less electronegative element is written first in the formula, though there are a few exceptions.Carbon is almost always first in a molecular formula, and hydrogen is usually written after nitrogen in aformula such as NH3. The order in which common nonmetals are written in binary compound formulas is thesame as their order in the following series: C, P, N, H, S, I, Br, Cl, O, F.

2. The first element in the formula is written first in the name of the compound, along with the appropriate prefix.No prefix is used if there is only one atom of the first element.

3. The second element is named after the first, but the ending of the element’s name is changed to -ide. Theappropriate prefix is always used for the second element, even if there is only one atom of that element. Eventhough the -ide suffix is also used to name anions, it is important to remember that molecules are held togetherby covalent bonds and do not contain cations and anions.

4. The a or o at the end of a prefix is usually dropped from the name when the name of the element begins witha vowel. As an example, four oxygen atoms is tetroxide instead of tetraoxide.

Some examples of molecular compounds are listed in Table 1.6.

TABLE 1.6: Examples of Molecular Compounds

Formula NameNO nitrogen monoxide

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TABLE 1.6: (continued)

Formula NameN2O dinitrogen monoxideS2Cl2 disulfur dichlorideCl2O7 dichlorine heptoxide

Notice that the mono- prefix is not used with the nitrogen in the first compound, but is used with the oxygen in bothof the first two examples. Also, the o of mono- and the a of hepta- are dropped from the name when paired withoxide.

The example S2Cl2 emphasizes another difference between ionic and molecular substances. Because ionic sub-stances exist as extended networks, we simply give the lowest whole-number ratio of cations to anions, which is theempirical formula. A molecular formula is not simply a ratio. Rather, the molecular formula designates how manyof each atom are in a single molecule of that substance. S2Cl2 cannot be reduced to SCl, because each molecule ofdisulfur dichloride contains two sulfur atoms and two chlorine atoms.

Example 7.2

Name the following binary compounds.

1. BF32. NO3. N2O54. PCl55. P4O6

Answer:

1. boron trifluoride2. nitrogen monoxide3. dinitrogen pentoxide4. phosphorous pentachloride5. tetraphosphorous hexoxide

Writing Formulas for Binary Molecular Compounds

When you know the name of a molecular compound, the prefixes directly tell you which subscript to place with thatelement in the formula. If there is no prefix, only one atom of that element is present and no subscript is used. Forexample, if given the name diboron hexahydride, you would realize that the molecule must contain two atoms ofboron and six atoms of hydrogen. Its formula is B2H6. Notice that metalloids like boron generally form molecularcompounds instead of ionic compounds.

Other Ways of Naming Molecules

Common Names

Some compounds (generally very common ones) are better known by names that are different than the "official"names, which are designated by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). A few examplescan be found in the following Table 1.7.

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TABLE 1.7: Common Names of Covalent Compounds

Formula Common name IUPAC NameNO nitric oxide nitrogen monoxideN2O nitrous oxide (laughing gas) dinitrogen monoxideN2H4 hydrazine dinitrogen tetrahydrideH2O water dinitrogen monoxideNH3 ammonia nitrogen trihydridePH3 phosphine phosphorus trihydrideH2S hydrogen sulfide dihydrogen monosulfideH2O2 hydrogen peroxide dihydrogen dioxide

Nomenclature for Organic Molecules

Carbon has a unique ability to form an extremely large variety of molecules with just a few other common elements.In fact, most of the molecules that make up living beings are composed of just carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, andnitrogen (with a little sulfur and phosphorus as well). Knowing only the molecular formula for an organic moleculeis not enough to identify it; we also need to indicate how the atoms are arranged within the molecule. For example,dimethyl ether and ethanol are two molecules with very different properties that both have the molecular formulaC2H6O. One is an extremely flammable gas, and the other is the intoxicating liquid found in alcoholic beverages.As a result, most carbon-based molecules have a separate, more complex system of naming that we will cover inanother chapter. However, the formulas for a few common organic compounds can be found in the Table 1.8.

TABLE 1.8: Names of Common Organic Compounds

Formula NameCH4 methaneCH3OH methanolC2H6 ethaneC2H5OH ethanolC3H7OH isopropanol (rubbing alcohol)C6H12O6 glucoseC12H22O11 sucrose

Lesson Summary

• Molecular compounds are formed when atoms are held together by covalent bonds, which involve sharingelectrons rather than transferring them.

• The formula of a binary molecular compound shows how many of each atom are present in the molecule. Theless electronegative element is generally written first.

• Prefixes are used in the names of molecular compounds to designate how many of each atom are in themolecule.

