KEYBOARD STYLE IN LATE EIGHTEENTB-CENTURY ENGLAND:

A STUDY OF FINGERING, TOUCH, AND ARTICULATION

Jacquelyn DeNure McGlynn Faculty of Music

Submitted in partial fblfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

Faculty of Graduate Studies The University of Western Ontario

London, Ontario September 1999

O Jacquelyn DeNure McGlynn 1999

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ABSTRACT

Muzio Clementi's Introduction to the T'e Art of Playing the Piano Forte (1 80 1)

provided a means whereby a performer might develop a sound technique for the relatively

new pianoforte, along with the apprgpriate fingering necessary to exploit this instrument's

potential.

The move From harpsichord to pianoforte was also accompanied by the publication

of several lesser known treatises, the study of which reflects changes in fingering that

point towards the more legato style so readily obtained over the detached style of the

harpsichord.

The turn of the century in England was accompanied by important changes in

musical life: the favoured instrument changed from harpsichord to pianoforte,

instructional tutors with modem fingering became readily available. and the Iegato style

emerged as the normal touch. This connection between instrument, fingering, and touch is

unquestionable, as is Clementi's position as the systematic exponent of techniques that had

already evolved with the new instrument itself.

Keywords: Pianoforte, Fortepiano, Harpsichord, Keyboard, Legato, Articulation, Touch, Fingering, Clementi, England.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Neville for encouraging my completion of this degree. After years of work on this paper which were accompanied by many happy events (marriage, childbirth) as well as many sad events (loss of grandparents, sister-in-law and friends), it was Dr. Neville who gave me the confidence to give this degree one last honest effort. To him I am most grateful. His ongoing advice, expertise, support and humour have made this completion all the more meaningful. My husband and parents are truly appreciative of his wonderkl guidance as well. Thank you Dr. Neville for helping me to pick up the pieces and put them together. and for the hours you spent with or about me. Now when I see you at the arena, I will no longer have a yellow envelope in tote; finally we can talk 1 00% skating at the rink.

I would like to thank Dr. Toft for his ongoing support and advice as my second reader. Dr. Toft, who has been there since the start, has been a constant source of information and enthusiasm. I appreciate his continuous suppon and guidance over the years his friendly ways, and his expertise in the area of study. I thank him for allowing me to examine materials which he had collected during his time in England.

1 would like to thank Dr. Mangsen for introducing me to this area of study in a graduate course which she was conducting. I thark her for her enthusiasm and guidance during the initial stages of this study, and her clear passion for early keyboard performance practices.

Many thanks to my time savers, our librarians: Lisa Philpott and Gayle Fluter. You have no idea the role you have played throughout my entire time at U. W.O. Thank you for all of your help in finding so many books and recordings (for skating routines) so quickly. You are always resourceful and helpfbl, smiling and friendly, and perhaps that means more than anything. Thank you both!

I thank my parents for always supporting my every endeavour. I know that they will be so relieved to see the degree on the wall. I thank them b r their constant encouragement and giving. Dad, thanks for giving me all the "time off' that I needed from our family business (Chatharn Coach Lines). Thanks, Mom for being "super gramma" and coming to London at the drop of a hat to look after Jocelyn. She too appreciates the time you gave to us no matter what you had planned. Dad and Mom, thanks for everything.

My husband, Peter, has been an unbelievable source of encouragement and assistance. His computer skills have saved me many hours and many tears, and for all that he has done, I feel he shares this degree with me. He has kept me going when I know I would have thrown in the towel. Thank you for your love and support regardless of my swinging moods. I thank you for taking our daughter, Jocelyn, for countless walks to the park so that I could have quiet time at the computer. Thank you for picking up the slack at home and at the oflice.

To my little darling daughter Jocelyn, thank you for being you. You and your beautifid smile make everything worth while. To our expectant son, Max, after all of our studying, I would hope that you are a natural at early keyboard performance practices!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of examination Abstract Acknowledgments Table of Contents List of Tables List of Appendices

Introduction I

1 Keyboard Instruments and Their Required Techniques 7 An Overview of the Keyboard Instruments 8 The Evolution of the Pianoforte Preference 15 The Transfer of Technique - A Question Under Debate 24

2 Legato: Required Fingering, Articulation, and Touch 27 The Evolution of Instructions Regarding Touch 27 The Relationship Between Fingering and Articulation 34 Adapting Fingering Methods to Achieve a Legaio Line 43

3 Background Information: Clernenti's Life and the English Treatises 47 Clementi's Life 49 A Profile of the English Keyboard Treatises Under Review 53 Detailed Methodologies 56 Treatises Lacking Detail 63

4 Technical Comparisons: The English Treatises and Clementi's Work 69 A Comparison of Specific Techniques 69 Clement? s Trerrtise 88

Conctusions 100

Appendix A 105

Bibliography 106

Vita 113

LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page

Table 3 .1 A Listing of Published Editions and Dates of Clementi's Introlhrctio~z to the Art of Playing on the Piano Forte 48

Table 3.2 Modem Fingering Patterns of Major Scales 53

Table 3.3 Categorization of the EnlJish Keyboard Treatises, 1785- 180 1 55

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Description Page

Appendix A Chronological Listing of English Tutors Under Examination 105

INTRODUCTION

With its focus on the last two decades of the eighteenth century, this study touches

upon the important moment in music history when the pianoforte first began seriously to

displace the harpsichord as the keyboard instrument of choice for solo and chamber music.

Particularly in England, this change had a marked reflection in contemporary treatises

written between 1785 and 1800, culminating, if modem usage is to be taken as an

indicator, in Muzio Clernenti's Introduction to the Tnrr Art of Playing the Piano Forte,

published in 1801.' What is particularly illuminating in these treatises are ideas about

technique, articulation, and fingering which, when compared, reveal a movement away

from performing principles appropriate to the harpsichord towards practices that would

exploit the potential of the new instrument. The contents of the lesser-known English

treatises also reveal that Clementi's tutor, rather than being strictly innovative, is more a

systematic and consistent application of principles already articulated in earlier and

contemporary writings. Although this study will confine itself to English treatises, it

should also be noted from the outset that many ideas contained in the Clementi work also

have precedents in such European treatises as those written by Fran~ois Couperin (1 7 16),

Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1 753), and Daniel Gottlob Tiirk (1 789).2

t Mwio Clementi. Introduction to the .4rt of Playing on the Piano Forte (London. 180 I : reprint ai. New York: Da Capo. 1974).

' Franwis Couperin. L 'an de toucher le cluvecin ( M s . 1716: reprint trans. h m the French and edited by Margery Word as The .-lrt ofplaying the Harpsichord. New York: Alfred Publishing, 1974); Carl Philipp Emmuel Back Fersuch dber die wahre -4rt dm Clmier ,tu spielen (Berlin 1753: trans. h m the G e m and edited by William J. MitcheLl as Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, New York: Norton 1949); and Daniel Gottlob Tiirk Kkzvierschule -pig 1789: trans. from the German by Raymond H . Haggh as School of Clavier PlWng, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).

For any instrumentalist, the principles of technique, articulation, and fingering are

inextricably bound together, and for scholars, changes in fingering patterns over a number

of years, particularly in relation to articulation, can serve as important indicators of

changes in keyboard technique. Although scholars such as Daniel M. Raessle? and Mark

~ i n d l e ~ ~ have laid groundwork for such investigations, no comparative studies of groups

of treatises seem to have been undertaken. It is fortunate, indeed, that so many English

keyboard tutors have survived tiom the last fifteen years of the eighteenth century,

permitting this detailed study of keyboard techniques in use in England at the time that

Clementi was developing his own approaches.

With this end in mind, I will, in this thesis, lead the reader through a comparative

study of a number of fingering principles contained in twelve English keyboard treatises

published between 1785 and 1800, culminating in Clementi's tutor of 180 1 .' The content

of these treatises. we can expect, in addition to reflecting changes in keyboard technique,

will also shed some light upon the progression and development of our modem fingering

principles. The fingering patterns evident in the late eighteenth-century treatises appear, in

many instances, to be nearly identical to those used today.

In Clementi ' s case, the keyboard fingerings employed are consistently modem.

Indeed, Clementi has generally been credited with having established modern fingering

'Daniel M. hessler. Thange in Keyboard Touch Around 1800 - From Ah-legato to Legaro.- Emfv Keyboard Journal 1 (1982-83): 2 5 4 .

'hiark Liwlley. "Keyboard Fingerings and n d d a t i o n " Chap. 9 in Performance Practice: .Lfu.sic u@r 1600, ed. Howard Brown and Stanley Sadie (London: Mamillan 1989). 186-203.

' For a complete chronological Listing of the tutors under examination, see Appendix A on p. 103. The publication dates for these works have been drawn fmm W . Barclay Squue, Catalogue of Printed .bIusic Published between 2487 and 1800 Now in the British :~Iuseum, 2 vok (London 19 12: reprint d. Liechtenstein: Kraus. 1968).

formulas, a matter which accounts for the number of editions of his treatise that have

appeared over the last 200 years. This comparative study of selected fingering patterns

found in English treatises published during the period specified above will therefore aim to

document the development of these new patterns, to determine the relationship between

fingering and articulation (specifically to an increasingly more legato playing style), and

finally, to uncover any aspects of keyboard technique connected to the transition from

harpsichord and clavichord to pianoforte.

It is worth noting that the title pages of most treatises examined mention not only

the pianoforte, but at least one of the following: the harpsichord, organ, or spinet.

Although this practice may simply represent a commercial appeal to all keyboard players,

including Clementi himself who had been trained on the harpsichord,6 it also points to a

trend that led to his becoming one of the earliest composers to conceive works completely

in terms of the pianoforte and to exploit its fullest possibilities. By the late eighteenth

century, the pianoforte had certainly become the preferred keyboard instrument of both

professionals and amateurs,' and the modem fingering patterns in Clementi7s Intrducrion,

directly reflect this transition to the new instrument.

Although fingering p a w s cannot fully dictate articulation, some connection

between the two is probable. As already suggested, of particular interest is the more

co~ected style of playing which seems to have evolved with modem fingering patterns, in

comparison to the inevitable detached articulation that is created by a shift of the hand. As

' Sandra P. Rosenblwn. *Intmductionv in Innoduction to the .4rt of Pftying on the Piano Forte (London 180 1 : reprint ad.. New York: Da Capo, 1974): v-vii.

Albert G. H a The Transition from Harpsichord to Piano," Galpin Sbciefy Journal 6 (1953): 83.

for the transition fiom the harpsichord and clavichord to the pianoforte, it is imperative at

the outset to comprehend clearly the characteristic playing technique for each of these

popular keyboard instruments and the effect that each had on the development of modem

principles of fingering and on the more legato style of playing. The aim of chapter one,

therefore, is to explore the various keyboard instruments, their construction, and their

different characteristic sounds. This chapter then deals with the transition from the

harpsichord and the clavichord to the pianoforte as the popular keyboard instrument, and

the question of transferring technique from one instrument to the other.

Chapter two considers the probable effect of the new instrument on the fingering

patterns and the associated changes in touch and articulation, and explores the connection

between the more modem fingering patterns and the less detached style. A consideration

of prominent statements favouring this connected style will support the fact that the legato

touch was not suddenly produced and preferred, but instead was a progression that

evolved alongside the development of the new keyboard instrument. The typical late

eighteenth-century fingering employed in scales and consecutive thirds, and the use of

thumb crossing and finger substitutions, are investigated in order to confirm the implied

legato motion now possible on the new instrument. Such changes in touch demanded new

methodologies and this confirms the suggestion that fingering and articulation are

interrelated. Keeping in mind that fingering patterns cannot ordinarily dictate articulation,

certain effects will be suggested as highly probable. '

It must be remembered that specrfically marked articulations such as slurs. dots. and wedges can counteract the conventionally detached or legato touch implied by fingering patterns done.

Chapter three provides a brief biography of Clementi himself and a summary of his

treatise. Aspects of his modem techniques are addressed as well as those of his

contemporaries from the continent. This chapter then provides an overview of the English

treatises under investigation, grouping them into two categories: those with detailed

instruction and those in which such detail is lacking.

Chapter four isolates, identifies and then compares particular techniques such as

scale passages, consecutive thirds, consecutive sixths, repeated notes, consecutive notes,

octaves, leaps, chords, and sequences such as those based on the Alberti bass pattern, all

illustrated with specific examples from the selected treatises. Examples from Clementi's

own treatise are then compared to the above findings.

It will become evident in the conclusions that Clementi's approach is similar to that

found in most late eighteenth-century English instruction books. His work differs,

however, From that of his predecessors in that it is complete and detailed, with fingerings

for all scales and exercises, and a prelude for each new key. His inclusion of dirninished-

seventh arpeggios among the chords to be practiced is new, as is his frequent reference to

a legato style of playing. He also provides alternative fingerings to achieve different

effects in articulation-detached versus connected thirds, sixths and octaves, for example.

Moreover, in his introduction, he states that "the best general rule, is to keep down the

keys of the instrument, the FULL LENGTH of every note.'" Compared with C.P.E.

Bach's directive to hold the note for one-half its value, and Turk's suggestion that three-

quarters of the notated duration is ordinarily appropriate, the overall progression to a

9 Clementi. Introdkction. 8.

more legato style is clear. Clementi's description is telling: 'the strings WEIRATE

SWEETLY into one another". 'O

CHAPTER ONE

Kevboard Instruments and Their Required Techniaues

... the want of knowledge how, at Erst, lo play it, because it is not stiflcient to know how to pkry peflectly upon insh-uments with the ordinary keybard; being a new instrument, it requires u person who utuierstandittg its capabilities shall haw made a pmticu far stzdj cf its effects . . .

Scipione Maffei '

The transition in fingering techniques and the musical style of keyboard

compositions went hand in hand with an instrumental transition from the harpsichord and

clavichord to the pianoforte.2 The attempt to transfer techniques from the older

instruments to the new made modem approaches a matter of necessity, approaches that

included changes with regard to touch and articulation, including of course, the lean

towards a legato style of playing.

' Sapione MatTei was an Mian writer who interviewed Bartolomeo Cristofori in approximately 171 1 after his having manufactured one of his fim pianofortes. Reference in Rosmond E.M. Hading, The Piano-Forre. (Cambridge: 1933; reprint ed.. New Yo*: Da Capo, 1973). Cited in Hess. "The Transition h m Hrupslchord to hano." 76.

' Since the purpose of this study is to contrast the techniques. articulations. and fingerings appropriate to the modern piano that emerged at the beginning of the nineteenth century with those of the earlier harpsichord and clavichord no attempt has k e n made to include details speclfic to the firrepiano. This is the name given primarily by madem scholars specrficaily to the earliest pianoforte, which enjoyed particular popularity in the mid 1700s at its time of invention. Within the treatises e.xaminsb for the present study, the term "pianoforte" is used almost without exception to describe the keybmd instrument with hammer action right from the time of its invention. This identification is also echoed. for the most pait. in the secondary sources consulted. Therefore. to avoid confbsion the term "pianoforte" is used throughout this study in conformity with the sources used . For further information on the earliest pianoforte. see Howard Ferguson Keyboard lnterpretation/Fom the lP to the 1!f' Century (New Y o k 1975: reprint ed, Toronto: Word University Press. 1987): The ,Vew Grove Eadv Kqvboord Insfrurnents. edited by Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan 1989): The Cambridge Companion to the Piano. edited by David Row land (Cambridge: University Press, 1998); Stewart Pollens, The Em!v Piano forte (London: Cambridge University Press, 1995); and Sandra P. Rosemblum. Perjiormance Practices in CI-cal Piano Music - Their Principles and Rpplications (Indiana: University Press, 1988).

An Overview of the Kevboard Instruments

The harpsichord was the primary keyboard instrument to precede the pianoforte,

and the fundamental distinction between the two lies in their differing mechanical actions.

On the harpsichord, when a key is pressed, a see-saw action raises a piece of wood called

a jack, and the quill or plectrum attached to the jack plucks the string. In contrast, when a

key is pressed on the pianoforte, a hammer strikes a string'

In both situations, however, force applied against a key is required to activate the

mechanism; as one requires force to pluck the string on the harpsichord, one requires

force to activate the lever and hammer on the pianoforte. The resistance of the plectrum

against the string on the harpsichord is less than that required to activate the hammer to

strike the string on a piano. Accordingly, the weight applied to the keys of a harpsichord

should be less than that applied to the pianoforte." A heavy touch on the harpsichord will

not result in a louder sound, but will simply produce noise as the jacks hit the jack rail. On

the pianoforte, however, the player can produce a spectrum of dynamics by varying the

weight with which the keys are depressed.

The harpsichord had a distinctly clear and metallic tone which lent itself to linear

clarity in polyphonic textures and in the use of embellishment. With its quick decay, the

harpsichord favoured performance in a detached style or in an articulated legato.' Much

of the music written for the harpsichord is contrapuntal and, as a result, benefits from the

3 The hammer m y strike 1. 2. or 3 strings: 1 string in the bass. 2 strings in the mid-range. and 3 in the upper regster.

' Barban Baird 'Tntroducing Pianists to Harpschord Skills.' Clavier, 32 ( 1993): 30.

