key word bingo choose six words from the collection above!
TRANSCRIPT
Issues
Debates
Approaches
Key Word Bingo
Choose six words from the collection above!
Learning Objectives1) To be aware of the different issues that
psychologists must consider in research.
Success Criteria1) Draw a table and make
some notes about the different issues psychologists
must consider.2) Attempt a practice
question.3) Play key terms bingo!!
Introduction
• In AS there was a balance between AO1 (knowledge and understanding) and AO2 (analysis and evaluation) and your AO3 marks were gained through commentary on the research methods behind the study.
• In A2 there is the requirement to evaluate in more detail and you gain more marks for AO2 and AO3 than AO1.
• This week you will discover the techniques required for evaluation and you will produce a resource to help you evaluate throughout this year in all your PSYA3 topics.
Introduction
• You learnt about a lot of the synoptic concepts at AS.
• You now need to use the material to evaluate research and studies – if you don’t include synoptic material your marks will suffer...you will score a maximum of 12/24 (a D grade).
• One more thing....you can’t just attach synoptic material to the end of an essay answer, it should be embedded throughout to get the best marks!
A02/A03 Mark bandAO2 = 12 marks Analysis and evaluationAO3 = 4 marks Interpretation and methodological evaluation of studies
16-13 marksEffective
Evaluation demonstrates sound analysis, understanding and interpretation. The answer is well focused and shows coherent elaboration and/or a clear line of argument. Issues/debates/approaches are used effectively. Ideas are well structured and expressed clearly and fluently. Consistently effective use of psychological terminology. Appropriate use of grammar, punctuation and spelling.
12-9 marksReasonable
Evaluation demonstrates reasonable analysis and understanding. The answer is generally focused and shows reasonable elaboration and/or a line of argument is evident. Issues/debates/approaches are used in a reasonably effective manner. Most ideas appropriately structured and expressed clearly. Appropriate use of psychological terminology. Minor errors of grammar, punctuation and spelling only occasionally compromise meaning.
A02/A03 Mark bandAO2 = 12 marks Analysis and evaluationAO3 = 4 marks Interpretation and methodological evaluation of studies
8-5 marksBasic
Evaluation demonstrates basic, superficial understanding. The answer is sometimes focused and shows some evidence of elaboration. Superficial reference may be made to issues/debates/approaches Expression of ideas lacks clarity. Limited use of psychological terminology. Errors of grammar, punctuation and spelling are intrusive.
4-1 marksRudimentary
Evaluation is rudimentary, demonstrating a very limited understanding. The answer is weak, muddled and incomplete. Material is not used effectively and may be mainly irrelevant. If reference is made to issues/debates/approaches, it is muddled and inaccurate. Deficiency in expression of ideas results in confusion and ambiguity. The answer lacks structure, often merely a series of unconnected assertions. Errors of grammar, punctuation and spelling are frequent and intrusive.
0 marks No creditworthy material is presented.
Debates (AO2)
Nature-Nurture
Free Will vs. Determinism
Reductionism
Is Psychology a Science?
Approaches
(AO2)
Cognitive
Biological
Psychodynamic
Behavioural
Evolutionary
Issues (AO2)
Gender Bias
Culture Bias
Ethical Issues
Use of Animals
Research Methodolog
y (AO3)
Ethics
Generalisation
Validity
Reliability
Problems with method
Social desirability
Control
Qualitative/ Quantitative
Sample
How science works
Demand characteristics
SynopticToolbox
Task• This week you will cover the
important synoptic material:– Issues– Debates– Approaches– Research Methodology
• Your task it to create a resource for use in lesson and at home to help with the structure of evaluation in your essays.
• You will create a ‘synoptic board’. This is an A3 sheet containing all of your synoptic material. We will allow you to use this during practice essays...synoptic is that important!
Issues
Gender Bias
Cultural Bias
Ethical Issues
Role of animals
in research
You need to draw a table to make some notes
about the different issues
Gender Bias
• Research of human behaviour is often ‘male’ behaviour and then applied to females.