Lesson Review Questions

1. How is a covalent bond characterized?

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2. What differs between ionic compounds and molecules?3. What are binary molecular compounds?4. What differs between a molecular formula and an empirical formula?5. Give the formula for each of the following binary covalent compounds:

a. carbon dioxideb. phosphorus triiodidec. sulfur dichlorided. boron trifluoridee. dioxygen difluoridef. xenon trioxide

6. Name the following binary covalent compounds:

a. N2F4b. HBrc. SF4d. BCl3e. P2O5f. ClF3

7. Is "nitrogen oxide" an appropriate name for the compound NO? Why or why not?8. Is "calcium oxide" an appropriate name the compound CaO? Why or why not?

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Winter, M. (1993-2011). WebElements: the periodic table on the WWW, from http://www.webelements.com/

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1.3 Acids and Bases

Lesson Objectives

• Define and give examples for the following terms: acid, base, binary acid, oxoacid.• Determine the name of an inorganic acid or base when given the formula.• Determine the formula of an inorganic acid or base when given its name.

Lesson Vocabulary

• acid: Any compound that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.• binary acid: Acids in which one or more acidic hydrogen atoms are bound directly to a single atom.• oxoacid: A strong acid produced by combining oxoanions with one or more hydrogen ions.• base: A compound that produces the hydroxide (OH-) ion when dissolved in water.

Check Your Understanding

1. Name the following compounds:

a. NaNO3b. BF3c. FeSO3

2. Are the following compounds molecular or ionic?

a. H2Ob. CH4c. BaSO4

Introduction

In this chapter, we first looked at the naming conventions for ionic compounds, which exist as extended networks ofcations and anions. For most of the compounds that we considered, the cation was a monatomic metal (e.g., Na+,Mg2+, Fe3+), and the anion was a monatomic nonmetal (e.g., Cl−, O2−, N3−) or a polyatomic ion, which oftencontains multiple oxygen atoms (e.g., SO4

2−). We then looked at molecular compounds, in which atoms are heldtogether into individual molecules by covalent bonds. Now we are going to consider acids and bases, which sharecharacteristics with both ionic and molecular compounds.

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Acids

There are multiple ways to define what an acid is, but for the purposes of this book, we will define an acid as anycompound that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Based on this definition, all acids contain atleast one hydrogen atom, but not all hydrogen-containing compounds are acids. When isolated as a pure material,most acids exist as molecular substances. However, when dissolved in water, one or more of the hydrogen atomsacts as an H+ ion that transfers to water, leaving behind the remainder of the molecule as an anion. This reactionwith water can be represented by the following generic equation, where HA represents an acid:

HA(aq)+H2O(l)→ A−(aq)+H3O+(aq)

As you can see, the acid reacts with a molecule of water to produce a hydronium ion (H3O+) and the A− anion.(Note: The H+ ion is sometimes referred to as a proton. This makes sense when you consider that the most commonform of the hydrogen atom consists of one proton and one electron. When the single electron is removed to make acation, only a proton is left behind. As a result, the above reaction is sometimes referred to as a proton transfer.) Aspecific example of this process can be seen in the following animation:

http://group.chem.iastate.edu/Greenbowe/sections/projectfolder/animations/HCl(aq).html

In this animation, hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts with water to produce the hydronium ion and the chloride ion.Even though HCl exists as a molecular gas in the absence of water, it produces ions when water is present. Acidshave some unique properties and reactivity patterns that we will discuss in future chapters. For now, we will focuson the ways in which they are named.

Binary Acids

Binary acids are acids in which one or more acidic hydrogen atoms are bound directly to a single atom. As a result,the anion left behind when a binary acid is dissolved in water is a monatomic anion. Examples include hydrogenchloride (HCl(g) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S(g)). Both of these substances are molecular gases in their pure form, butchange their properties and their names when dissolved in water. To name a binary acid, start with the name of theanion left behind after the acidic hydrogens have been removed. Then, add the prefix hydro- and replace the suffix-ide with -ic acid. For example, HCl produces Cl− ions when dissolved in water, so it would therefore be namedhydrochloric acid. Some other common binary acids are shown in the following Table 1.9.

TABLE 1.9: Common Binary Acids

Formula Name Anion NameHF(aq) hydrofluoric acid F− fluorideHCl(aq) hydrochloric acid Cl− chlorideHBr(aq) hydrobromic acid Br− bromideHI(aq) hydroiodic acid I− iodideH2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid S2− sulfide

Most of the binary acids listed here are monoprotic, because they have only one acidic hydrogen. Hydrosulfuric acid,on the other hand is diprotic. Its hydrogen ions are transferred to two water molecules in two subsequent reactions.