Articulated legato wiU be e.xpiored later in this study as a stage in the overall progression between the more detached style and one that was W y connected.

detached style duly satisfied by early fingering techniques. As a result of its inability to

create these subtle shadings by altering the touch alone, variances of sound were created

through the use ofstops. This is the name given to devices which engage the various

registers on a harpsichord and an organ. Controlled by pedals which were operated by

either the knee or the foot, or by levers above the keyboard, the stop was initially intended

to create special effects, and more specifically to accommodate a change in dynamic range

which was not possible by altering the weight with which the keys were depressed, and to

offer the performer the option of enhancing or changing the tone. The stops most common

to the harpsichord were the "lute" and "buff' stops. The "lute" stop moved the jacks so

that the plectrums plucked close to the nut resulting in a less brilliant and more nasal-like

tone, while the "buff' stop muted strings by pressing leather pads against them next to the

nut."his enabled the overtones of the higher octave strings to be dampened resulting in a

less metallic and softer sound.

Likewise, performers on the pianoforte employed the sustaining pedal primarily to

e ~ c h the tone. When depressed, the pedal lifts all the dampers off the strings, and this

allows the notes to continue sounding even after the keys have been released by the hand.

This also enables a stronger connection between the notes.' Added later, the soft pedal or

una c o d (one string) works in one of two ways: depressing the pedal actually shifts the

we nut is a second bridge much like the soundboard bridge and is located on the wrest plank just behind the tuning pins and just ahead of where the plectrum makes contact with the string.. The nut helps to ensure the best point of contact for the plectrum against the strings. See Evan J. Kern. Harpsichord Design and Construction (Toronto: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1 980). 1 2.36.

Damper-raising mechanisms first appeared in the 1740s and were operated by either the knees or the hands. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, this style of pedal was superseded by the now familiar damper pedal. The adaptation armrred at varying rates across the continent. with certain Viennese pianofortes still emplaying the knee lever well into the 1790s. The combination of the modified mechanism and the changing style resulted in a new pedaling practice.

keyboard and hammer actions sideways such that only one string is struck, or it moves the

hammers nearer the strings so that they are unable to strike as powerfully. The resultant

sound is soft and muted.

The pianoforte appears to have become regarded not only a more versatile and

convenient instrument: but also as one of economic advantage. The harpsichord required

regular maintenance as it was in constant need of re-quilling and, in particular, tuning'

The clavichord also preceded the pianoforte. Although this instrument was not as

popular as the harpsichord, the two were often closely associated. Small brass blades

called tangents strike the strings and rest against them until the key is released. This

permits the finger to alter the intensity of the note by varying the pressure on the key.

With its soft and delicate sound, however, the clavichord was not particularly suitable for

public performances.

Manufacturers seemed reluctant to turn exclusively to the production of the new

pianofone at the expense of the possibilities offered by the older instruments, and grasped

at a merging of certain instrumental capabilities. In an attempt to adapt pianoforte

mechanisms to the harpsichord and clavichord, several instrument makers actually fitted

s Although in esistence at the same time. the organ is not often directly associated with the harpsichord or pianoforte. None of the sources examined in this study connected the organ with either of these instruments or with the clavichord with regard to techruque. On occasion. however. it is listed on title pages as one of the intended keyboard instruments. Such listings suggest that while the organ ~vas indeed 3 keybard instrument of the time. beyond the similarities relating to the depressing of the keys. few co~ections with respect to technique or styk existed

Carl Parrsh. *'Criticisms of the Piano When It Was New.' The Music Quarter& 30 ( 1944): 428.

the older instruments with hammer mechanisms. lo ~ikewise, several pianofortes built

during the second half of the century were equipped with a large number of stops.

It must be remembered that the pianoforte itself underwent several changes in

construction between 1750 and 1850 which greatly altered its tone. The early pianoforte

with its thin strings and small leather-covered hammers had a sharp attack and quick

decay, closer, perhaps, to the response from a harpsichord than to the full sound of the

modem piano. The tone was very bright, especially in the upper register, the dampening

of the notes was quick and complete, and the dynamic range was not nearly as wide as

that of the modem piano. ' ' The refinements of the pianoforte included longer and larger hammers, and a

redesigned escapement that allowed for a more rapid return of the beak of the hammer.

Increased accuracy and equality of string tension produced a more even sound, and the

introduction of iron braces allowed for greater string tension. The striking point where

the hammer makes contact with the string was also carehlly calculated for greater

accuracy of placement.'2 Progressively, thicker strings became the norm, as did the

practice of adding more than one string for notes across different registers." In general,

the pianofortes at the end of the eighteenth century were larger, stronger, and more

resonant than their predecessors, and were particularly suited to a legato style. It might be

expected, therefore, that composers and pianists at this time would come to demand

'' Parrish "Criticism of the Piano." 430.

" Carol Lei Post. The Fanepiano and Classical Style." CImier 30 (199 1): UW.

" Raessler. -Change in Keyboard Touch." 3 5.

l 3 Parrisk *Criticisms of the Piano," 430.

instruments capable of this connected sound as part of a new-found control over the

shaping of phrases, a control that also extended to dynamics and the balancing of the

parts. Carl Parrish certainly suggests this to be the case with Beethoven as from the end

of the eighteenth century. Beethoven, it seems, exerted particular influence on the

evolution of the piano, demanding more of the instrument's compass, volume and

timbre. lJ

The sustaining or damper pedal as we know it today was not a standard feature of

piano construction until the late eighteenth century, and as a result, it comes as no surprise

to find that indications for pedaling and references to the damper pedal in music predating

1790 are rare. l 5 C. P.E. Bach only mentions the damper pedal briefly in his Essq on the

T h e Art of Playi,ig Keyboard l ~ r r n e r m of 1759-62: 'The undampened register of the

pianoforte is the most pleasing and, once the performer learns to observe the necessary

precaution in the fact of its reverberations, the most delightful for improvisation."'6 By

contrast, later in the 1790s, Johann Peter Milchmeyer devoted four pages of his piano

method Die Wahre Art k s Pianoforte zu spielen ('The True Art of Piano Playing") to

damper pedal mechanisms: 'They make the most beautill, or the most horrible

transformation, depending on whether they are employed with taste or inappropriately; in

the latter case all of the tones sound with each other and produce such intolerably horrible

noise that one wants to stop one's ears."" Milchmeyer listed the various effects created

I I See. for e-?ample: Parrisk "Criticisms of the Pianoon 43 1 : Lei Post. The Fortepiano and Classical Style." 43.

" Daniel M Raessler. 'A New Look at Old Pedaling" Clavier, 30 (199 I): 16.

16 Back Essqv on the True Art of Plqing Keyboard Instruments. 1 5 7.

" Raessler. "A New Look at Old Pedaling," 17.

or enhanced by raising and lowering dampers, including the heightened effect of crescendi

and dimimrendr. He states that to create these effects, pianists kept the dampers raised for

measures at a time, using the damper pedal as earlier generations used stops or registration

changes on the harpsichord or organ. '* This suggestion of the damper pedal as a new

substitute for a "special-effect7' stop provides yet another, if unexpected, association

between earlier keyboard performance practices and the emerging art of piano playing.

In Clementi's music, extended passages with raised damper pedaling are rare. In

the final movement of his Sonata in D, Op. 37 ( 1798), however, the 3 1 -measure rondo

theme heard at the outset is played in its entirety without a change of pedal (see ex. 1).

The blurring is not as excessive as it may seem to the eye for two reasons. Clementi

creates a tonic pedal point with his static harmony and repetitive bass line, and early

pianos did not sustain sounds to the same degree as later modeldg

Passages specifying raised dampers continued to appear into the 1830s but, as

before, they are infrequent.2' Even if this blurred pedaling was in any way the norm at the

turn of the century, applying such a practice on the modem piano in the interest of

authenticity is problematic. With the changes in piano construction and musical taste,

these long passages of open pedal are rarely heard in performance today. It is, however,

interesting to note that even as early as 1804, this method of pedaling was considered by

'' Raessler. "Change in Keyboard Touch* 29.

19 According to hessler. the first known publications of pxkd indications are found in Daniel Steibelt's Pot Pound I%. 6 of 1792- 1793 which begins with 27 measures of raised dampers. Unlike Clernenti's e.u;lmpIe above. the harmonies here are more diverse and therefore. the blurring is more ernme. See. hesler. "A New Look at Old Pedaling," 17.

" Raessler. "A New Look at Old Pedaling,n 18.

some to be passe. According to Louis Adam in his Methode de Piano, for example,

blurring scales or melodies in quicker tempi through misuse of the damper pedal indicated

deceptive and deficient technique. On the contrary, he insisted that any change of

harmony required damping the previous sounds before proceeding, and he recommended

using the pedal only in "pure, harmonious pieces whose sounds may be sustained for a

long time". 21

E-uample 1 - Mlnio Clementi. Sonata in D, Op. 3 7 nun. 1-35

The pedal was clearly used in slow movements with slow harmonic rhythms.

Johann Nepomuk Hummel is particularly clear on this subject, and in his treatise, A

Complete Theorrticai and Practicul Course of Insttuctions on the Art of Playing the

Piano Forte (1825), "refers to the pedals as worthless and adds that playing with the

dampers almost constantly raised, resorted to by way of a road to an impure and indistinct

" Louis Adam. .Lfithode de Piano (Paris 1804: reprint ed. Geneva: Minkoff. 1974). Cited in Raessler. -A New Look at Old Pedaling," 1%.

method of playing, has become so much the fashion that many players would no longer be

recognized if they were debarred the use of the

The Evolution of the Pianoforte Preference

In addition to the strictly mechanical changes, general performance attitudes of the

period and nationalistic arenas also had roles to play as preferences moved from the

harpsichord and clavichord to the piano. The listing of both the old and new instruments

in the titles of treatises may very well suggest that during the period under discussion, all

three were acceptable mediums of performance and were perhaps used interchangeably.

To suggest such an easygoing attitude towards the choice of the performance

medium is shocking to the modem scholar especially concerned with historically informed

pertbrmance practices. From the evidence of such practices of the period under

investigation, however, it is safe to suggest that nothing like our preoccupation with

historical veracity could have existed during this time? Such leniency suggests that the

music and the technique required for its execution could be performed on any available

instr~ment.~' Furthermore, most of the music being played both in public and in private

included dance tunes, accompaniments to ballads, and variations on familiar themes. It is

= Raessler. 'A New Look at Old Pedaling" 18.

" Howard Schon &From harpsichord to pianoforte - A chronology and commentary." E@v Music 1 3 (1985): 36.

" bid. 36.

quite likely that there was not such a firm line drawn between these works and the pieces

by the great classicd masters as we know them today?

The music performed was primarily of the moment and, as a result, questions of

performing practice with which we struggle did not arise. Today, scholars might find such

performance practices disrespectfid. Nevertheless, under the hands of a contemporary

master, the effect on the listeners of the period would likely have been very different?

Conceivably, we must acknowledge that moving From one keyboard to another was

commonly accepted during this period of transition."

It must also be remembered that the early distribution of the new pianoforte varied

across England and the ~ontinent.~' ltdy leads the field, with Cristofori (1655-1 73 1) as a

founding father, having produced an instrument with hammer action by the end of the

seventeenth centuxy.lg The German-speaking countries, particularly as represented by

Austria, appear to have followed in the 1720s. and although the origin of pianoforte

building in Vienna remains unknown, the development of the instrument in that location is

most often accredited to Johann (Georg) Stein (1 728- 1792), whose keyboard instrument

designs became legendary3' England did not enter the piano manufacturing scene until

Schott -From harpchord to pianoforte." 36.

" Manufacture of the new instrument overlapped with the continued building of its predecemrs. In some countries. for example. clavichords were constructed and used well into the niaeteenth century. Such was the case in Sweden and in some areas of Gemmy. where the clavichord remained a favourite. See Parrisk "Criticisms of the Piano." 429-30.

Hess. The Transition h m Harpsichord to Piano." 9 1 .

See Michael Latchman The Check in Some Eariy Pianos and the Development of Piano Techmque Around the Turn of the 1 8" Century." Early Music 2 1 ( 1 993): 29.

around 1760, and in doing so, relied heavily on such German immigrants as Johann

Christoph Zwnpe (1735-83).jL Although the first concerts on the new instrument, for

which records are extant, took place in 1768,'~ existing accounts of concert performances,

instrument manufacturing, and publications indicate that the piano was not in general use

in England until around 1 775.j3 These circumstances, along with the very existence of

pianoforte manufacturers, imply a demand for the instrument, a demand which, viewed

beside the indication 'Tor the pianoforte" on the title pages of published music and tutors,

may hnher suggest that the instrument was quickly gaining popularity.

In France, musicians became familiar with the piano as early as 1759.'' The first

French edition to mention the instrument dates from 1765, and, as in England, the first

documented concerts on the instrument took place in 1768.;' A move onto the

manufacturing market, however, did not take place in France until around 1790, at which

time the French piano was modelled on the English instr~rnent.'~ In spite of this later date

for actual piano manufacturing, it would seem that France and England introduced the

new instrument and assimilated it into public performances at approximately the same

time." In contrast, the German and Viennese manufacturers maintained their own line of

" Hess. "The Transition h r n Harpsichord to Piano." 9 1.

33 See Richard Maunder. "J.C. Bach and the Early Piano in Londonw The .Cfusrcal Times. 1 12 ( 1973): 209. and Schott. "From Harpsichord to Pianoforte.' 3 1.

Hess. The Transition Emm Harpsichord to Piano." 9 1.

production, with instruments that were quite different in sound and style to those

produced in ~ritain." By the early nineteenth century, the two main traditions, English

and Viennese, were well established. A link between these two traditions, however, is

quite probable.

This link came by way of the importation, first into Austria and subsequently into

Britain, of the escapement action of Cristofori's instruments, whereby the hammer

returned to its resting position immediately after hitting the string. Stein's early adaptation

of this action set the style of the Viennese instruments and particularly distinguished them

from the instruments that resulted from the British adoption of this same Cristofori action.

Indeed, the pianofortes made at the beginning of the nineteenth century in England still

closely resembled Cristofori's design. There were, of course, other differences in the

methods of construction that influenced the sound, control, and response of these

instruments, and although a detailed investigation into these matters lies beyond the scope

of the present study, an awareness of differences can be readily observed in the

preferences of contemporary composers.39

Mozart fancied the German or Viennese instrument and its lighter sound and touch

which facilitated scale runs and arpeggio movements. In contrast, Beethoven favoured the

3 &ese differences in style will be discussed later in this chapter.

''Although the differences in the way in which the escapement action had been adapted particularly differentiated the Viennese and English instnunents. other differences were also sipficant. Viennese instnunents. for esample. were built without a check. while the English instruments included it. The check made posslile a greater dynamrc range since it prevented the hammer from bouncing back and hitting the string a second time. regardless of the pressure applied to the key. This chronology in the sharing and discarding of continental tradition in pianoforte manufacturing is discussed in some detail in Latchman. The Check in Some Early Pianos." 29.

English instrument, as did Clementi, for its legato style, and richer, Mer sound.M Several

sources state that Beethoven found Mozart's playing (which was based on a staccato

rather than a legato touch) quite choppy," while anyone familiar with Beethoven's music

from the 1790s onwards can appreciate the heavier and more connected touch that the

English style instrument would have made possible. The difference lies mainly in the

heaviness of touch, the ease with which the keys are depressed, the basic quality of the

instrument's sound, and its carrying power. The English pianoforte had a heavier filler

sound in comparison with the Viennese pianoforte which produced a lighter and a more

muted sound. English pianofortes, however, became predominant and were the most

widely used by the end of the eighteenth century4*

Given that Mozart preferred the Viennese instrument, it may be concluded that the

Viennese pianofortes and Mozart's compositions did not demand an overly legato

approach. This provides a clear stylistic comparison of the two pianoforte schools, and in

addition, provides further evidence of the changing fashion of playing: the overall

progression From a detached to a legato style with a broad "transition" area in between.

It is interesting to note as well that Clementi is also linked strongly with the legato

movement, with his involvement in piano production. Clementi was the first of a number

of composers who actually engaged in the manufacture of pianos. He is said to have been

" Parrish "Criticisms of the Piano." 429: Charles Rosen. The Clussical Spfe - Huydn. Mozart, Beethoven (New York 1971; expanded ed. New York: Norton. 1997). 23: md Lindley, 'Keyboard Fingerings and Articulation* 196.

" S e for example: Lei Po% The Fortepiano ;lad Classical Style." 1 3 .

" H e The Transition fmm Harpsichord to Piano.' 77.

personally responsible for certain research, developments and improvements adopted by

his firm."

England, in addition to pianoforte manufacturing, also became an important centre

for music-publishing, where title pages for keyboard music and treatises regularly specified

harpsichord, pianoforte or both.u It seems quite probable that the pianoforte had become

so popular that its inclusion in the title was thought likely to generate larger sales while at

the same time, and probably for the same reason, publishers showed great reluctance to

omit the harpsichord from the title. During the last quarter of the eighteenth century, it

appears that listing the two main instruments became a tradition that was hard to break.

Based on publication dates in combination with written accounts, the year 1790

may best mark the emergence of the pianoforte and the passing of the harpsichord both on

title pages and in actual usage." It is understood that while title pages do not always

express the exact intentions of the composers or portray a true picture of the instruments

in use, they do provide an indication from which one may draw conclusions regarding the

emerging dominance of the pianoforte.

In a study by Albert G. Hess, in which this author took the title pages at face

value,* it is clear that from 1785 to 1794, the majority of English editions of solo

.I3 Msh "Criticisms of the Piano." 13 1.