• This form of bias in psychological theories and studies is not the same as gender differences.
• In committing this form of biasness there are a range of consequences including:– Scientifically misleading– Upholding stereotypical
assumptions– Validating sex discrimination – Avoiding gender bias does not mean
pretending that men and women are the same
Gender Bias
• Alpha bias – Theories that acknowledge real differences between men and women. But this can be exaggerated and can be promoting or devaluing either sex i.e. Freud & psychosexual development ‘Biology is destiny’ – women’s roles are prescribed & predetermined. ‘Penis envy’ – women are defined psychologically by the fact that they aren’t men.
• Beta bias – Theories that exaggerate the similarity between men and women. For instance a study which only uses male participant’s findings then applied to females’ as well. In the attachment theory ignores the role of fathers.
• Androcentrism is similar idea to ethnocentrism. It is taking male thinking/behaviour as normal, regarding female thinking/behaviour as deviant, inferior, abnormal, ‘other’ when it is different.
Gender Bias
• Gender bias can occur in research:– Men predominate at senior researcher
level– Research agenda follows male concerns,
female concerns may be marginalised or ignored
– Women and men might respond differently to research situation
– Women and men might be treated differently by researchers
– Could create artificial differences or mask real ones
– Publishing bias towards positive results– Research that finds gender differences
more likely to get published than that which doesn’t
– Exaggerates extent of gender differences
Cultural Bias• Cultural bias occurs when people from
one culture make assumptions about the behaviour of others within another culture, based on their own cultural practices and beliefs. This is an example of beta bias.
• Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise (eurocentrism) In some texts >90% of studies have US research participants. Samples are predominantly white middle class.
• This about what we learned in abnormality – cultural relativism is an example of cultural bias.
Cultural Bias
• Emics are the constructs particular to a specific culture, i.e. an example of cultural relativism. Researchers from one culture may not be sensitive to local emics.
• Etics are constructs that are universal to all people so therefore cultural differences can be ignored. An example could be western based psychiatric diagnosis to non western ethnic groups.
• Ethnocentrism occurs when a researcher assumes that their own culturally specific practices or ideas are ‘natural’ or ‘right’. This is an example of alpha bias. Good examples of ethnocentrism include early theories of relationship formation, such as social exchange theory which are heavily influenced on Western capitalist ideas of personal possessions and worth.
Some interesting culture-bound syndromes...
Pibloktoq (Inuit)• Also known as Arctic hysteria, this
often follows the loss or perceived loss of a valued person or object.
• Symptoms include brooding, depressive silences, loss or disturbances of consciousness, seizure-like episodes, tearing off clothes, fleeing or wandering, rolling in snow, speaking in tongues or echolalia (echoing other people's words).
Some interesting culture-bound syndromes...
Taijin kyofusho (Japan) • A feeling of intense anxiety
centered around the dread of hurting or offending others.
• Taijin kyofusho is divided into four categories: – sekimen-kyofu (phobia of blushing), – shubo-kyofu (phobia of a deformed
body), – jikoshisen-kyofu (phobia of eye-to-
eye contact), – jikoshu-kyofu (phobia of a foul body
odour).
Some interesting culture-bound syndromes...Old Hag Syndrome
• This is actually fairly common across a multitude of cultures.
• A type of sleep paralysis, the hag is believed to be a witch or other type of supernatural being which comes and sits on a person's chest as he slept.
• The person experiences an inability to move, feelings of pressure on the chest, and difficulty breathing.
• They may see red eyes or feel feet or fingers. They may also hear the hag breathing.
• Visitations from the hag tend to cross multiple generations in a family.
• Sleep paralysis is a common sleep disturbance, although it is less common for people to experience the sensation of the "old hag".
• A modern version of the old hag may be found in some alien abduction stories, which feature the same general themes.