Oxoacids

So far we have looked at acids that leave behind monatomic anions. However, many strong acids leave behindpolyatomic anions as well. In particular, many of the oxoanions we looked at earlier can combine with one or morehydrogen ions (enough to make a neutral molecule) to produce strong acids called oxoacids. A common example

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of an oxoacid is nitric acid (HNO3), which can be thought of as a hydrogen ion (H+) combining with a nitrate ion(NO3

−). If we simply named this as an ionic compound, we could name the compound hydrogen nitrate. However,because nitric acid exists as individual molecules and not an ionic structure, we use a different convention. To namean oxoacid, look at the anion that will be left behind when all acidic hydrogens have been removed. If it ends in -ate,replace that suffix with -ic acid. If it ends in -ite, replace that suffix with -ous acid. The following Table 1.10 listssome common oxoacids and their formulas:

TABLE 1.10: Common Oxoacids

Formula Name Anion NameHClO4 perchloric acid ClO4

− perchlorateHClO3 chloric acid ClO3

− chlorateHClO2 chlorous acid ClO2

− chloriteHClO hypochlorous acid ClO− hypochloriteHNO3 nitric acid NO3

− nitrateHNO2 nitrous acid NO2

− nitriteH2SO4 sulfuric acid SO4

2− sulfateH2SO3 sulfurous acid SO3

2− sulfiteH2CO3 carbonic acid CO3

2− carbonateH3PO4 phosphoric acid PO4

3− phosphate

Example 7.3

Name the following compounds:

1. HIO32. NaBrO23. Ca3(PO4)24. H3PO3

Answer:

1. iodic acid2. sodium bromite3. calcium phosphate4. phosphorous acid

Bases

Bases can also be defined in multiple ways, but for now, we will define a base as a compound that produces thehydroxide (OH−) ion when dissolved in water. Most of the common strong bases that you will need to deal with aresimply ionic compounds in which a metal cation is combined with the hydroxide anion. These bases are named inthe same way as any other ionic compound. For example, NaOH would be named sodium hydroxide, and Ca(OH)2is calcium hydroxide.

Some common bases are listed in the Table 1.11.

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TABLE 1.11: Examples of Bases

Formula NameNaOH sodium hydroxideCa(OH)2 calcium hydroxideNH4OH ammonium hydroxide

Lesson Summary

• Acids are molecular compounds that dissolve in water to produce hydronium ions and an anion.

HA(aq)+H2O(l)→ A−(aq)+H3O+(aq)

• The naming rules for acids are based on the suffix of the anion. Formulas for acids are written by balancingout the charge of the anion with the appropriate number of hydrogen ions.

• Bases are ionic compounds consisting of hydroxide ions and a cation. Naming and formula writing for basesfollows the same guidelines as for other ionic compounds.

Lesson Review Questions

1. How do acids behave in water?2. What defines a binary acid?3. What defines an oxoacid?4. How do bases behave in water?

5. Complete the following Table 1.12.

TABLE 1.12: Review Question 1

# Acid Name Formula of Acid Name of Anion1. hydrobromic acid HBr bromide2. carbonic acid H2CO3 carbonate3. HCl4. sulfite5. chlorous acid6. nitric acid7. sulfide8. HNO2

9. chromic acid10. phosphate

6. Name the following acids:

(a) HF

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(b) HI(c) H2S(d) H3PO4(e) H2SO4

7. Write the formulas for the following acids:

(a) sulfurous acid(b) hydrosulfuric acid(c) nitric acid(d) carbonic acid(e) chloric acid

Further Reading / Supplemental Links

• Chemical Nomenclature. (2012), from http://www.chemteam.info/Nomenclature/Nomenclature.html• Video on acid-base nomenclature: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CVgi74kswPA

Points to Consider

• Vinegar is an acid that can be produced from the aerobic fermentation of wine. In fact, vinegar is most likelythe oldest known acid. It is commonly used as a food additive (to give things an acidic or sour taste) and as amild cleaning agent.

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1.4 References

1. Ben Mills (User:Benjah-bmm27/Wikimedia Commons). http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sodium-chloride-3D-ionic.png . Public Domain

2. Ben Mills (User:Benjah-bmm27/Wikimedia Commons). (A) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ammonium-3D-balls.png; (B) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hydroxide-3D-vdW.png; (C) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carbonate-3D-balls.png . Public Domain

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