" This area of study is based on the statistics drawn from Hess. ''The T d t i o n horn Harpsichord to Pimo." 75-94.

15 Confirming an actual date is almost impossible owing to publishers' attempts to appeal to as many markets as pssible. and the overall tendency for variance concerning the acceptance of the new keyboard at dissimilar rates in different centres.

16 Hess compiled a list of composers' names whose keyboard music was published in England between c. 1750 and c. 1800. and then derived his dates from Barclay Squire's Catalogue ofprinted ~thsic in the British ,biuseurn.

keyboard music were apparently intended for both the harpsichord and pianoforte.

Between 1795 and 1800, however, Hess shows that most title pages specify only the

pianoforte.47 For the year 1800, Hess found no music at all that was published for the

harpsichord alone, and the data reveal that only three works of the thirty-eight in total

were intended for both instruments, while the majority, thirty-five, were for piano only."

In glancing at the dates just prior to this area of investigation, the numbers for harpsichord

publications alone at first dominate all categories, and then shift slowly towards the

columns for both instruments. As evidenced above, by the turn of the century,

publications for the piano alone clearly dominate. This confirms the shift From the

harpsichord through a utilization of both keyboards to the pianoforte as the main

instrument.

The statistics of Hess's study reveal that both the popularity of the pianoforte and

the publishing of pianoforte music were experiencing rapid growth in England at this

time." This is confirmed by the third study done by Hess in which he charts both solo and

ensemble publications for the three categories: harpsichord only, both, and piano only.

'' During the period 1785- 1789. 2 publications were for harpsichord only. 33 for harpsichord and piano. and 1 for piano only. Across 1790-1791. 2 publications were For harpsichord 32 for both and i O for piano only. This is interesting when compared to the yews 17951799 which include 1 publication for harpsrchord. 25 for both and 54 for piano only. The section labeled 1800 is most telIing: none for harpsichord 3 for both. and 35 for piano ody.

u Hess. The Transition from Harpsichord to Piano." 78-80. All Hess's statistical findings are based solely on English publications. In viewing the charts on Enplish Chamber and C bed .llusic Editions. the results are similar during the period of investigation 1785- 180 1.

19 Although it is understood that indications made on title pages cannot always be taken at face value. the decline in publications for the harpsichord and relative increase for the pianoforte provide evidence of the change in preference towards keyboard instnunents. This is hrther supported by Hess's study of harpsichords and pianofortes within households. and the percentages of such keyboard instruments in existence. This information. when combined dearly indicates the decline of the harpsichord and the rise of the pianoforte as indicated in the title page study.

From 1750 to 1800, the harpsichord publications for solo keyboard drop &om 100% to

O%, and for ensemble, from 100% to 2% while those publications for the pianoforte

reflect basically the opposite. Rising statistics indicate solo music for piano alone climbing

from 0% in 1750 to 92% in 1800, and ensemble music with piano ascending from 0% to

9 1% respectively. From these findings, it is unequivocal that by the turn of the nineteenth

century, the piano was the instrument of choice. One can conclude. based on Hess's data,

that in England, the pianoforte gained solid footing during the 1 750s and 1 760s; and by

the turn of the nineteenth century, had replaced the harpsichord almost entirely." This is

supported in an article by Parrish:

The introduction of the piano into European musical life is one of the most important events in the history of music, and the manner in which the instrument gained its rapid ascendancy over the other stringed-keyboard instruments is therefore a subject matter of special significance. [It may be argued that it is no coincidence] that the emergence of the piano occurred contemporaneousIy with that of new style-epoch in music.. .Nor was it fortuitous that this instrument lay neglected for about a half-century after its invention and then quickly assumed the leading role among keyboard instruments, rendering the others practically obsolete after an approximately equal length of time?

A simple analogy would be the chicken and egg predicament: one might easily

reason that the new melodic style created the need for such an instrument. Economically

speaking, the pianoforte was initially a more affordable purchase than the harpsichord, and

also required less maintenance. Unlike the harpsichord, the pianoforte was not in constant

need of re-quilling and it stayed in tune longer. This paralleled the tremendous increase in

the amateur class which was evident in the vast number of instruction books. There was

jU This is supported by M s h -Criticisms of the Piano." 438. and Maunder. *J.C. Bach and the Early Piano.' 209.

Pamsh "Criticisms of the Piano." 428.

also a growth in the number of public concerts for which the harpsichord and clavichord

lacked the volume and capabilities of producing the newly preferred style.

The preference for the piano over the harpsichord was twofold. As explained by

Madame de Genlis in her Dictionnuire critique el raisonr'e des c'tiquettes de fa c o w of

The number of people who play well on the piano is far beyond the virtuosi on all other instruments, since the ease and convenience with which it is played permits practice of seven or eight hours on it without fatigue. Great talents on the harpsichord were formerly more rare than they are nowadays on the piano because, first of all, music was less common, and also because the harpsichord had but one quality - speed; then, too, because its [harpsichord] large size made it inconvenient for a small apartment. 52

With the introduction of the pianoforte and its clear potential for dynamic

expression, performers and composers began to demand even more from the pianoforte

manufacturers:

But long before this the shift to the exclusive use of the piano by musicians was "in the air". A new style of music had arisen, which demanded a new keyboard instrument, capable not only of producing dynamic shading but of yielding vivid, forcehl accents and striking contrasts of volume. l3

This "new style" referred to the new Romantic spirit and its expression marked the

end of the clavichord and harpsichord as the preferred keyboard instruments.

j' Cited and translated in Parrisk "Criticisms of the Piano." 43 4.

j3 [bid. 440.

The Transfer of Technique - A Question Under Debate

This shift in popularity towards the new instrument naturally had its effect on

certain principles of fingering and on the style of playing. For decades, keyboardists have

debated the advantages of being proficient at more than one instrument, a debate that

continues to this day." Glenn Gould has been recorded as saying "1 love the sound of the

harpsichord and the effects that are possible with it, but it upsets my piano playing. It's

too disturbing to make the transition from one instrument to the other."j5 In contrast,

Joanne Kong believes that "while many keyboardists feel it is detrimental to practice both

harpsichord and piano technique, the fact that there are performers who can successfully

play both instruments indicates this is not necessarily true."56 Kong is supported by Eta

Harich-Schneider who advises comparative study on other instruments. She believes that

whatever stirs creative imagination is beneficial, even concerning technique.37

4-4 Technique was pasxi from one keyboard instrument to another at the turn of the eighteenth century and adjustments were made as required The discussion of instrument-spccif~c technique was not as relevant during the time period under investigation as it is today. Given that the hammer action was employcd and that the modern principles of Fingering were s o l i w n g by the end of the eighteenth century. the seeds of the modern piano and modem piano playing werc planted. Unfortumtcl?;. no w l y nineteenth-centuq documents survive wtuch comment openly on the Weerences of technique. hence comments made by twentieth-century performers who arc sensitive to performance practices have become the most reliable documented accounts. From this gene& situation. two concIusions may be drawn: 1 ) the variances were considered so minute as not to require differentiation: or 2) the adaptations were understood and realized without need for record.

ss Although one must keep in mind that Gould was a twentieth-century performer. he was certainly a musician aware of historical performance practices and contemporary instruments. See Brrird 9ntroducing Pianists to hqxichord Skills." 29.

56 Given that the early pianoforte was closer to the hapichord than the modern piano. it seems reasonable that if modern performers can s u d y master the two very different instruments. then quite likely peperformers at the turn of the century were capable of transferring technique from one in&ent to mother. See Baird "Intmducing Pianists to Harpsichord Skills.' 29.

" Baird. *Introducing Pianists to Haqxichord Skiils; 29.

Ralph Kirkpatrick is one of the many scholars who believe that harpsichord playing

enhances pianoforte technique but not the reverse. Ruth Nurmi suggests that the

technique required by the harpsichord player can be used on the pianoforte, at least as a

foundation. She asserts that:

. . . a player who comes to the harpsichord from the piano brings a conception of fingering based on nineteenth and twentieth-century piano technique. There is nothing wrong with this approach. One can use a good deal of piano fingering on the harpsichord as long as he is not bound by these conceptions simply because both instrument have keyboards.'8

It seems to be a common stand that the accuracy in technique developed by a

harpsichordist will transfer successfidly to the pianoforte and, perhaps, vice versa since the

earliest pianoforte and harpsichord had sufficient similarities. As the pianoforte developed

later in the nineteenth century, however, it is safe to state that pianofone study will not

develop techniques that readily transfer to the harpsichord.

Similarly, harpsichord technique in itself is an issue under debate. Some

performers assert that the methodology does not involve the arm or wrist but instead

focuses on finger technique. As will be evidenced later in this study, eighteenth-century

treatises advocate the utilization of hands, arms and wrists so as not to isolate the fingers

and so prevent injury. The hands control the touch and the arm provides the lateral

motion and the capacity for velocity. Such movement also allows the hand to remain in a

natural and relaxed position. Performance on either instrument requires little force, and

- 58 Ruth Nurmi. -4 Pfain and Easy Introduction to the Harpsichord. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1974. Cited in Mrd "Introducing Pianists to Hrrrpslchord Skills," 30.

the amount needed will vary from harpsichord to harpsichord and pianoforte to pianoforte

alike. 59

It is probable, however, that it took some time for performers who had been

trained on the harpsichord to become familiar with the different touch necessary to play

the pianoforte.b0 Given the obvious mechanical differences, certain adjustments would be

mandatory to adapt to the difference in technique required.

" The effort requmd on the harpsichord will vary according to the stiffness and length of the plectrum. Likewise. variances on the pianoforte will depend upon the hamxner and its specific mechanism. See. for e.uample: Baird, "Introducing Pianists to Karpsichord Skills," 30.

60 Hess. "The Transition h m Harpsichord to Piano." 76.

CHAPTER TWO

Leputo: Required Fingering. Articulation and Touch

We know something about the instruments of the past, but little on how they were played

Mark ~ i n d l e ~ '

The Evohtion of Instructions Regarding Touch: From Detached to Legato

Prior to the late eighteenth century, the "normal" style of keyboard playing was

surely detached, yet through the ensuing comparison of selected writings, it becomes

evident that the legato style, so readily possible on other instruments, became desirable

for the keyboard as well. This progression towards a less detached approach on

keyboard instruments, however, required an intermediate stage that involved the practice

of lessening the duration of the silences between the notes. Although any sense of

silence between notes may sound detached to the modem player, a piece played by an

early eighteenth-century musician, with decreased silences between successive notes,

may well have given the impression of a more legato approach than would normally have

resulted without such a conscious effort. [n following the progression from detached

playing, to the intermediary stage of lessening silences between the notes, and finally to a

smoothly connected line, it becomes evident that the legazo touch for the keyboard was

' Mark Lindey, Xeyboard Technique and Articulation: Evidence for the Performance Practices of Bach Handel and Scarlatti." in Bach, Handel, Sxrrlarti: Tercenrenq Essqs, edited by Peter Wiiarns (Cambridge, 1985). Cited in Elfrieda F. He~hrL "Beethoven's Fingerings in the Piano Trio B-Flat Major. Wo0396.' E d v Ke_vbomii Journal 4 ( 1985-86): 25.

accepted across the continent at varying rates, and although the line of development is

not without detours, the overall trend is clear.

In 1702, Michel de Saint Lambert commented on the subject of fingering in his

Principes du clawcin, stating that "there is nothing in harpsichord playing that is more

open to variation than fingering. The player must depend entirely on commoditc' [ease]

and bonne grace [fluency] and this will vary from player to player."' This statement

suggests that each player will bring to the keyboard individual characteristics which will

determine his or her choice in fingering, choices that will result in an individual quality of

sound and style. Although Saint Lambert must have been aware of the current formulas,

he expressed freedom within the guidelines. His emphasis on allowing the music to

dictate the fingering is an important aspect of his methodoiogy.

As early as 17 16, Couperin was promoting legato parallel thirds in his

I. 'arr de fo~cher Ie clavecin. He pointed out that the use of a 3 3 3 3 fingering5 for 1 1 1 1

successive thirds could not render them legato, and therefore promoted the following

paired fingering: 3 4 3 4 ascending and similarly 4 3 4 3 descending in the right hand.' I 2 1 2 2 1 2 1

In the musical examples below, it is evident that the 4 3 4 3 fingering of the 2 1 2 1

Michel de Saint b b e r t , Lespnncipes du clmecin (Paris. 1702: reprint ed. trans. by Rebecca Harris- Warrick. Cambridge: University Press. 1984). Citcd in The Yew Grove Dictionary of .+Iusic and .Llusicians. 6h ed.. edited by Stanley Sadie (1980). s.v. "Fingeringq by Peter Le Huray and Glyn Jenkins. 6: 571.

3 In an attempt to eliminate mecessilty confusion the traditional English method of notation will be used throughout this study. with the thumb to little finger marked -, 1. 2. 3.4. q x x t w e l y .

'' Couperin. L brr de toucher le clavecin. Cited in Lindley. 'Keyboard Fingerings and Articulation" 199.

new method invites a very different touch to what was possible with the older method of

older fingering: 3 I

The new fingering actually makes three different touches possible. First, a

completely legato line that would be phrased as follows:

Second, a slurred musical line that incorporates both the legam and detached touches.

The first and second chords are connected while the second and third are detached. To

achieve this, the first chord is held for its entire length and until the next is depressed.

The second chord, however, is slightly shortened to achieve the small silence and

resultant detachment. The fingering for this articulation is natural and easy:

And finally, a completely detached tine that would result in the same effect as

would be achieved by using the earlier method of tingering. This, however, would be the

probable touch when employing the older technique where a legato connection or

slurred effect would be highly unlikely. Therefore, the modem fingering of consecutive

thirds suggests a movement away From an older style of detached playing towards a

more legato style.

lean-Philippe Rameau, in his Preface to Pitices de cimecin ( 1724), stressed the

need for a fluent finger technique: ?he faculty of walking or running comes from the

suppleness of the knee; that of playing the harpsichord depends on the suppleness of the

fingers at their root^."^ Rameau did not include a discussion of fingering principles in his

treatise, but instead, promoted five-finger exercises and notated sequences throughout,

including those that involve all five fingers. These aspects of his methodologies suggest

an awareness of the five-finger hand position and a consideration of the equal importance

of all five fingers, trends that accompanied the move towards a fegatlo style as will be

demonstrated later in this chapter. Rameau also stated that all information in the Preface

could be applied equally to harpsichord or organ despite their very different

characteristics. While it is possible that Rarneau merely made such a suggestion in an

lean-Philippe Rameau. Pieces de ciavecin (Pans. 1724). Cited in Le Huray and Jenkins. -FingeringW6: 57 1.

attempt to promote his methodologies to a broad range of instrumentalists, it is also

likely that, given the variations in the mechanisms of the popular keyboard instruments at

the time, Rameau, like many of his contemporaries, had not yet been given sufficient

reasons why these fomulas could not be readily adapted to any instrument at hand.

After all, at the time of writing, Rarneau's primary concern was with finger dexterity, not

an assumed legato style.

In 1735, Johann Mattheson stated that a teacher should tell his pupil "never to

apply the next finger until he has lifted the previous one.'& Two decades later, this

technique takes a step in the legato direction with Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg's

comments of 1755 that while slumng and staccato were usually indicated by signs in the

music, the ordinary procedure was to lift the finger from the preceding key very quickly

just before touching the following note; this was never indicated because it was always

presupposed.7 And far From being a mere substitute for a genuine legato touch, this style

of playing appears to have been highly desirable. Even as late as 1778, Dom Bedos de

" Joham Mattheson. Kleinr General Bass-Schuie ([n.p. 1 [a publ. 1. 1735). Cited in Lindey. "Keyboard Fingerings and Articulation," 196.

Friedrich Withelm Marpurg, -4nieitung zum Clawerspielen. (Berlin 1755; reprint cd. New York: G. Olms. 1970). Cited in Lindley, "Keyboard Fingerings and Articulation." 196. Mark LindIey and Maria B o d 1 define this style of playing as most desirous to them stating that "the notes be played with a more or less constant. moderate detachment but with the hand so supple as to create an illusion of smoothness. This effect can be approached at its simplest by playing a scale smoothly and effortlessly with one finger." Several sources. such as Lindley, "Keyboard Fingerings and Articulation" 196. and LindIey and &.dl. "Preface.' to Earlv Keyboard Fingerings, =I Comprehensive Guide state on the one hand the wish for a legato style yet, on the other. describe a method similar to that above in which a note is lifted just slightly betore the next note is played. These small l& may surely k seen as a natural phase in the trend h m a detached style to that of legato. Perhaps this was what Johann Nilcolaus Forkel was describing in his 1802 account of J.S. Bach's playing. He had never heard Bach play personally. but was informed by M y acquaintances. "He had found a middle path between too much legato and too nuch staccato. and so achieved the highest degree of clarity in the playing of single notes as in the pmnunciation of singie words." See J. N. Forkel, "Litteratur und Praxis der neuern Musik" .-fligemeine Litteratur der iMusik, (Leipzig, 1792). Cited in Lindley, ^Keyboard Fingerings and Articulatioa" 196.

Celles, a French organ builder, was dwelling on the importance of retaining diminutive

silences at the end of each note on any keyboard instrument so that the music would not

be a series of vowels without consonants.'