Ethical Issues• You should be able to recall ethical issues
from your AS Psychology:
• It is important that the BPS has strict guidelines that psychologist should follow when conducting research to protect participants.
• There is also the important topic of socially sensitive research; this is the issue about whether research should be avoided if there are potentially damaging consequences (e.g. imagine doing research about IQ and finding one race to be less intelligent than others).
• When presenting ethical issues in your essays you need to show how the researcher faced a conflict in collecting the results and the implications of this.
What is so unethical about this?!
• The ‘Sunshine Wellness Baby Centre’ would like to investigate whether women have a greater resistance to pain during labour than at the beginning of their pregnancy.
• They will approach women during their first midwife appointment and offer them £1000 to take part in the study.
• Women will need to attend a monthly appointment at the Baby Centre where they will receive an electric shock (beginning with 60v) and rate their pain level on a chart.
• The voltage will increase until the participant feels it would be too painful to continue.
What is so unethical about this?!
• Manchester Armed Response Unit would like to investigate the emerging culture of ‘have a go heroes’ during violent crimes.
• They would like to have undercover police officers pretend to be criminals and ‘rob’ an off license using a fake gun.
• The members of the public will not be aware of the experiment (including the shop keeper) in order to ensure realism.
What is so unethical about this?!
• Leeds University would like to investigate why men visit prostitutes.
• They intend to observe men who collect a prostitute in their car and record their license plate number.
• In conjunction with the police and DVLA they will find the address of these men and visit them to conduct a semi-structured interview about their use of prostitutes.
What is so unethical about this?!
• Guilford Hospital would like to investigate the effects of peer pressure on needle sharing.
• They propose to approach 5 known drug users during their HIV checkups and ask them to wear hidden cameras as they visit their friends who take drugs.
• These drug users will then pressure one friend to use a dirty needle and the camera will record the amount of time taken to convince the friend to do it.
Video 2
Role of Animals in Research
• Most research in psychology uses human participants, however when this is not possible psychologists may chose to carry out research on non-human animals.
• The basic principles of behaviourism were largely based on Skinner work with rats and pigeons. However a major criticism of using animals in research is whether their behaviour can fully explain the behaviour or experiences of humans.
• It is important to distinguish between naturalistic observations of animals where no harm comes to them, and experimental research where animals are likely to be permanently affected.
Role of Animals in ResearchWhy use animals?• Animals can be used in ways humans can’t:
– Short lifespan and breeding cycles enable inheritance to be studied
– Behaviour can be controlled and monitored in ways impossible with people
– Less reactivity• We share common ancestry with other
animals (Darwin, 1859)– Basic similarities in physiological structure &
functioning– Behavioural similarities with some species (e.g.
primates)– Animal research therefore gives valid
information about human processes
Ethical arguments– Utilitarian
• The suffering of a small number of animals is justified because it helps a large number of people
– Moral duty• We have a moral obligation to our own species to
advance knowledge and reduce suffering. Animal research is justified if it furthers this (Gray, 1991)
Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986
• If animals are to be constrained, harmed or stressed in any way, investigators must consider whether the knowledge to be gained justifies the procedure. Alternatives to animal experiments should be considered wherever possible.
• Limit the number of animals used to the minimum
• Do not use endangered species• Caging conditions should take into
account the social behaviour of the species.
Finally……choose a question below and answer it in full
sentences. Hand it in at the end of the lesson.
1. Discuss two or more examples of gender bias in psychological studies. (12 Marks) Jan 2007
2. “Psychology has tended to present a view of human behaviour that applies only to members of Western cultures and tells us little about the vast majority of human kind.” Choose a psychological study from AS level and discuss cultural bias in psychological research (theories and/or studies) with reference to issues such as the one raised in the quotation above. (12 Marks) Jan 2005
3. Choose a psychological study from AS level and discuss two or more ethical issues relating to psychological investigations involving human participants. Jan 2006
4. Describe constraints on the use of non-human animals in psychological investigations. (12 Marks) Jan 2007
Starter
• Complete the crossword on your desk.