Tiirk, in his Klavierschule of 1789 (chap. 6)- lists the 'Tive Criteria to Decide

Touch": character and purpose, designated tempo, metre, note values, and progressions.

He adds that taste itself may be the deciding factor.' This instruction not only suggests

that no one set of rules dominates, but also that there were numerous exceptions. With

regard to deviation, for example, C.P.E. Bach, writing in 1753, suggests that the actual

length that a note is held is equal to one half its value. l o Turk, in 1789, extends the

sustaining period to approximately three quarters of the note's written duration, stating

that one must "lift the finger a little earlier from the key than is required by the duration

of the notes."" Nicolas-Joseph Hullmandel in his Principles ofMz(sic (c. 1795) includes

a description of the legato style: 'bbut the staccato excepted, everything is to be executed

by the motion of the Fingers only, keeping the hand and wrist as still and steady as

possible, and holding a key on 'till the next is struck, this is one of the most essential

rules, and should be punctually observed."'* This concept is seconded by Milchrneyer,

Y Fmcois BMos de Celles. L 'art du facteur d 'orgues (Paris. 1766-78). Cited in Lindley. "Keyboard Fingerings and Articulation" 196.

1 0 Bach Ekqv on the True Art of Ptcying the Ke-vboard Instruments, 157. Cited in Raessler. "Change in Keybard Touch Around 1800," 27.

" Tiirk Kiuvierschule. 356. Cited in Raessler. Tiirk touch and slurring: finding a rationale." E d v ,Chic 17(1989): 55.

I' Nicolas-Joseph Hullmandel. Principles of ,tIusic Chieflv Caiculatedfir she Piano Forte or Harpsichord (London: The Author. 1795),22 1.

who in 1797 described the appropriate touch for the pianoforte as legato. He suggested

that a performer was to lift the finger from one key when the next was played'3 thus

completing the overall trend towards a iegato style, and providing sufficient backing for

Clementi's advice:

When the composer leaves the LEGATO, and STACCATO to the performer's taste; the best rule is, to adhere chiefly to the E G A TO; reserving the STACCATO to give SP W T occasionally to certain passages, and to set off the HIGHER BEAUTIES of the LECA TO."

Clementi's words are echoed by Adam in his work of 1804, stating that:

Sometimes the composer indicates the musical phrase that ought to be slurred, but when he leaves the choice of legato or staccato to the taste of the performer, the latter should adhere chiefly to the legato, reserving the staccato to emphasize cenain passages and, by an arthl contrast, to evoke the advantages of the l,,,,. I 5

All of the explained touches result in varied degrees of detachment, but with the

trend generally moving towards less of it. If, indeed, legato was the end point, it was

certainly adopted in different countries at varying rates and in varying degrees. Couperin

was to some extent a leader among the early advocates of a legaro style, and although

there is not a single line of progression towards this new technique, the overall trend is

indisputable.

Milchmeyer ( 1 7971, Jan Ladislav Dussek ( 1 799), Clementi ( 1 80 1 ), Adam ( 1804),

Adolf Muller ( 1825) and other mentors composed specifically for the piano and

" Iohann Peter Milchmeyer. Die Wahre .4rt das Pianojbte zu Spielen (Dresden: Meinhold 1797). Cited in Rosenblum. "Introduction." x. and Raessler. "Change in Keyboard Touch" 29.

1.8 Clementi. Introduction, 9 .

l 5 Adam. .Wthode de Piano. 15 1 . Cited in Rosenblum "Introduction" xi.

capitalized upon its potential. In order for a performer to do so, it was necessary to

discard several of the older approaches to fingering. The new principles of fingering

were now explored in several nineteenth-century tutors including those by Carl Czerny

and Charles Neate? Clementi's instructions of 1801 to let the notes ring into one

another are echoed by Czemy (1839), who wrote that "the common legato. . . must be

employed in all cases where the author has not indicated any particular expressions.""

That the iegato style should be assumed in a treatise of 1839 is only to be expected.

The relations hi^ Between Fingering and Articulation

The present study of the relationship between fingering and articulation in the

move from a detached to a legato style of playing is, of necessity, restricted to England

during the period 1 785- 180 1. " Comments from both composers and keyboard

commentators, however, make possible a wider context for this progressive change that

stretches back in time to the end of the seventeenth century, and extends in location from

Britain to the Continent. Most commentary is linked to fingering alone, but it is also

supplemented by remarks that call for a smoother musical line than that which was the

accepted norm on most contemporary keyboard instruments.

Already, in the second half of the sixteenth century, Thomas de Sancta Maria, a

prominent organist, had stated that ''often the fingers are mixed in many other ways, for

16 Carl Czerny. R Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano-Forte School (London: Cocks and Company. 1839). and Charles Neate, h s q v on Fingering ([n. p.] [n-publ. 1. c. 1855).

Czerny. .4 Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano-Forte School. Cited in Lindky and Boxall. Early Keyboard fingerings, -4 Comprehensive Guide, "Early fingerings and articdation." xiv.

18 Through the analysis of the pre-Clementi En&& treatises in chapters 3 and 4. aspects of the evolution of new fingering patterns that favoured a legato style of playing will be traced

which no rules can be established since [there] are so many."1g John Playford, an English

musician and music publisher prominent in the seventeenth century, expressed a similar

sentiment: "'as for the true fingering . . . it cannot be set down in words.'72u These

statements suggest that perhaps fingering underwent frequent change during this early

period, and that exact methods for execution were not always of primary concern. Given

that a detached style on the stringed-keyboard instruments of the time was the norm, it

seems reasonable that fingering patterns would have a greater scope for variation than

was the case with the later legato style for which entirely different, but quite specific

methods of fingering were required to create the smooth line on a quite different

instrument.

Although, as subsequent details will reveal, the rules of fingering often prove to

be contradictory and inconsistent within any one treatise, it is clear that fingering can

define articulation and clarify metrical units and metrical ff ow, as well as facilitating

legato playing. This section will focus directly on the connection between modem

fingering patterns and the legato style.

That a relationship should exist between fingering and articulation seems

inevitable, and the new fingering patterns that evolved towards the end of the eighteenth

century pointed towards a legato style of playing. In light of the content of Clementi's

tutor, as well as that of earlier treatises, it is impossible to ignore the modem inferences

19 Thomas de Sancta Maria. Libro Iiumado . h e de tanw fantasia (Valladolid 1565). Cited in Desmond Hunter. "The Implications of Fingering Indications in Virginalist Sources: Some Thoughts for Further Review," Performance Practice Review 5 (1992): 138.

" John Playford. 'Preface? .llusick's Hand-made (London, 1663). Cited in Hunter. The Implications of Fingering Indications in Virginalist Sources," 138.

of scale passages, consecutive thirds, thumb crossing, and finger substitutions that are

indicated. The implied legato motion produced by these typical late eighteenth-century

fingerings in conjunction with clear statements that call for a legal0 style as the desired

effect confirm the relationship between the changes in fingering and artic~lation.~'

Although fingering patterns cannot necessarily dictate articulation, the two issues

certainly coincided during the period in question.

The most obvious difference between the earlier fingerings and the modem

system is that the older style exploited the differences in length between the fingers by

crossing the longer fingers over the shorter ones, and commonly disqualified both the

thumb and the little finger. Compared to the older system of fingering (most common

until the second half of the eighteenth century), the thumb was seldom used as a pivot to

allow the fingers to pass either up or down the scale, and when used, it was often only

the thumb of the left hand." Sources routinely suggest that the thumb's strength and

flexibility were thought to be insufficient to compensate for its size, since, after all, it was

the shortest of the fingers. Lateral movement was restricted to passing over one of the

middle fingers and most often the longest middle finger (2) passed over one of its

neighboun.

The newer approach minimizes the size variance of the fingers and replaces the

earlier emphasis on the middle three fingers with an attempt at an equal utilization of all

'' For e..wmples from the English treatises under e-aimtion of references which are made to the legato style. see Augustus Frederic Christopher Kollmann. The First Beginning on the Piano Forte. (London: Corri. DUSS& 1795). and Hullmrrndef, Principles of Music-

- - Lindley and Bodl. UPrefacc.* to E e v Keyboard Fingerings, A Comprehensive Guide (London: Schott, 1992).

five fingers; no discrimination against the thumb or little finger is detected? With the

modem system of fingering, the little finger gains employment on the most outer limits in

scale runs, in passages with great leaps, and in fidl chords in which many notes are

played. Increasingly, from the period just prior to the turn of the nineteenth century, the

thumb becomes the main pivot in both hands, facilitating easy movement up and down

the keyboard, and the crossing of middle fingers over one another becomes uncommon.

The goal seems to shift fiom the exploitation of the middle three fingers to the finding of

a comtbrtable hand position. And krther, the practice of adjusting the hand position by

silently changing fingers on a note prevents unnecessary shifts and eliminates what would

seem to the modem performer, awkward and uncomfortable fingering. In short, the

entire methodology for crossing fingers changed, and clearly, the new style promoted a

lrgaro line capable of unlimited continuity.

Just prior to the turn of the nineteenth century, there was a tendency to associate

'Mod" fingers with "'good" notes (rhythmically strong beats) and '"bad" fingers with

"bad" notes (rhythmically weak beats)." The formulas for deciding the categorization of

a finger, however, varied from country to country, and no one method survived. It is

With the exoepaon of the avoidance of the thumb on black notes. To this day. performers have been advised to avoid placing the thumb on a black note whenever possible.

'' There were several schools of thought on this teaming of good" notes with strong beats and 'bod" notes with weslker beats. The English tencled to team the middIe Linger (2) with strong beats. The Germans paired the middle finger (2) with weak beats in the left hand and strong beats in the right. The ttdians seemed to offer many opinions. Clrtudio MeruIo. for example. reserved the middle finger (2) for had notes and Likewise. his disciple Girolamo Diruta pared hngers this way before abandoning the practice altogether. Later Italian writings teamed this middle finger with strong beats. As with Diruta, these inconsistencies of the various intents led to the complete abandonment of these theories. For more on pared fingerings. see Desmond Hunter. "The Implications of Fingering Indications in Virginatist Sources: Some Thoughts for Further Study," 123- 138: Calvert Johnson "Early Italian Keyboard Fingerings," Ear@ KeyboardJoumal 10 (I99 1): 7-88; Arnold Dolmetsch "Position and Fingering." The Interpretation of the Music of the 17th and 18th Centuries, Chapter Six (London: Novello. 19 15). 365-395.

apparent that this, too, was a passing attempt at a system of fingering that would easily

give way to the modem method of equalization.

It is fair to state that the earliest means of fingering were ill-suited to long

stretches of legato, and tended to sub-divide phrases into fairly small units. This is

reflected in the music of the time. Early eighteenth-century keyboard pieces featured

short periodic phrases, whereas variations in phrase lengths included predominantly long

phrases by the end of the century.25 The phrase units were expanded and could often call

for a fbller sound, wider range, and a sustaining of notes for their full value.'6

To finger an early nineteenth-century piece with early eighteenth-century

fingering would not only prove awkward in performance, but would also result in

illogical phrase interruptions. The suspected correlation between fingering and touch is

thus demonstrated by the fact that the two different styles of playing, detached and

legato, require two different styles of fingering, which in turn, responded to two different

styles of composition for two different instruments.

The above comparison is readily demonstrated by two pieces, a Polonaise by J.S.

Bach (c. 1730) and the opening of the first movement of the piano sonata, opt^^. 13 by

Beethoven (c. 1 798). In Bach's Polonaise (see ex. I ), two measure phrases are

consistent throughout, with a strong sense of the spinning out of musical ideas which

3 See Rosn, The Chsical Sfyle, 4-472; and Raessier. "Change in Keyboard Touch Around 1800." 33- 34.

" The new keyboard insuument ma& the illusion of legato possible with the ability to control the prolongation of individual notes.

was common in the early 1700s.~~ A constant and steady movement is provided by the

continuous eighth-note figures in the left hand, which terminate only at the last note

before the repeat signs and the last note of the piece. The right hand movement is

similar, but while eighth and sixteenth notes prevail, quarter and half notes do appear.

As a means of maintaining movement, however, such longer notes are often ornamented.

E.wple L - J. S.Bach Polonaise, mm. 1 - 19".

The range on the keyboard seldom exceeds the statfupon which it is written, and

if this occurs, the deviation is small. Only one voice is heard in each hand, and as a

7- - Donald Jay Grout and Claude V . Palisca. ..L Histoy of Western Mmic, =kh ed (New Yoh Norton 1988). 550-55 1. First published, 19601.

J o h n Sebanivl Each. Neue .-l usgabe Sdmtlicher Werke. Published by the Johann-Sebastmn-Bach- Institut. C;iittingen and the Bach-Archiv. Leipzig (London: BWnreiter. 1980) 8: 122.

result, there are no chords. The piece is diatonic and relies on accidentals simply to

accommodate modulation to the dominant and relative minor keys.

As would be expected, indications of fingering, pedaling, and tempo are absent

throughout the entire piece. For the purpose of this stylistic comparison, it is interesting

to consider Clementi's version of this same Polotiaise.

Example La - I.S.Bach. Polonai~e. mm. 1- 19".

The piece opens with an indication for Ancibnte and also includes temo

markings at rnm. 13 and 14 which could possibly have been added by a previous editor,

or in this case, quite likely by Clementi himself Regarding fingering, there is definitely a

combination of both older and newer fingering patterns. Although the thumb and little

finger are used, primarily at the outset and completion of runs, there is an obvious

preference for the middle three fingers, especially in the right hand. In mm. 1 and 2, the

right-hand thumb is clearly avoided, and when used, it is to place the hand once again in

This example is drawn horn Clementi's Innoducfion. 62.

the five-finger position, thus avoiding large stretches between fingers.'* In the left hand,

the thumb and little Gnger are used throughout for the bass-note figures. Finger slides

occur at m. 19 such that one finger does not hit two successive notes. In the right hand,

at m. 5, the finger sliding once again accommodates the five-finger position. Trills are

performed in the right hand with fingers 2 and 3 at rnm. 2 and 10, and with fingers I and

2 at m. 16.

In comparison, Beethoven's work (see ex. 2) is built in phrases of unequal

length with very full chords, variation of note values, a large range, extensive dynamic

markings, accents, and an abundance of chromatic inflections. This work clearly

demands the use of all of the fingers, since the thumb and little finger are needed for the

large full chords, extensive runs, and the wide range. Such technical demands on the

fingers creates the need for use of the pedal to accommodate the desired legato sections

(for instance the full chords at rnm. 4, and in much that follows the example given). It

would be impossible to finger such a piece avoiding the thumb and little finger and giving

preferential treatment to the middle three fingers. Likewise, fingering Bach's work in the

style of Beethoven would be equally dissatisfymg and would seem quite excessive. The

styles are so different, it makes clear sense that the method of fingering required to

execute the works would vary accordingly.31

30 The chosen method of fingering seems to avoid stretches between the fingers and is therefore more concerned with flipping the hands such that the hand is always centred over the notes. This results in an almost constant five-finger position.

31 The examples chosen clearly illustrate essentiai distinctions in style. Other pieces by Bach will contain chords and will e . d the range of the piece selected. Likewise. Beethoven's pieces can be simpler with equal phrase lenghs, fewer notes, and a smaller range.

E-xample 2 - L. van Beethoven, Puthetique opus. 1 3 . m . 1-6".

Arnold Dolmetsch stated that in earlier music (music of the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries), the phrasing suggested the appropriate fingering, and the correct

choice of method made it almost impossible to phrase This remains true with

the modem system of pianoforte fingering. Here, too, the phrasing dictates the

necessary fingering which now suggests a more legato line, and the new fingering

patterns facilitate this movement.

- - - - -

" Ludwig van Beethovnr Kloviersonaten, I. Published by Ham Schmidt (Miinchen-Duisburg: Henle. 1971) 2: 142.

l3 Dolmetsch, uPosition and Fingering," 364.

Ada~tina Fingering Methods to Achieve a Leaato Line

The presence of new methodologies alongside older techniques as is evident in

several of the treatises published across the years 1785- 1 80 1 seems to reflect a practice

that was already common during the &st half of the eighteenth century.3J Fingerings in

earlier treatises were often imprecise and dependent upon the context of the music at

hand. At the opposite end of the century, the full realization of the new system seems

particularly hindered by its own inconsistency regarding the use of the thumb. The

extent to which these variances reflect precisely when and where certain changes took

place in a general preference for a different type of articulation is not entirely clear, but

they do reflect many of the discrepancies found among the rules.

Niccolo Pasquali and other late eighteenth-century commentators state that the

"'fingers should be used equally although the little finger is used least of dl"." Pasquali's

system and several other contemporary sources are based on a tight legato style in which

a note is held precisely for its full value; it is never released before the next note is struck

except in leaps and at phrase endings? This technique has clear implications for

articulation. Pasquali, Johann Christian Bach, Francesco-Pasquale Ricci, and Domenico

Scarlatti agree that the five finger position is essential in scales, arpeggios, and chords,

'' Evidence of this wiil become appare.nt in the detailed rmdy of the English treatises provided in chapters 3 and 4. Often these treatises were quite troublesome, with conflicting instructions placed side by side. This may simply be the outcome of this transitional time. and the product of changing methodologies. While new practices were being introduced players were reluctant to completely ignore the earlier practices.

'' Niccolo Paqmh, The AN of Fingering the Hawchord (Edinbwgh: Bremmer. c. 1760). Cited in Johnson "Early Italian Keyboard Fingerings." 12.

' Johnson *Early Italian Keyboard Fimgerings," 33.

thus suggesting that all five fingers are equal, and crossing over and under the thumb are

essential traits of the new fingering system.''

The basic principles of modem fingering first became widely known in C. P.E.

Bach's Versuch of 1753. His methods were clearly advanced for this time period and

were widely disseminated across the continent.j8 Bach used the thumb as a pivot to

achieve lateral movement of the hands. He also suggested that the thumb be passed

under any finger except the little finger and that it be used for passages in thirds. Fingers

could be changed silently on a given note and adjacent pairs of black and white notes

could best be played by sliding one finger from the black to the white note. jg Forward

looking though these principles are, Bach retained the older established view regarding

the general avoidance of the thumb and little finger except for wide stretches. Here he

aligns himself with several of the treatises under review which cling to such practices as

ignoring the outer fingers and playing consecutive chords with the same fingers,

techniques which promote the detached style. Yet all theses treatises, in some way,

embrace the pull towards the legato touch. Of the above techniques favoured by Bach,

most are practiced, at least partially, in the treatises under review. These concepts,

however, are exceptionally modem for the year 1753.

. . - . - - . .

" Johnson Tariy Italian Kqrboard Fingerings.' 49.

This is evident from the numerous times that C.P.E. Bach's work is mentioned or used as a point of cornpanson, See Lindey and B o d . "Preface," to Earlv Keyboard Fingerings, .4n .-Inthology (1982): xii; Rrressler, ''Change in Keybard Touch Around 1800." 26. 32: Lindley, "Keyboard Fingerings and Articulationw 200: Raessler. Tiirk touch and slurring: finding a rationale." 55.

Back Essay on the Tme Art of Plqing the Keyboard Instruments. W46.60.6045.70.

As early as 1766, in England, Johann Casper Heck's The Ar t of Fingering paid

tribute to C.P.E. Bach and a preference for the "thumbs-under" technique. Heck

retained, however, all the paired fingerings for his scale exercises as designated in the

past. lnconsistencies become apparent. While Heck admires the new style and attempts

to model his own methods on it, he is hesitant to exclude the style with which his public

is familiar. Heck's treatise pales in comparison to the more influential works because of

its inconsistencies and lack of firm commitment to the more modem methods.

In the keyboard treatise, Mt'thodr ou recrceil de connoissances L'l6rnentaires pour

le forte-piano ou clavecin ( 1 786)- attributed to J.C. Bach and Ricci, the authors also

promoted the possibility of a legato line while emphasizing the advantages of utilizing

the entire hand. They suggested that the hand should be picked up as little as possible

(meaning it stays very close to the keys). Bach and Ricci recommended the thumb as a

pivot and suggested that players become accomplished at this technique:

Get used to passing the thumb under whatever finger is playing, and to passing whatever finger over the thumb, seeing that the thumb is placed on the key preceding the sharp or flat or else immediately after. By this means you will have as many fingers available as you have notes to play.M

Czerny also advocated the five-finger position, suggesting that, except in special

circumstances, the long fingers should never be crossed over or under each other, the

thumb being the sole pivot of the hand and unnecessary changes of hand position should

be avoided. He also preferred that the same finger not be employed on two or more

consecutive keys, such a practice being permissible only between phrases, when rests

U) Johann Christian Bach and Francesco-Pasquale Ricci. Mfhode ou recueil de connaissunces PIementairespuur le forte-pimo ou cluvecin (Paris: 1786, reprint ed. Geneva: Minkoff. 1974). Cited in Johnson. "Early Italian Fingerings," 50.

intervene, in staccato passages, or when sliding a finger from a black to a white key.

When the same note is repeated several times, the fingers should be alternated, and

conversely, that to maintain a legato style, it is often expedient to change fingers on a

note without sounding it again."

Much as Clementi's treatise represents a culmination of the ideas of his

predecessors' works, so too has Czerny provided the same level of synopsis for his

contemporaries and their practices. Nothing which Czemy has advocated is ground-

breaking scholarship, yet he has clearly presented a most consistent method of modem

legato fingering patterns.

Many tutors of the late eighteenth century represent the setting against which the

modern keyboard style came into being4* in that the given fingerings accommodate both

the past and the forward-looking trends. For the most part, however, they seem not yet

hlly attuned to the more complex figurations of nineteenth-century piano music and the

style that was to become the norm. Many rules established during the latter part of the

eighteenth century still managed to remain a firm basis for all subsequent developments.

This progression is confirmed in Czemy's treatise of 1839 in which he states that "every

advance in stylc and technique had to be founded on thc rcsults and experience of formcr

schoois.'"

" Czemy. -4 Complete Theoretical and ProcticaI Piano-Forte School. Cited in Le Huray and Jenkins. "Fingering," 6: 574.

I' Le Huray and Jenkins. -Fingeringq 6: 574.

" Czerny. A Complete Theoretical and Practical Piano-jorte School. Cited in Le Huray and Jenkins *Fingeringn 6: 574.

CHAPTER THREE

Background Information: Clementi's Life and the Endish Treatises

Fingering patterns evident in late eighteenth-century English keyboard treatises are

nearly identical to those used today. Clementi's h~ochrct~un, for example, presents what

are in essence modem principles of keyboard fingering. In fact, Clementi has generally

been given credit for establishing modern fingering formulas. ' Originally published in

England, Clementi's Intrdzictiorl gained instant popularity across the continent and was

widely disseminated. This method was published in eleven English editions by Clementi's

own firm and, in addition, was translated into French, German, Spanish, and Italian in the

early 1800s.' Indeed, it would seem that Clernenti's reputation as the founder of the

modem school of pianoforte playing results primarily from this singular entrepreneurial

success and its widespread popularity that continued throughout the nineteenth century. ' His universality, however, is undoubtedly also supported by the appeal and approachability

of his keyboard studies.

' Lc: Htnay and Jeokins, "Fingering" 6: 567-84.

' See Table 3.1 for a complete listing of editions and dates. These editions are described more fully in Rosenblwn, "Introduction." ?r?d-M~.

Clementi has been so credited in many sources. See. for eyampte. 17re New Grove Dictionary of 1Ciusic and ~llwicims. 6' ed.. edited by StanIey Sadie (1980). S.V. "Clementi." by Leon Planting. 3: 189.

TABLE 3.1

Clementi's Introdudion to the Art of P&ying on the Pion0 Forte - A Listing of Published Editions and Dates

First Edition, 180 1 First Issue 180 1 Second Issue 1804 [Other Edition 18051 Third Issue 1806 Fourth Issue '.W?

Second Edition Third Edition Fourth Edition

These editions have not k n located. and it is posslble that the issues as listed above were considered "editionsn. This made Clementi's first "revised" edition. labeled the fifth, more impressive than it would have been as the second

F'iftb Edition, 1810 This edition contained many revisions including for e.uampie: ped;tl indications. dynamic

markings, and the instructions that "the strings vibrate sweetiy into one another."

Sisth Edition, 1811 Thls edition was in Spanish and is no longer e.ut3nt. By this time. the Introduction had been

printed in French and German by Continental publishers.

Seventh Edition, 1812-1811 This edition contained even more revisions than the fifth, along with thc inclusion of Spanish

pieces. In addition revisions included: a paragraph on style indicating that the finger is not lifted so suddenly. instructions on playing sostenuto (holding the notcs their full length). and more comments on dynamic contrast and expressiveness.

Eighth Edition, 1814-1816 With an almost complete change of repertoire. this edition increased the number of lessons and

also included an "Actvertisernent" in which Clemcnti concludes that his work is not an attempt to omit the need for an instructor. but rather to assist such labours.

Ninth Edition, 1817-1818? This edition is also no longer extant and may well have been a reengnving of the contents of the

eighth edition.

Tenth Edition, 1821-1822 This edition is identical in content to the eighth. The typeface. however. varies. It is also the

first edition to carry an opus number.

Eleventh Edition, 1826 This edition is much like the tenth. The listing of tempo indications is new. however. as is the

vertical alignment of scales whch makes them easier to play hands together.

TweKth Edition, 1830 This edition is much like the eieventh with the addition of cadentid progressions after each scale,

and the fingered exercises are revised, enlarged. and simplified.

Clementi's Life

Clementi was born in Rome in 1752. '' At a very young age, he became a skilled

musician under the instruction of several mentors including Antonio Buroni, Giuseppi

Santareli, and Gaetano Carpani. By the time he was nine years old, Clementi had become

an accomplished organist, and at age thirteen, had secured the position of organist at his

church, S. Lorenzo in Damaso. While holding this position, he attracted the attention of

the English Beckford family. Peter Beckford brought him to England in 1766 to live in

the family's home in Dorset. approximately one hundred miles From London. Here,

Clementi remained under the Beckford patronage for the next seven years. Under those

circumstances, according to a reported conversation with Amedee Mereaux in 1820, he

studied and practiced the harpsichord in solitude for eight hours a day.' It is to be noted

here that although England was home to many promoters of the new pianoforte7 there is

no concrete evidence that Beckford had such an instrument. Further, there is no record of

Clementi ever having had any formal instruction on any keyboard instrument during his

time of residence with the Beckfords. He did. however, acquire a fluency in languages

and a vast knowledge of English literature and music through self study in Beckford's

extensive library. Musically, he became familiar with the varying styles of composers

such as Archangel0 Corelli, Georg Friederich Handel, Alessandro Scadatti, Johann

Sebastian Bach, and Domenico Paradies.

Several sources provide extensive details surrounding Clementi's life. This concise synopsis. however. has been dmwn from the following: Rosenblum, Introductionm v-viii. and Plmtinga. "Clementi." 3: 483-9 1.

Rosenblum, "Introductioe" vi.

Released fiom Beckford patronage in 1773, Clementi moved to London where he

maintained a residence until his death in 1832. During this time in London, he gave

harpsichord concerts sporadically and first appeared as a pianist in 1779.~ Although based

in London, Clementi periodically toured on the continent and was perceived as a most

accomplished composer, performer, and teacher.' Some of his students included Johann

Baptist Cramer, John Field, and later, Friedrich Kalkbrenner. He is also recorded as

having influential contact with Dussek and Hummel during their formative years. With his

financial success as a teacher, Clementi also invested in music publishing and instrument

making.'

Documents show that all of Clementi's public performances prior to 1780 were given

on the harpsichord,' while other performers, including Christian Bach, were heard

increasingly on the pianoforte in London after 1768." After 1780, however, every aspect

of Clementi's musical career as teacher, composer, performer, publisher, and manufacturer

centered around the pianoforte. Indeed, he was perceived as one of the first composers to

conceive keyboard compositions completely in terms of this instrument.' The following

description of Francois-Joseph Fetis speaks of Clementi's contribution and testifies to his

great importance in the history and development of the pianoforte:

Rosenblum. "latroduction." vii.

Plantinga. "Clementi," 3 : 485.

' Ibid. 483491.

Rosenbtum. "Introduction." vii.

l o Schott. "From Harpsichord to pianoforte: 3 1.

' ' Plantinga, Tlementi,'' 3: 489.

Of all the artists who have contributed to bring pianoforte playing to perfection, Clementi has been the most influential. Endowed with the most reflection, this great artist felt the necessity of submitting the mechanism of fingering, 3nd the at of ofdrawing the tone from the instrument, to certain &.xec! and invariable rules. Without prejudice to his brilliant imagination, these two important parts of his art became the object of his studies, and the result was, the most perfect organization of the articulation of the fingers possible to imagine. The school of Clementi is considered by the most able pianists as the best among the many that have been founded.I2

Given the growing number of pianoforte manufacturers and the abundance of

instructional treatises, it is evident that it was becoming fashionable to have a pianoforte in

the home.I3 Clementi's tutor was designed primarily as a succinct introduction to the

basic knowledge required by this rapidly-growing class of amateur musicians,'" and his

remarks and exercises provide an important outline of the new technical skills and

interpretative knowledge deemed necessary for the accurate performance of the emerging

piano literature for which Lvidon was becoming an important centre.''

Scholars, such as Sandra P. Rosenblum, Lindley, and Leon Plantinga have

regarded Clementi's work as innovative because of his concise, systematic, and consistent

application of the principles of keyboard technique. For these reasons, Clementi's

achievement cannot be disputed. A study, however, of the many treatises printed in

England in the sixteen years prior to Clementi's publication of 180 1, strongly suggests that

" Francois Joseph F&is. Biographic LhiverseNe des lesfusiciens er Bibliographic generale de la musrque. 2 vols (Brussels. 1837: reprint ed, Brussels: Editions CuIture et Cinlisation 1963). Cited and translated in Rosenblum, Intrcxluction," vi.

" Schott -From Harpsichord to Pianoforte." 33.

"' Rosenblum, "Introduction" vi.

' 5 See Maunder. *'J.C. Bach and the Early Piano in London." 20 1-2 10. and Hess. 'The Transition f h m Harpsichord to Piano," 75-94.

he was drawing upon ideas and practices already developed by his forerunners and

contemporaries. Thus, while Clementi must not be given undeserved credit for inventing

formulas that already existed in these earlier treatises, it is unequivocal that his

Introcft~ction provides considerable information regarding technical and stylistic details of

performance on the pianoforte at what was essentially a transitional period from

harpsichord to pianoforte. A close reading of Clementi's text discloses significant aspects

of this transitional state of keyboard performance at the turn of the century.

Clementi often incorporates what would now be interpreted as modem fingering,16

especially with regard to scale passages and consecutive thirds. He utilizes all fingers in

both the right and left hands, including the thumb which is often a starting or ending point

and a strong pivot for passing fingers over, with the exception, of course, of the little

finger. This modem fingering, however, already appeared in Marpurg's Die K m s t dzs

C'lmtirr zu spielen ('The Art of Keyboard Playing" c. 1 750). Marpurg stressed that each

finger was equally important, and ridiculed older techniques by comparing them to a singer

who might similarly hope to improve his performance by removing part of his tongue or

some of his teeth." He then presented the following fingerings for right hand major scales

ascending one octave (see Table 3.2):

16 Modem fingering meaning the equal utilization of all fingers. In scale passages. the thumb is used as a pivot and the little finger is employed at outer most Limits. With regard to consecutive thirds. all fingers are once again employed and finger crossing is used to make a continuous line possible.

I f Miupurg, Anleitung zum Clavierspielen. Cited in Le Huray and Jenkins. "Fingering" 6: 573.

I I( The modem method of notating fingerings is used in this example as it was by Marpurg, to which I bave added the Gagerings as they wodd be notated using the traditional English system of + I X J .

Modern F o m f a Englsh Notation

The modem fingering of the B-flat major scale may also begin with the ring finger

or 3 on B-flat such that 3 in the right hand will always play this note. Likewise, both the

E-flat and the A-flat major scales may begin with the middle finger or 2 so that E-flat and

A-flat respectively will always be played with the same finger. Aside From these minor

variances, however, the fingering patterns presented by Marpurg in 1750 are very close to

the fingerings we know today. Further, Marpurg suggested that the same fingering be

maintained for each octave both ascending and descending, just as the repetition of

fingering in subsequent octaves is common practice to the modem performer.

A Profile of the English Keyboard Treatises Under Review

Every advance in sryle rmd technique had to be fmnded on the results and experience of fonner schmis.

Carl czemY1'

With evidence to support Czerny's claim already suggested with regard to

Clementi and his predecessors, it is fitting to turn attention more fully towards the pre-

'' Czerny, -4 Comp(ete Theoretical and Practical Pinno-Forte School. Cited and translated in Le Huny and Jenkins, 'Fingeringw 6: 574.

Clementi English tutors, beginning with a comparison of their overall approaches. An

initial division is soon obvious, since some tutors are explicit, contain musical examples,

and are fingered throughout, while others lack such details. The tutors under discussion

are listed according to these divisions in Table 3.3. In addition, some of these instruction

manuals seem to have been intended for beginners, while others appear to have been

prepared as reference tools for more advanced players. Furthermore, several treatises list

"principles" at the outset which are not practiced consistently within the work. Oflen

certain techniques will be ignored in favour of reinforcing the fundamentals such as the

five-finger position. This is perhaps done in an attempt to avoid confusion for the

beginning player with the understanding that once familiarity develops, the rules are to be

followed.

Particularly important for the present study is the approach taken towards certain

aspects of technique, fingering, and articulation. A study of these issues soon reveals that

this was indeed a time of transition, as most treatises contain principles that are

particularly applicable to harpsichord technique as well as principles that point more

towards the capabilities of the pianoforte. In this way, they refer to what was passing and

becoming antiquated as well as to new trends - - to what might be called '?he modem."

With their "modem" contents, these treatises fully verify the claim that Clementi's work

contained information already presented by his predecessors. By the year 180 1, although

clearly a time of transition, Clementi conveyed his methodologies in a far more

consistently modem fashion.