Learning Objectives1) To be aware of the
different debates that exist in psychology.
Success Criteria1) Draw a table and make
some notes about the different debates in
psychology.2) Continue playing key
terms bingo.
Debates
Free Willvs.
Determinism
Nature vs.
Nurture
Reductionism Is Psychology a Science?
Reductionism vs. holism
• Reductionism involves breaking down complex phenomenon into something more simpler. Within the context of psychology: An approach that tries to explain a complex phenomenon such as human behaviour in terms of basic elements, i.e. can explain behaviour and experiences in reference to one factor e.g. physiology.
• Holism: Looks at individuals as a whole, or perhaps looks at all factors which together might explain a behaviour.
Reductionism
• Many explanations that are deterministic are also reductionist such as the behavioural and psychodynamic explanations. – For example, a common criticism of
Evolutionary Psychology is that it doesn’t consider our conscious thoughts or external influences; it only explains our behaviour in terms of genetic or biological factors that relate to survival.
– Similarly, the Behavioural approach only considers external stimuli and not mental processes or emotional experiences.
• Why is biological psychology reductionist?
• Can you think of any research studies in psychology that are reductionist?
Is Psychology a Science?
• Science is a particular approach to studying the world that emphasises objectivity i.e. the experimenter is clearly separated from what they are studying. – Objectivity: psychologists are people doing
experiments usually on other people. The psychologist may have beliefs and expectations which in turn may influence the findings of an experiment. Alternatively the participant may react to the presence of the experimenter in unexpected ways.
– There has long been the argument about whether psychology can call itself a science...in order to be a science, psychology needs to have certain characteristics:• Empiricism• Objectivity• Replicability• Control• Theory construction
Julia Russell
Born bad?What are the causes of crime?
Is menacing behaviour like
stalking a product of
nature or nurture?
Are some people biologically predisposed to become criminals?
Do psychological factors affect the incidence of criminality?
Is antisocial behaviour a product of social factors?
Nature vs. Nurture
• The central question is the extent to which our behaviour is determined by our genes we inherit from our parents versus the influence of environmental factors such as home school and friends.
• Nature is not only what we are born with, but also how our genes influences our maturation.
• The extreme position is that behaviour entirely determined by genes or conversely by our environment.
• Topics which are hotly debated under the nature vs. nurture argument:– IQ, Attachments, Addiction
• Recent view is that nature and nurture are entwined and not separate. It is up to the individual to choose what to do in their environment.
Nature refers to behaviour that is
determined by inherited factors (genetics)
Nurture is the influence of any environmental
factors (social or physical) including
learning – referred to as experience
Nature
A youngster with a larger-than-average amygdala (right) may have more tantrums than one with a smaller version (left).
Nurture
Children who see a ‘role model’ behaving aggressively towards a doll will imitate the behaviour (Bandura).
Behaviourist approach?
Psychodynamic approach?
Social approach?
Cognitive approach?
Biological approach?
Nature Nurture
No approach is entirely nature or nurture, place each approach on
the continuum.
Nature vs. Nurture
Baby...you were born this way!
You’ve spread your wings and
learned how to fly!
Height
Criminal behaviour
Intelligence
Type A personality
Intelligence
Depression
Aggression
Driving ability
Gender roles
Artistic
Homosexuality
Behavioural psychology
Biological psychology
Bowlby’s theory of
attachment
Pavlov’s study using
dogs
Eating disorders
Psychodynamic approach
Free Will vs. Determinism
• Most approaches in psychology are ‘deterministic’. If we can explain someone’s behaviour fully then there is no room for free will.
• Sometimes we can assume that individuals take responsibility for their own actions and therefore have the free will to choose whether to do wrong or right.
• However, if behaviour is only due to factors outside the person’s control, then they don’t have free will and cannot be responsible for their own actions – is this acceptable?
• Which approaches do you think are deterministic?