Detailed Treatises

TABLE 3.3

Categorization of English Keyboard Treatises, 1785- 180 1

Author Unknown Preceptor for the Pianoforte. the Orean or Harpsichord 1785

Domenico Corri A Complete Musical Grammar

Augustus F.C. Kollmann The First Beginning on the Piano Forte 1795

Nicolas-Joseph Hullmandel Princioles of Music. Chiefly Calculated for the Piano Forte . . . 1795

James Hook New Guida di Musica beina a Complete Book.. . 1795

Author Unknown Music Made Easv.. . on the Piano Forte or Harpsichord 1797

Treatises Lackinp Detail

Frangois-Hippolyte Barthelemon A New Tutor for the Harpsichord or Forteriano 1790

John Danby The Rudiments of the Piano Forte and Harpsichord 1790

Author Unknown New instructions for Playing the Hamsichord. Pianoforte.. . 1790

Joseph Dale Introduction to the Piano Forte and Harpsichord . . . , 1 & a. 1797

John McKerrall Familiar Introduction to the First Princi~les of Music.. . 1800

Detailed Methodolotzies

The earliest treatise to be examined is the anonymous Preceptor for the

Pianofrte, the Organ or Hmpsichord (1785). With regard to instructions on fingering,

this work contains a wealth of lists and rules. Textual explanation is abundant: the author

discusses proper positioning of the hand, arm, and wrist, and describes the correct way to

play many passages. The player is advised never to play faster than one can read, never to

remove a finger from a key until another is ready to be depressed,2o and to keep the arms

and wrists rather stiff [sic.] to avoid any unnecessary movement. The author states thai it

is impossible to give a rule for every passage, but by practicing his lessons (referring

specifically to Lesson II)," one will soon be able to play any passage. This tutor is

fingered extensively at the beginning, but towards the end, fingering is left to the judgment

of the player. This perhaps implies that by this point, the student is to know the rules of

fingering and be able to apply them appropriately.

Despite the many good qualities, this work is typical of a treatise written at a time

of transition as it contains both older and newer methods. It often falls out of step with

current trends through the inclusion of indications for the use of the index finger instead of

the thumb, and in its avoidance of the little finger, especially in scale and chord passages. *

In addition, this treatise is sometimes contradictory, as is the case with repeated notes.

Although written instruction states clearly that such notes are not to be played by the same

'' This notion can be interpreted in two different ways. It could mean that a note is to be held until the next is to be played (aiming for a legato touch). or that a small space occurs between the notes when the first note is lifted just before the second is played. The overall trend towards a legato style is evident but the actual stage represented here is somewhat vague.

" Discussed funher in chap. 4. under the section on "Comparison of Techniques".

This fingering p u t mny even be traced back to C.P.E. Bach and his Fersuch of 1753.

finger, this principle is not practiced consistently in the fingering indications provided

elsewhere within the treatise. This tutor is progressive, however, since the thumb, in spite

of the instances stated above, is employed in both hands, and the little finger is employed

in octave leaps and selected sequences. Clearly looking forward are the consecutive

parallel thirds fingered in a way that accommodates a legato line,23 and the possible

interpretations of the instructions that the player be ready to depress the next note before

releasing the preceding key.

Domenico Com's tutor of 1787, A Complete Musical Grammar, does not contain

a section on fingering at all, but does include related information under ''~nstructions to

the Harpsichord Player." Here, Corri provides some rather ambiguous directions on hand

position and note duration. Regarding hand position, the player is instructed to keep the

thumb and little finger over the keys, and that no note be released until another is put

down or ready to be struck. The overall progression towards a ieguto line is evident,

although the addition of "or ready to be struck" may again imply a slight lift or detachment

between notes.

Although this work falls in line with modem methodologies, again, certain

inconsistencies arise. The fingering for major-scale passages is current, yet, in practice,

the thumb and little finger are avoided. Repeated notes are played with different fingers,

yet chromatic passages are fingered in an earlier style. (These specific techniques will be

discussed later in chap. 4). For the most part, however, this work is modem. Fingers are

3 That Franqis Couperin had suggested a legato fingering for parallel thirds in his treatise in 17 16 may indicate that the French preceded others on the continent with this trend

to be substituted on long notes and to be changed when playing stepwise and repeated

notes. The thumb and little finger are avoided on black notes but are employed just before

or after a black note is depressed. Fingers are passed over the thumb, which is thus used

as a pivot. Corri's instructions to release a note only when another has been depressed,

along with his indications for finger substitutions and for fingers passing over the pivot

thumb support the Iegato trend and the categorization of this work as detailed and

modem.

Augustus Frederic Christopher Kollmann's The First Beginning on the P imo

Forte of 1795 contains a large section of text with an abundance of musical examples.

Under section IX, "Of Fingering," several rules are listed, including those on posture and

hand position, as seen before in earlier treatises. Kollmann includes the statement: "Do

not neglect the use of any one finger; but use the thumb and the three first fingers most,

and the founh, as weakest finger, only where it is necessary and fit for the passage."2"

This relays somewhat of a mixed message when placed against the modem trend of finger

equalization and, more specifically, against John Danby's equality of the fingers in his

tutor of 1790. Although Kollmann gives the thumb equal status, the little finger often

suffers from discrimination. This is perhaps yet another example of the transitional effects

on fingering. The modem method of employing the thumb as a pivot is combined with the

older method of excluding the tittle finger.

The ample text provides clear explanation of the following techniques: the

avoidance of using the same finger on successive notes (except in slow movements), the

'' Kohmn, The First Beginning on the Piano Forre. 9.

shifting of the hand positions, passing over the thumb, avoidance of the thumb and little

finger on a black note, and acceptance of the middle finger passing over the ring finger.

But the treatise goes further. Kollmann's section on rules also provides musical examples

with suggested fingering. The fingering is clearly based on major scale hand positions and

makes possible a perfectly legato line. It is important to note his comment that:

. . . whether it be proper to mark the fingers over a lesson for beginners, it must be observed: that in general it is very improper to mark ail the fingers, as that method doubles the objects of attention, takes away a great part of the natural ease of playing, and hinders the scholar in learning to finger with judgment.25

Kollrnann practiced what he preached, as the fingerings are, at first, sparse but

soon become non-existent. He provided ample fingering at the outset only to the point

that the student would have sufficient opportunity to practice his methodologies. Beyond

this point, the player was to continue in the manner suggested.

The rules are distinctly defined and the intent of the musical examples is clear.

True to his beliefs, very few fingerings are applied to the actual music. Overall,

Kollmann's points are progressive and consistent, and emphasis seems to be on the

position and shifting of the hand. Although from the rules, a legato style may be inferred,

the beginner is not directly instructed to hold down the first key until the next is ready to

be struck, as was the case in other earlier tutors. This suggests that because legato was

now the norm, such preference was not necessarily written down, but was understood.

Hullmandel' s Principles of Music, Chiefly Cal~dated for the Piano Forte or

Hurpsichord of 1795 contains an abundance of high-flown text, including the following:

" K01ha.m. fie First Beginning on the Piano Forte. 1 1.

The principal aim of a Performer should be to acquire the most perfect equality both in the sound and in the length of the Notes, as no execution can be Brilliant, no expression can be True, 'till an entire power has been obtained over the Fingers d b o ~ ! Ely,ds. '26

The section labeled "Of the Position and Fingering" begins with a detailed

description of the correct seating and hand position. Then, for the first time in any of the

English treatises under discussion, the subject of touch is introduced in conjunction with

matters of fingering in an attempt to explain and differentiate between such various

touches as portamento, legato, and staccato. Hullmandel instructs the player to produce

staccato with an even motion of the wrist and without any motion of the fingers. Aside

from staccato, the hand and wrist are to be still, and any key depressed must be held until

the next is struck. The author makes clear his Iegafo preference by stressing this rule as

one of the most essential.

The motion of passing over the thumb is to be smooth and to be completed by any

but the little fingerg Changing fingers on a repeated note, the avoidance of striking

successive notes with the same finger, changing hand position at repeated notes, and the

completing of sequences with consistent fingering are all described. Of interest is the

inference to a legato line: ''In general all fingering which stiffens the fingers or prevents

the joining of notes, is defective and should be avoided"" Inconsistencies abound, like

that of successive notes frequently being indicated to be played by the same finger,

indications that stand in direct contradiction to the rule put fonvard in the textual

16 Hul1m;mdel. Principles of ,bIusic, 20.

-': Ibid. 20.

3 bid. 2 1. Italics are those of the present author.

explanation that "the same finger is not to strike two keys one after an~ther ."~ Mer the

series of exercises, a number of pieces follow. Fingerings here are sparse and are

indicated only when a "change of finger is necessary or as markers when the distance of

the notes makes it doubtf~l.'"~

Despite the fact that Hullmandel refers to his "principal design of the preceding

rules being but to convey the necessary instructions to beginners,'*' with the absence of

detailed fingerings on the actual pieces and lack of musical examples, it is, on the whole.

too complex for a beginner to follow. The material that is explained in the front section of

the tutor is progressive and modem, yet is not reinforced and not applied in the musical

examples. It is therefore to be understood that after a comprehensive reading of the

textual explanation, all rules would be practiced by the player in exercises of his or her

own invention.

James Hook's New Guiila di Musica being a Complete Book of insmtctiom for

Beginners on the Harpsichord or Piano Forte of 1 797 abounds in inconsistencies. This

work contains no textual explanation of fingering, but rather, fingerings have been applied

to every piece. The scale (gamut) is provided with fingering identical to that found in the

earlier Preceptor, and given that Hook drew upon a work that now dated back twelve

years, it is not surprising to find that some of its contradictions were carried over, and that

29 Hullmandel. Principles of Music, 2 1.

Ibid. 29.

3' bid, 21.

some of its methodologies, already at odds with modem trends in 1785, were repeated.j2

In line with one of the contradictions in the Preceptor, repeated notes in the New Guida

are shown to be played by the same fingers in Lesson HI, yet by Lesson IX, the player is

instructed to change fingers on such notes. Further, disregarding the fingering assigned to

the gamut, itself backward-looking in its avoidance of the little finger, scale passages often

conclude with I I + in the right hand (Lesson [V). The avoidance of the little finger in

both hands, somewhat outmoded at the time of the Preceptor's publication, is another

principle that still finds its way into the New ~ u i h . ' ~

When it comes to fingerings for the actual pieces in his tutor, Hook's schemes

differ markedly from the fingering applied to the individual scales. Indeed, the backward-

looking scale fingerings are completely replaced by contradictory finger patterns that must

be construed as modem. Taking into account that some of the finger patterns in the early

part of the tutor must also be considered modem (such as the pattern given for what

would clearly be legaro consecutive thirds in the right hand) and that the pieces in the

latter part of the treatise, with their forward-looking fingerings, occupy the greater part of

it, the fingering must be considered, for the most part, current, and the tutor as a whole,

one that looks forward to the treatise of Clementi, in spite of its lack of verbal explanation.

'' Although no library catalogue w i l l necessarily list James Hook as the author of either the Preceptor or Music Made Easy. there is flcient duplication of materid found in Hook's ,Vew Guda to strongly suggest that he was the author of these two works as well. This is the belief put fonvard in this study. but. owing to the library system's decision to list these works as anonymous. the treatises are listed as such in Table 3 -3. Appendix A. and the bibliography.

33 C.P. E. Bach. in his Versuch of 1753. had advocated the fingering d 2 3 , 123 as appropriate for a one octave, ascending scale in the right hand That Hook should advocate the same fingering some thirtytwo years later when more modern tutors were turning to the fingering ~ 1 2 , + 1234 for such a passage attests to a non-progressive outlook at least as far as this issue is concerned.

The anonymous treatise, Music Made Easy. ..on the Piano Forte or Hmpichord

of 1798 begins with the exact same scale (gamut) and accompanying text as was contained

in Hook's work of 1797; even the fingering has been duplicated. This work also contains

no verbal explanation, but instead, attempts to solve all problems by providing not oniy the

fingering for every note but also the note names. This is a strong contradiction to

Kollrnann's belief that music should not be fingered throughout so as not to interfere with

the player's concentration. Kollmann wanted fingering to become natural and felt that the

obsessive notation of fingering would only cause confbsion. In contrast, the author of

Music Made Easy has both fingered and named every note. Aimed at the beginner, this

tutor suffers from information overload, and the end result is hindering; the music is too

cluttered to read. In addition, it is inconsistent with regard to the fingering of scale

passages and changing fingers on repeated notes. Not only does this treatise contain much

of the information from earlier works, it also reproduces exact duplications. It has little to

offer the fonvard progression towards modem techniques and may represent little more

then a marketing ploy.

Treatises Lackina Detail

Franqois-Hippolyte Barthelemon's A New Tutor for the Harpsichord or

Fortepiano of 1790 contains very little text, but it does include the following instructions

as the "Rules for Fingering": 'Xemember not to play two successive notes with the same

finger or with the thumb, and not to touch two keys also at once with the same finger.'JJ

Fingered pieces follow, beginning with a Prelude in C-major which employs, for the most

part, modem fingering principles.

Fingerings are marked thoroughly in the short Preludrs provided for each key, but

are not marked in every piece. Given its lack of textual and musical explanation, it seems

that this work is intended for a player with some experience and was written, perhaps, to

be used as a reference tool rather than as a teaching methodology. It is wonh noting,

however, that the fingerings provided for scale passages and consecutive thirds are

consistent and facilitate legato performance, thus placing it in line with the modem

methodologies.

Also published in 1790 was John Danby's The Rudiments of the Piano Forte ami

Harpsichord. Likewise, this work includes little text and simply lays out the five-finger C-

position in both hands, for which many exercises are provided. Scales are fingered in a

modem fashion, employing the little finger, and using the thumb as a pivot. The sparse

text is interspersed between the musical examples and it is noted that "should anyone be at

a loss for the fingering [they should] look to the position.'*5 These instructions are

necessary, as Danby often provides only partial fingering using the thumb as a marker. As

a result, the intended fingering becomes unclear quite early in the volume. h Lesson III

for instance, there are no instructions regarding the changing of fingers on repeated notes.

34 Frwois-Hippolyte BartheIernon. .-1 :Vtw Tutor for the Harpsichord or Fortepiano (London: The Author. c. 1790), 8.

35 John Danby. The Rudiments of the Piano Forte and Harpsichord (London: Printed for G. Smart. 1796), 4.

With its lack of both textual explanation and detailed musical examples, this treatise must

also be considered a possible reference tool rather than an instructional tutor? The

fingerings of scale passages, consecutive thirds, and the Alberti bass patterns, however,

are modem and place this tutor on a par with progressive contemporary treatises.

The anonymous treatise, New Instructions for Playing the Hapsichord.

Pianoforte or Spinet ( 1 790) contains the exact same "Rules for Fingering7' as the

Preceptor, with identical wording and type setting. Furthermore, Lessons I11 and IV

reappear labeled precisely as they were in this earlier treatise of 1785. What was identified

in the Preceptor as Lessons I and I1 appear here under the same name, even repeating the

error in the opening fingering of Lesson II :

In addition, many of the same pieces are included, but in a different order. The Preceptor

claimed to be progressive, while this work, identified as a "collection of choice lessons,"

remains non-commital. The pieces do not successively require a higher level of skill and,

as a result, this tutor is no more than a compilation of various studies. One can only

conclude that this publication was commercially motivated in the hope of generating more

revenue by merely changing the title and rearranging pre-existing material from the

Preceptor of 1785. The only additions are a reference made to the "Italian manner of

36 More specifically, a reference manual rather than an exercise b k intended for self-instruction. E.uplanations and musical examples are so sparse that it would be dose to impossible for the beginner to foliow the intentions of this work

fingering, explained by a number of examples,'37 and a brief instruction in thorough bass

practice. The text is sparse, and the reference made to the Italian manner is no more than

what is precisely stated above. The examples show no obvious differences, thus rendering

the ''Italian" statement superficial.

In 1797, Joseph Dale completed his introduction to the Piano F m anJ

Harpsichordor Organ, Books I and [I. This work contains no verbal explanation of

fingering, but instead, begins with fingered pieces that progress quite rapidly. Pieces in

each successive key are introduced by a Prelude that is fingered in detail. Each Prelude is

then followed by pieces that are sparsely fingered and the thumb is often the only finger

indicated, thus acting as a marker. Fingerings for scale passages and consecutive thirds

are modern, but because the fingerings are so sparse, it is difficult to determine precisely

what they are in many passages. It is also noted that "this fingering tho' necessary when

the scholar is a little advanced would be very improper for a beginner.'"' This is an

interesting instruction which deviates greatly from any contained in the other treatises

under investigation. The differentiation between "advanced scholar" and "beginner" raises

the question of the intended market for this treatise. It is clearly not suitable for the

beginner, and although varying levels of accomplishment were implied in other works,

such a distinction is never M y made. The overall progression towards the modem system

of fingering is neglected. Repeated notes are played with the same finger, and the

'' Author Unknown New Ins~ructionsfor Playing the Harpsichord. Pianoforte or Spinet (London 1789: reprint d. New Yo*: Bmude Brothers. 1967), 7.

38 Joseph Dale, Innoduction to the Picmo Forte md Harpsichord or Organ. Books I and U (London: The Author, 1796 and 180 1). 20.

fingering provided makes detached articulation unavoidable unless one is to regress bcck

to the practice of the middle fingers crossing over one another.

Although book II is a continuation of Book I in numbering and format, many

questions with regard to intention already arise in its first lesson. Multiple measures of

repeated notes in the right hand are clearly marked to be played in alternation between the

thumb and index finger. With small groups of repeated notes, however, Dale calls for no

finger change at all.

Even though some aspects of Dale's treatise are progressive in practice, as was

common with treatises of this time, it often lacks necessary details. With its sparse

fingering and scarcity of textual information, too many questions are left unanswered.

This work, therefore, could only be intended for the experienced player. It must be

considered, however, that beginners could complement this treatise with professional

instruction, and the more advanced players could use it by themselves.

John McKerrall's Familiar Intrductior~ to the First Principks of Mmic.. on the

Harpsichord or Piano Forte of 1800 contains no verbal explanation of fingering, and the

patterns become increasingly sparse. The thumb and little finger are employed

throughout, and the prevalent five-finger hand position is most evident. McKerral17s

modem tingering of consecutive thirds suggests a legato line but his fingering for repeated

notes without change of finger is more commensurate with the earlier style. With the

absence of text, sparse examples of tingerings, and a large number of inconsistencies, this

work would not suit a beginner and would have been much less usefbl even to an

advanced player than either of the earlier tutors or Clernenti's treatise of the following

year.

CHAPTER FOUR

Technical Comparisons: The Endish Treatises and Clernenti's Work

A Cornoarison of Soecific Techniques

In the course of the previous chapter, certain techniques in keyboard performance

emerged as distinctive in the comparison of any one tutor with another, and they will serve

again to demonstrate the techniques that Clementi either drew consciously from his

predecessors or assimilated from what had become the established norm during the time

that he compiled his tutor. In order to provide more precise comparisons, these and other

techniques, not previously mentioned, will here be isolated, and their treatment in any one

treatise (if, indeed, they are included) closely examined. In addition to aligning and

distinguishing between the individual tutors, this investigation should also shed light upon

what already seems to be a period of transition in keyboard technique: a movement away

from a detached style of playing towards a more legato style, a movement that

necessitated changes in established fingering techniques.

The techniques under investigation include the manner in which a performer is to

play: ascending and descending scale passages, chromatic runs, broken and solid chords,

consecutive chords (including parallel thirds and sixths), leaps, trills, repeated notes, and

such sequences as the Alberti bass pattern. It is to be noted that not every treatise

comments on all these techniques or contributes in such a fashion as to warrant

consideration in this analysis. As evidenced in chapter three, neither would all the tutors

have been of equal value as sources for a later treatise.

In order to place this transitional period into perspective, it is important to re-

establish the evolution of fingering methodologies for scale passages. Older methods

ignored the thumb and littie finger, employing only the middle three fingers.' This earlier

style promoted the crossing of longer fingers over shorter ones, middle over index or ring

fingers, or sometimes index over the thumb, depending on the direction. The thumb and

little finger were thought to be of lesser length and power respectively, and as a result,

were considered of lesser value. Subsequently, the thumb and little finger were employed

only if absolutely necessary, and the preference for the other three middle fingers prevailed

for some time. In contrast, modem methodologies regarding scale passages promote

equal utilization of all fingers in both hands. The thumb is of importance as a pivot across

which the hand crosses, resulting in the potential for unlimited legato phrasing. The little

finger is critical for the outer limits of scales passages, chords and to facilitate large

stretches and leaps.

Often a treatise opens with a gamut or scale-like configuration, outlining the grand

staff, the C-major scale, and/or five-finger hand position in C-major. The Preceptor is no

exception and begins with the C-major scale in both the right and left hands (see ex. 1 a).

The scale, appearing as "Lesson I," serves as a basic guide to most other fingering

patterns. Especially noteworthy here is the consistent ascending patterns 123, + 123 in

the right hand and 321 -.321+ in the left hand. The inclusion of the thumb (+) as a pivot

is the sole modem ingredient. The fingerings suggested above allow the player to

complete a pattern i l l y before reversing direction, always ending an ascent on the ring

finger or the thumb. The octave seems to be equally divided by repeating two pattems of

the four fingers in the first and last measures. In the right hand, at the opening of measure

two, however, the fingering begins quite awkwardly with the index finger coming directly

after the ringer finger. This crossing of fingers past one another is clearly an older

method. In addition, ttrc little finger is distinctly avoided in both hands.

Example 1 a - [Author Unknown 1. Piano Prrcrprur ( 1785). Lesson One. p.8.

Lesson 1

The author states that it is impossible to give a rule for every passage, but by

practicing the following lessons (referring specifically to Lesson 11, see ex. 1 b), one will

soon be able to play any passage.

E--pie t b - [Author Unknownl, Piano Preceptor ( 1785). Lesson Two, p. 9

In Lesson II, however, the tirst set of fingerings in the right-hand scale passage are

marked +134, +123. This may very well be a misprint, as the same passage appears as

Lesson V with the opening fingerings marked + 123. The fingering for the bass chords is

worth noting, as the little finger is clearly avoided; three-note chords are played

consistently with ring finger, middle finger and thumb. The sequence in the second system

employs right hand fingering 1323, 1323 throughout, and once again avoids the little

flnger apart from the octave leap in the left hand. As in the past, emphasis is placed on the

middle three fingers.

It is also interesting that later in this treatise (Lesson XIII) the fingering + 1 r I is

employed in scale passages. This is a fingering often reserved for chromatic passages and

seldom ever used othewise. On the question of fingering as a whole, however, the

methodologies and fingerings of the pieces in the Preceptor look ahead, even though the

examples just cited are largely of the "old school" and seemingly the result of the changing

process going on at the time.

Corri, in his Complete Mtisicul Grammar, provides modem fingering in his

introductory pages as follows: C D E F G A B C

- 1 2 - 1 2 3 4 righthand

4 3 2 1 2 1 frfrhmd

As will become evident in later examples, these principles of fingering, although clearly

stated, are not practiced consistently throughout the treatise. Com's tutor is also clearly

transitional.

Barthelemon's New Tutor begins with a prelude in C-major which also employs,

for the mod part, modem fingering principles (see ex. 2a). In the right hand, the little

finger is used in scale passages and chords, and the thumb acts as a pivot. The left hand,

however, is not fingered in the modern fashion, since the Little finger seems to be avoided

and when used, it is not conventionally placed. The first beat ofthe fourth measure

contains the sole use of the left-hand little finger. It seems awkward and to be the result

of incorrect fingering leading up to that point. A modem player would employ the little

finger on the first and last notes as well as on the note at the end of the run (see ex.2b).

E-uample 2a - BWlemon. .-I New Tutor (1790). Prelude. p. 8.

E.xamp~e 2b - Barthelemon. .4 New Tutor ( 1790). Relude. p. 8.

Proposed Modern Fingering

Also of interest is a pattern given some attention in the Preceptor, but highlighted

more strongly here: .+- 1 + 123 right-hand fingering of a scale passage that does not

involve accidentals:

E F G A B C

+ I + I 2 3 (seeex. 3).

E-wple 3 - BarWIemon. A New Tutor (1790). Variation V& p. 9.

A modem player might be likely to use the right-hand fingering: 1 2, + 1 2 3. Such

fingering would facilitate a more fluid scale movement. In ex. 3, the thumb is employed

often. It falls on beats one and two, and also crosses under the index finger, resulting in

unnecessary tlips of the hand. In contrast to this unique scale movement, modem use of

the little finger is evident in the right-hand chords of the last two measures, and in the left-

hand octave leap. Once again, evidence of the transition resurfaces as Barthelemon's

treatise includes both modem and earlier fingering methodologies.

Danby's Rudiments also includes little text and simply lays out the five-finger C-

position in both hands:

This elementary rudiment is then reinforced by an abundance of exercises to be performed

in the basic C-position, and the advice that "should anyone be at a loss for the fingering

[they should] look to the position.'" The scales which follow are fingered in a modem

fashion, employing the tittle finger, and using the thumb as a pivot: - 12 + 1231

' Danby. Rudiments, 4.

Hook's New Gui& contains no textual explanation of fingering principles as he

has instead applied his methods to every piece. The scale (gamut) is provided with

fingering identical to that of the Preceptor of 1785, and here, Hook's fingering scheme

retains the older practice and distinctly avoids application of the little finger in both hands

(see ex. 4).

E . w p l e I - Hook i V w Guidu (1795). The Gamut, p .5

Music Made Eesy, the "anonymous" tutor of 1797, begins with the same scale

(gamut)as was contained in Hook's New Guida of 1795 (ex.4). Even the fingering has

been duplicated. This work also contains no hrther verbal explanation, but instead,

attempts to solve all problems by providing not only the fingering for every note but also

the note names. It is clear that all of the tutors discussed to this point, while containing

certain modem methodologies, especially with regards to use of the thumb, also include

some earlier techniques.

Ascending right-hand chromatic passages beginning on a white note would

most commonly be fingered by a modem player as follows:

The older method also included playing the white notes with the thumb as shown above.

Single black notes, however, were consistently played with the index h g e r (marked as 1

using English notation). Chromatic passages are not always addressed in the treatises, but

in Corri's tutor, a right-hand chromatic run, beginning on middle C, is certainly fingered in

an earlier style:

Unlike Com's instructions, Dale's indications for the chromatic scale are vague

and leave many decisions to the player (see ex. 5). His only prescribed fingerings include

the right hand index finger on D-sharp, the thumb on the last E-natural before the run,

and the final note, G-sharp, played by the middle finger. This sparse fingering provides

little direction for the beginner, and hence, little summation may be drawn other then

Dale's explicit avoidance of the thumb on black notes.

Following the chromatic passage in the same musical example, the trill is fingered

13131313, which seems a unique choice. A more common or modem fingering would

surely be with strong and consecutive fingers 1212 1212. Here Dale has chosen the older

style of fingering which maintains use of the index finger but relies on the weaker ring

finger. Perhaps even more unexpected is Danby's comment that a right hand trill in an

exercise on page 23 is to be played with fourth and fifth fingers (3 4 3 4 3 -1). These

unique fingerings can only suggest that by the 1790s Dale and Danby, at least, considered

all fingers to be equal3 A modem player would no doubt find such fingerings awkward

' Danby and Dale do. however, bave a precedent Francois Couperin advocated that one should learn to trill with all the fingers. even when applied to parallel thirds in one hand He advised that one had to start such a practice at a young age and that certain pairings would eventually prove to be more favourable.

and undesirable. Unfortunately, much like the information on chromatic passages,

instruction on t d s is equally restricted. Of the three treatises that mention these

techniques, however, all are indisputably of the older school.

Example 5 - Date. Introhuction. .. Book Two ( 1793, WnlabeIedl, p. 43.

With regard to consecutive chords, particularly parallel thirds, most treatises

provide an abundance of instructions and musical examples. As discussed in chapter two,

the older fingering for parallel thirds included repetition of the same fingers throughout

this parallel motion. A detached touch was the result. This procedure moved towards an

alternating pattern of fingering which created the possibility for a variance in touch and

resulted in a slurred effect. Eventually, this practice evolved into the modem method of

fingering in which the fingers are continually crossed to accommodate a continuous line of

smoothly comected pardel thirds. Apart from the focus on parallel thirds in the

following section, attention will also be directed towards the tingering of sequences of

Couperin L 'Art de Toucher k Clavecin. cited in Dolmesch, 'Position and Fingering" 398 and Lindley. "Keyboard Fingerings and Articuiatioa" 199.

other two-note combinations and of consecutive chords. As with parallel thirds, a modern

approach would make equal use of all fingers on consecutive chords while avoiding the

same fingers in succession.

Hook fingers his right-hand consecutive thirds in a modem fashion: 4 3 2 2 i t

(Lesson XIV). Such utilization of the thumb and little finger facilitates a legato touch, a

matter that is reinforced by the rule that directs the player to be ready to depress a second

key before releasing the first. Although Danby often provides only partial fingering, using

the thumb as a marker, he too fingers consecutive thirds in a manner that promotes a

connected style (see ex. 6 and ex. 7).

E-~illllple 6 -Danby. Rudments ( l79O). Lesson VI. p. 7.

right handfingering: 3 2 3 2

1 + l -

E.mple 7 -Danby, Rutlimenu ( 1790). Lesson VI. p. 7.

Similarly, the following passsage in Barthelemon's treatise with a potentially

legato variation on a ground bass (see ex. 8), employs 4 3 2 right-hand fingering on

2 1 +

descending consecutive thirds.

E.uample 8 - Barhelemon. .-f New Tutor ( 1790), Variation I, p. 8.

At first glance, Kollmann7s fingering of consecutive thirds in the last measure of

ex. 9a appears to be awkward, with the hand crossing and the fingers selected. On closer

inspection, however, the objective is twofold: the right hand thumb avoids the C-sharp,

and here too, such fingering easily promotes a legato line.

E.uample Ya - Kollmann f irst Beginning ( 1795). Rules. p. 1 1.

The fingering in the second example from Kollmann's tutor (ex. 9b) is based on the

B-flat major hand position and shows the clear potential for a legato line between the

consecutive thirds and for the smooth connection between the subsequent chords.

E.uample 9b - K o l m First Beginning (1795), Morning Serenity, p. 3 5.

John McKerrall's treatise continues in much the same manner, as does Hook's

New Guida (see ex. 10). Descending consecutive thirds in the right hand are clearly

fingered with a legato performance in mind: 4 3 2 (Lesson V).

2

E - w p l e 10 - McKernl, Familiar Inrrobuction (1800). Lesson 11, p. 5.

To this point, it has been shown that several treatises clearly fingered parallel thirds

in a modem fashion. There are, however, several examples of the older style that are

particularly evident in the fingering of consecutive chords or two-note combinations other

than parallel thirds. In Hook's Lesson XV, the repetition of the little finger in the right

hand in successive two-note combinations can only result in detachment (see ex. I 1).

E.uample 1 1 - Kook. i V m (iuida (1 7 9 3 , Lesson XV. p. 18.

The top voice in these phrases could easily have been fingered with the index and little

finger in combination with the ring finger and thumb to promote a legato line (3 4 3

Ll t).

In this same lesson, the right hand descending broken thirds could be played completely

legaro, but are articulated as slurred groups instead (see ex. 12).

E.uample 12 - Hook New Guida (1797). Lesson XV. p. 18. -

In Lesson XVIII (see ex. 13), the fingering for the repeated thirds in rnrn. 1 and 3

is unclear. As only the first chord is fingered, it is not certain if a player is to alternate the

fingering or take the successive repeated notes with the same finger. Hook's fingering

creates a non-legato line between the parallel thirds and the three-note chord in the

measure before the repeat signs. It is highly unlikely that the little finger would cross

under the index finger for a smooth resolution. This measure could have been fingered in

such a way as to accommodate a legato performance; the goal, however, appears to be a

detached line.

E.umple 13 - Hook 'Vov Guida ( 1793, Lesson XVIII. p. 20.

Similarly, assuming that one is to play all the notes in ex. 14 using Dale's fingering

indications, the consecutive thirds in lesson XXIV would also result in detachment.

Consistently playing the ascending consecutive thirds in the right hand with the index and

ring finger voids the possibility of linking these sets of thirds and, insteid, results in a

detached articulation. It is possible, however, that if one were to alternate the fingers

using 31, 2 + . 31. 2+, a smooth connection between the sets would be possible.

Ewnp1e 14 - Dale, Infroduction.. .,Book One ( UW), m V , p. L6.

In Dale's Book 11 , forced detachment occurs with descending sixths, as shown in

ex. 15. At first glance, one may consider that conceivably the students who used these

treatises were children and their small hands could only reach the interval of a sixth with

thumb and little finger. Assuming that this stretch was perhaps too demanding for the ring

finger, instead the little finger was used throughout. This explanation is unlikely, however,

for, as discussed earlier, this work does not seem best suited for beginners. Furthermore,

in the next measure, just before the repeat sign, the notes are marked with a slur.

E.mnple 15 - We. Introduction.. . , Book Two ( 1797). Lesson One. p. 59.

[ ,cfsnlr N'.' 1. i 3

I

Although no fingering has been provided, comection between the slurred notes is clearly

desired. From this example, it would seem that legato was becoming the norm, and in

order to ensure a detached touch, fingering necessary to accommodate such articulation

needs to be indicated.

With regard to playing successive notes, the author of the Preceptor of 1785,

advised that one is to avoid playing two consecutive notes with the same finger (even if

two notes involve the same key, it is best avoided). This is one of the few techniques

which is consistent with both the modem and older schools. In Lesson UI (see ex. 16), it

is also to be noted that the little finger is used extensively in octave leaps, broken chords

and sequences and seems to be avoided only in runs or scale passages where the - 123.

- 123 fingering persists. Notice also the exchange of fingers on repeated notes in the last

measures. Although the change of fingers on repeated notes is modem: 232. - I -, the

fingering of this measure is somewhat awkward. Detached articulation is the result of the

necessary shift of the hand created by the use of the index and ring finger on beats two and

three respectively.

E.xample 16 - [Author Uaknownl. Piano Preceptor (1785). Lesson Three. p. 10.

Inconsistencies arise by Lesson VIE, however, where repeated notes are played

by the same finger: 2. 2. Similar irregularities occur in other works, including Hook's

New Guiila which is saturated with contradictions. Repeated notes are played by the same

fingers in Lesson ID, yet by Lesson IX the player is instructed to change fingers on

repeated notes (see ex. 17).

E.wpIe 17 - Hook, New Gusda (1 793, Lesson IX, p. 12.

Early on in Dale's treatise, repeated notes show no change in fingering, but after

considering preceding examples within this work, the change must be assumed. The

implication for change of fingering on repeated notes is reinforced later (p. 56) where the

change is clearly marked (see ex. 18). The multiple measures of repeated notes in the right

hand are distinctly marked as alternating between the thumb and index finger. Dale seems

not to worry about changing fingers on small groups of repeated notes. When there are

many repetitions of the same note, however, his indications for changing fingers are clear.