Free will = argument that people have free
will because each individual is able to choose their own
behaviour.
Determinism = people’s actions are
determined by external (e.g. parents)
and internal (neurotransmitters dopamine) forces.
Task
• Think of some AS studies which illustrate free will and determinism.
• Copy and complete the table below:
Free Will Determinism
1. 1.
2. 2.
Finally…
…with your neighbour, discuss the debates in psychology.
• In the exam you need to be synoptic throughout your essays, this means that you need to be able to criticise studies that you present.
• You should each choose a study from AS level and criticise it using the debates – help your neighbour if they get stuck!
Starter Quiz
• In teams of no more than 3, answer the following questions… no notes allowed!
1. If a behaviour is determined by genes it is due to…
2. If psychology is a science it has to be…3. An argument saying that people have
the right to choose their behaviour.4. If a behaviour occurs due to
environmental factors it is due to…5. The process of breaking down a
complex phenomenon into something simpler
6. An argument saying that people’s actions occur because of internal and external forces.
Learning Objectives1) To be aware of the
different approaches in psychology.
Success Criteria1) Draw a table and make
some notes about the different approaches in
psychology.2) Apply the approaches to
a practice question.
Starter Quiz1. If a behaviour is determined by genes it
is due to…• nature
2. If psychology is a science it has to be…• objective
3. An argument saying that people have the right to choose their behaviour.• free will
4. If a behaviour occurs due to environmental factors it is due to…• nurture
5. The process of breaking down a complex phenomenon into something simpler• reductionism
6. An argument saying that people’s actions occur because of internal and external forces.• determinism
Approaches
Biological Psychodynamic Cognitive Behavioural
Draw out this table…Explanation Strengths Weaknesses
Biological
Psychodynamic
Cognitive
Behavioural
Evolutionary
Biological Approach
• The Biological approach believes human behaviour is due to our genetics inherited from parents and/or physiology (i.e. nature).
• We become ill, medically and/or psychologically, because of physiological or genetic damage, disease, or accident.
• It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviours from a medical/biological, and thus physical point of view.
• Characteristics are determined by one gene (e.g. eye colour) or many genes (e.g. intelligence).
Biological Approach
It provides clear predictions, for example, about the effects of neurotransmitters, or the behaviours of people who are genetically related. This means the explanations can be tested and ‘proven’, which according to Popper is very important.
Most biological explanations are reductionist and don’t provide enough information to fully explain human behaviour. Individuals may be predisposed to certain behaviours but these behaviours may not be displayed unless they are triggered by factors in the environmental. This is known as the ‘Diathesis Stress model’ of human behaviour.
Psychodynamic Approach
• The Psychodynamic approach proposes that our behaviour is influenced not just by our conscious experience but by experiences and processes buried in our unconscious.
• Our personality is made up of three components; – ID (Pleasure complex as it is a reservoir of basic
inherited instincts such as sex and aggression). – SUPEREGO (represents our moral conscience
which develops during childhood.– EGO tries to protect us from anxieties using
defence mechanism such as repression into the unconscious.
• The combination of biological urges and our experiences during childhood is what gives us the personality we have. Our experiences during the Psychosexual stages of development (Oral, anal, phallic, latent & genital) and whether we are sufficiently gratified or fixated during the stages determines our personality.
Psychodynamic Approach
• The Unconscious – this part of the mind holds anxiety provoking thoughts and events, which have been repressed by our Defence mechanisms, such as Repression, denial or regression. These are useful psychic energies as they help push unwanted information into our unconscious. What is in our unconscious still affects our behaviour and if these defence mechanisms are used too much this causes mental illnesses.
It recognises the importance of the unconscious factors and the complexity of human behaviour and motivations, something ignored by the behaviourist approach.
Freud’s theory cannot be falsified, i.e. a person may admit to negative feelings about their father or may deny such feelings – but such denial could be taken to indicate that they are simply repressing such feelings.
Cognitive Approach• The Cognitive approach in psychology is a relatively
modern approach to human behaviour that focuses on how we think, with the belief that such thought processes affect the way in which we behave.
• This approach is the opposite to behaviourist approach, where the concept of the mind is banished.
• The approach is relatively new, only coming to light in the 1950s.
• A cognitive psychologist explains behaviour in terms of thoughts, beliefs and attitudes, and studies how to direct our behaviour.
This approach lends itself to studying human behaviour in a scientific manner. Research contains clear IVs, DVs and testable hypotheses and human behaviour can be tested in controlled environments.
Overly mechanistic, the stringent research style can fail to consider social, motivational and emotional factors. Research evidence and explanations may be based on research evidence that lack ecological validity.
Behavioural Approach• The Behaviourist approach assumes that we are
born as blank slates and assumes all behaviours are learnt through:– operant conditioning – rewards/punishments, – classical conditioning - association, or – vicarious reinforcement (SLT) – observing others and
seeing the outcome +/-) and that our experiences and environment make us who we are.
• Mental concepts are not considered and analysis of thoughts does not occur.
Like the biological perspective the behaviourist also provides clear predictions that can. This means that explanations can be tested and ‘proven’.
The approach only provides a partial account of human behaviour, that which can be objectively viewed. Important factors like emotions, expectations, higher-level motivation are not considered or explained. Accepting a behaviourist explanation could prevent further research from other perspective that could uncover important factors.
Evolutionary Approach
• The Evolutionary approach explains behaviour in terms of the selective pressures that shape behaviour.
• Most behaviours that we see/display are believed to have developed during our EEA (environment of evolutionary adaptation) to help us survive.
• The measure of evolutionary success is reproductive fitness (usually the number of offspring) compared to other members of the group
• Observed behaviour is likely to have developed because it is adaptive. It has been naturally selected, i.e. individuals who are best adapted survive and reproduce.
• Behaviours may even be sexually selected, i.e. individuals who are most successful at gaining access to mates leave behind more offspring.
Evolutionary Psychology
This approach can explain behaviours that appear dysfunctional, such as anorexia, or behaviours that make little sense in a modern context, such as our biological stress response when finding out we are overdrawn at the bank.
Cultural influences when understanding human behaviour are not acknowledged in this approach, for example, evolutionary influences lead men to select physically attractive women but the exact details of what constitutes physical attractiveness is partly determined by culture.
Finally…
…in groups of no more than 3 you will be given a stimulus question, this is like a case study.
• Stick the stimulus question in the centre of the A3 paper and answer the question on the sheet, applying the knowledge that you have learned in today’s lesson.
AO3How science
works…
Starter
• Name as many research methods key terms as possible….there is a prize for the winner!
Learning Objectives1) To understand how to
use research methodology to criticise psychological
studies.
Success Criteria1) Criticise some
psychological studies using research methodology.2) Prepare a synoptic
revision aid to help you write essays.
Research Methodology
• You need to be able to comment on the scientific methods that psychologists have used to carry out their studies (page 280):– Design issues– Validity– Reliability– Scientific method (e.g. observation/survey
etc)– Demand characteristics– Social desirability bias– Lack of control
• You also need to know about the major features of science (page 276):– Empiricism– Objectivity– Replicability– Control– Theory construction
Task
• The worksheet has a selection of famous psychological studies.
• Using your knowledge of research methods from AS level you should criticise the studies.
• In your essays you need to learn to ‘layer’ the criticisms – this is so that you don’t lose marks by leaving the evaluation to the end.
• You can discuss the studies with your neighbour.
Synoptic Revision Aid
• Your task it to create a resource for use in lesson and at home to help with the structure of evaluation in your essays.
• You could create one of the following:– synoptic ‘spinner’– synoptic ‘toolbox’– synoptic ‘board’– synoptic ‘cards’
• You should finish the revision aid at home.
Appr
oach
esDebates
IssuesSynoptic Material A2 Psychology