E.uample L 8 - Me, Introduction ... Book Two ( 1797). Waltz. p, 56.

Support of changing fingers on repeated notes is given by Hullmandel in his textual

explanations stating that "the same finger is not to strike two keys one after another".'

Likewise, Music Made Easy (see ex. 19) is consistent with regard to changing fingers on

repeated notes.

With the exception of the scales of F-sharp and C-sharp minor. and chromatic passages which were not compIetely modernized until appro.ximate1y the mid-nineteenth century. See Rosenblum. "Introduction," .xiv and H m , frinciples, 2 1.

E.xample 19 - [Author Unknown], L1.l~sic Made Easy ( 1 798), Lesson I, p. 6.

LI< S S O N I..

In contrast, McKerrall's fingering for repeated notes without change of finger is of

the older practice (see ex. 20).

E.uample 20 - M c K c ~ 1 , Familiar Introduction ( l8OO), Lesson 11. p. 5.

When considering the method of fingering sequences, there is a substantial

variance between the modem and the earlier styles. Modem methodologies use all fingers

including the thumb and little finger, thus keeping some semblance of the five-finger hand

position throughout the sequence. On the contrary, older methods that ignore the thumb

and/or little finger create the need for a stretch in the fingers, and as a result, such a hand

position is less feasible.

Corri's tutor contains the older method of fingering sequences: the thumb and

M e finger are avoided in right-hand ascending sequences which are fingered as follows:

C F E F , D G F G and CD, DE, EF.

1 3 2 3 , I 3 2 3 1 2, 1 2, 1 2-

In contrast, Danby's left-hand tingering of the Alberti bass pattern in his Lesson

MI1 is modem with its use of the thumb and little finger: 4+2+. 4 +2+. This application

of the thumb and tittle finger again suggests that by this time, the author considered the

fingers to be equal to one another.

Interestingly enough, Hullmandel's Exercise XXII is the first in this tutor to

address fingering and it does so while focusing on a shift of hand position during a series

of sequences.

E.umple 2 1 - Hu1lm;mdel. Principles (1795). Exercise XXII, p. 27

Some of the fingerings allow for both lrgalo and detached approaches, yet given his

textual appeal for "the joining of notes," it seems that unless detachment is made

unavoidable, legato is the normal touch. The fingerings in the tint measure (see ex. 2 1)

are smooth, yet the repeated notes facilitate detachment. Similarly, the descending groups

of three notes at the end of Exercise XXII are examples of unavoidable detachment with

the repeated note between groups. The Lift in both cases is inevitable.

Dale's Introchlction is full of shifting hand positions, but with a consistent fingering

of sequences. Dale takes advantage of repeated notes to change fingers and prepare the

hands for new positions. A c o ~ e c t e d and smooth line results with definite separations as

the hand is lifted and reset in the new position (see ex. 22).

E-wple 22 - Dale, Introduction ... Book One ( 1797). p. 27.

Dale's Lesson XXIX (see ex. 23) is intended "to exercise the taking off of the

hand and the movement of the It is also to be noted that "this fingering tho'

necessary when the scholar is a little advanced would be very improper for a beginner.'*

E.uample 23 - Dale, /ntroductio B.. . Book One ( 1797). Lesson XXU(. p. 20.

4

The tempo is marked presttssimo and repeated notes are played with the same finger.

Detached articulation is inevitable with such fingering unless one is to practice the older

method of crossing the middle fingers over one another. Here Dale's preference for

practicing the placement of the hand negates a focus on the evolution of the legato style.

It would be perhaps confusing for a beginner to practice that which intentionally produces

such forced articulation in conjunction with exercises that promote a smooth line, yet a

more advance player could appreciate such deviation in touches. Exercise XXIX

deliberately separates groups of three notes with fingering which could have easily been

fingered to produce a connected h e . Dale's articulation is obvious and so is the

suggestion that by this time, legato had become the norm such that when a detached touch

was desired, it had to be marked accordingly either by verbal instruction or fingering

which would ensure such articulation.

After reviewing specific techniques from the English treatises under investigation,

it is evident that modem fingering of scale passages, sequences, consecutive chords and

repeated notes did exist. The fbndamental problem however, lies in the abundance of

inconsistencies which reveals that this was indeed a time of transition and more than one

przctice existed simultaneously. As a result, the change in fingering patterns from the

older to the newer approach is not clear and evidently not without deviation.

CLementi's Treatise - Although many of the modem principles of fingering were introduced in treatises

published before Clementi's of 180 1, it is in the Intrud~ction to the An ofPZaying on the

Piano Forte that the principles are clearly stated, explained, and consistently applied.

In the section on 'Tingering," Clementi states that "effect is of the highest

importance; and that the mode of fingering is preferred which gives the best effect, tho'

not always the easiest to perform."7 He then addresses the position at the keyboard,

illustrates the five-finger C-position in both hands, and provides fingering drills with scales

- - --

Clementi. Introduction. 14.

in all the major and minor keys "which ought to be practiced dailyd (see ex. 24). This is

the first time in the treatises examined that scales in all keys are grouped together and

used as the basis for fingering. This was a new approach at the time and retains its

importance even today. As is evident from the fingered scales, the majority of the

fingering patterns are the same as those employed in earlier modem tutors.'

E-wple 24 - Clementi. Introduction (180 1). Scales. p. 15 (extract).

Sqales is al l the M A so n keya.with their relative M I M o ~ a ; which ought to be practised daily.

Comments are interspersed among the musical examples, such as those on the

avoidance of placing the thumb or little finger on a black note. Following that discussion,

Clementi includes a subsection entitled "Extensions and Contractions & c.," in which he

describes what is now commonly known as finger substitution (see ex. 25). This is the

first instance in which a player is instructed specifically to practice shifting the hand

' Clementi Introduction, 15.

Le Huray and Jenkins. "FingeringW6: 573-1.

silently through finger substitution on repeated notes. Clementi's explanation below the

musical example clearly defines his intention to shift the hand position while maintaining a

legato line. He concludes this section stating that "the legato-style requires this

[substitution] very frequently."'0

Example 25 - Clementi, Introduction (1 80 t ), E~censions and Contractions & c . p. 17.

withom strim if In a similar tnunler the left hand thus:

Which mode of ftrgering Jhould be much pm&d in wad

s I v L E requiring it very freqttcndy.

With regard to shakes, Clementi advises that "he shakes should be practiced with

every finger.. .not excluding the thumb, and upon short as well as the long keys."" This is

not new, since both Danby and Daie called for such practice in the late 1700s following

the lead made by Couperin who presented such methodologies as far back as 17 16."

With this recommendation recurring almost one century later, and not particularly stressed

during the period in between, clearly Clementi's desire for equality of all fingers was

strong enough even to extend once more to the playing of shakes.

In the course of his tutor, Clementi then provides many musical examples which

illustrate: changing fingers on repeated notes playing broken consecutive thirds 1 3. I 3,

I0 Clementi. Inrroduction. 17.

" Ibid. 18.

" Dolmetsch. 'Position and Fingering," 398.

1 3 to create a legato line; fingering sequences consistently; and adjusting fingering

patterns to ensure that the thumb and little h g e r fall on a white note. One exception

involves the diminished seventh arpeggio in which the player is directed to use the right-

hand thumb on a black note (see ex. 26).

E . w p l e 26 - Clementi, Introduction ( 180 I ), [Unlabeledl, p. 19.

I

To the late 20~-century player, this seems obvious, but when placed in perspective, this

was an original notion. Clementi's goal for a connected performance is obvious with his

consistent legato markings on the music and his fingerings which accommodate such a

touch. His finger substitutions or slides on consecutive octaves and thirds inevitably

results in a connected Line (see ex. 27a and ex. 2%).

E.urunple 27a - Clementi, Introtiuction ( 180 1). [Uniabcled). p. 19.

But W ~ ~ R

wanted Lwta thus:

E.wple 27b - Clementi. Introduction ( 180 1 ) . [Unlabeledl. p. 19.

Similarly, his fingering methods for consecutive thirds and sixths are carefully calculated

to produce smooth movement (see ex. 28a and ex. 28b) . Clementi provides alternate

fingering which employs the same fingers repetitively, and labels this as to be used "when

staccato, th~s ." '~

Example 2& - Clementi, Introduction (180 l), [Unlabeled], p. 19.

E.urnple 28b - Clementi. introchrction (180 1). [Unlrtbeledl. p. 19.

Clementi is evidently more aware of articulation than were his predecessors, as

well as of fingering and the co~ec t ion between the two. It is here in his treatise that, for

the first time, a distinction within the elementary musical illustrations has been made with

regard to an alternate fingering to be used when a legato line is desired. Compared to the

introductory exercises in earlier tutors, Clementi's five pages of preparatory studies are

thorough, consistent, and systematic. Although the textual information is sparse, the

notational directions are abundant and lead directly into the lessons. Each new key is

introduced by fingered Preludes, as in many earlier tutors. At first glance and as seen in

earlier treatises, the pieces seem to contradict the practices suggested by the exercises.

The first five lessons, for example, avoid changing fingers on repeated notes, which is

common later in the volume. As evidenced in the earlier treatises under review,

Clementi's motivation must also have been to avoid confbsing the beginner and to

l 3 Clementi, Inrroduction. 19.

reinforce the five-finger position in C-major. Also, at this early stage, one may assume

that the tempo would be moderate and thus finger changes on repeated notes would not

be so critical.

Clearly the exercises have been incorporated into the pieces. Already by Lesson

V, consecutive thirds and sixths are played with fingering which implies a legato line (see

ex. 29a and ex. 29b) . ''

xample 2% - Clementi, Intmducrion ( 180 1). Lesson V , Dead March by H;mndel, p. 22.

E.uample 29b - Clementi. Introducrion (180 1). Lesson V . Dead .\/arch by Handel, p. 22. -

In contrast, Clementi's desire for a detached touch in the sequence of descending

sixths is obvious. This descent could have been fingered in a manner which would have

enabled the notes of the passage to be connected. The intention here, however, is clearly

the opposite. Similarly, Lesson XWI implies both connected and detached articulation

" This presents an interesting comparison with Dale's treatise of 1797 in which consecutive si.ahs were fingered in a manner which did not facilitate a legato line. Here CIementi advocates iegato fingering fiom he outset.

with its fingering of consecutive thirds in 618 time (see ex. 30). Here the choice of

fingering produces a definite lift (separation) between the two sets of eighth notes. This,

too, could have been fingered in a legato manner. Clementi however, continues to

explore the various touches. l 5

E-ample 30 - Clementi. Infrorhrction ( 180 1). Lesson XVII. Sarabanda by Corelli. p. 3 1.

Lesson M X contains examples of finger substitution in which the objective is

obviously a legato line (see ex. 3 1). In sharp contrast, the consecutive thirds in the fourth

measure after the repeats is fingered to create a lift between beats one and two.

E-umple 3 1 - Clementi. Introduction (180 1). Lesson XIX, p. 32.

'' He has also fingered this passage so that the right-hand thumb avoids the accidental in the penultimate measure.

Clementi's avoidance ofthe right hand thumb on F-sharp is apparent, yet the fingering

thereafter could as easily have facilitated a legato style. His exploration and utilization of

the different touches continues to be distinct.

Lesson XXVI includes an example of shifting the hand position (see ex. 32)

so that the five-finger hand position is maintained on various areas of the keyboard. This

is achieved solely by shifting the hand at opportune times as opposed to crossing the

Bngers over one another and using the thumb as a pivot. In the fifth measure, for

example, the right hand shifts down an entire octave simply by playing the B with the

thumb and the following C with the little finger. By squeezing these outer fingers together

to play consecutive notes, immediately the hand is set in the lower range without

disrupting the smooth line.

E.umple 32 - Clementi. Inn-oducbon (180 I). Lesson XXVI. .llinuer in Samson by Handel. p. 36.

Lesson XXXII provides two hrther examples where articulation is clearly defined

by the fingering (see ex. 33a and ex. 33b). The end result in both cases is a detached

touch. In the minuet, the descending sixths in the right hand result in a detached upper

line. The last three eighth notes in the inner voice in the treble clef, however, could easily

be played legato with the fingering provided. In the trio, the repeated thirds in the third

measure are not fingered consistently with the identical phrase at the opening. The

opening fingering facilitates a leguto line between the first and second measure, a

procedure that is not possible in the third and fourth measures. Although, to some extent,

repeated notes on a keyboard instrument are inevitably detached, in the example above,

changing the fingering on the note which is common to the two chords as is the case with

mm. 1 and 2 would have also ensured a smooth connection across mrn. 3 and 4. Note as

well the inconsistency of changing fingers on repeated notes. In the minuet, no changes

are made when three notes are repeated; in the trio, however, where four repeated notes

are involved (last measure of the example), the fingers change with each note. It may be

concluded that Clementi placed more emphasis on the substitution of fingers on repeated

notes when the repetitions were greater than three, an attitude that has precedent in

Hook's tutor of 1785, as well as in Dale's of 1797.

MINUET atid TRIO

by MOZART.

ducrion ( 180 1 ), Lesson X2CU.I. Minuet by Mozart, p. 4.

Eliample 33b - Clmenti. IntroJuclion ( 180 1 ), Lesson Trio by Moznrt, p. 44.

TRLO

The fingering in Lesson XLWII suggests paired articulations, and shows hand

shifts and finger substitutions to avoid crossing fingers (see ex. 34). The frequency of

finger substitutions is worth noting, and is exemplified at the end of mm. 1 and 5 in the

right hand. Clementi seems to anticipate finger placement and prepare each measure such

that a large shift is not required. Instead, the hand is well placed at the outset of each new

measure or phrase and the resultant line is easily connected. Although finger substitution

is addressed in previous tutors, it is here that this device is first employed so consistently.

Perhaps this is one of Clernenti's major contributions, along with the presentation of his

methods in a systematic and complete format.

Example 33 - Clementi, Introduction ( 180 1). Lesson XLVIII. Polonnise and Minuet by Bach. p. 62.

Andante

While the fingering patterns may frequently imply a specific articulation such as

legato or detached, when the touch is specified by other means (i.e. slur, staccato, dots),

inferences based on fingering alone are not particularly helphl. Such is the case in Lesson

XX (see ex. 35a). If one ignored the staccato markings and observed only the fingerings,

a slurred effect could be executed. In the following example slurs have been added to

show articulation which would be possible by connecting the two notes under the slur and

shortening the second note. There is also the potential for variation in dynamic level by

playing the notes under the slur with a strong to weak touch (see ex. 3%):

E.uample 35a - Clementi, hfroduction (1801), Lesson XX, p. 32.

E.mple 3% - Clementi, Infroduction (1801). Lesson MC p. 32.

LESSON Xx . Ed, Xal,t\.

AIR i n the C H E HQYICS .

As a result of the specified articulation, any inferences to be made from the fingerings

alone regarding touch have to be ignored.

Clementi was the first to state that the easiest fingering was not necessarily the

best, since one should strive to achieve the most desirable musical effect. Although the

fingering is often not filly discussed,16 it is clearly demonstrated in Clementi's scales,

exercises, and progressive lessons.

It is evident that Clementi followed the basic arrangement employed by most late

eighteenth-century English instruction books, opening as he did with textual commentary

in which he described various techniques, providing fingered scale passages and five-finger

hand positions, and progressing with studies and pieces of increasing difficulty. His work

16 In comparison to the well known German treatises such as C.P.E. Bach's t'erwch and Tiirk's Klavierschule. Ctementi's work is short and lacking in detail. Yet it had incrediile influence as evicknced by the twelve editions and the various translations into other Ianguages.

differs, however, in his inchsion of fingerings for all the scales, relevant exercises, and

preludes to each new key. Most importantly, Clementi's fingering is consistent

throughout the treatise even in the more advanced lessons. Although the inclusion of

diminished seventh arpeggios is new, it is his frequent reference to legato style that sets his

work apart. This concentration is evident in his alternative fingerings to achieve various

effects (especially those involving thirds, sixths, and octaves), and in his introductory

remarks such as '%he best general rule is to keep down the keys of the instrument, the full

length of every note."" His description of legato is particularly striking: Yhe strings

vibrate sweetly into one another."" Clementi seems to be declaring that the transition is

complete: a detached style was no longer the preference; clearly legato had become the

normal touch.

Despite the brevity of Clementi's Introhction, Rosenblum concludes that:

. . . although much was necessarily left to be explained by a teacher, the tutor provides considerable information regarding technical and stylistic details of performance on the pianoforte at this transitional period . . . Clementi's Introbt(ction is an important volume and the best of the English tutors of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. lg

In closing, Clementi was, indeed, applying what many of his forerunners and

contemporaries had been advocating, yet he went beyond them in presenting the material

in a most systematic and consistent fashion while simultaneously introducing certain

technical advances in a most unobtrusive way.

'' Clementi. introduction, 8.

'' bid, 9.

Rosenblum "Introduction" wiii.

CONCLUSIONS

Many important changes in keyboard history evolved at the turn of the nineteenth

century. Although exact dates are impossible to establish, it is clear that by the year 1800

the pianoforte had replaced the harpsichord as the instrument of choice, modem principies

of fingering were codified. and legato had become the normal touch.

Although inclusion of both the harpsichord and pianoforte on the title pages of

many treatises was in part to ensure larger sales by appealing to both markets, further

implications can be drawn tiom such labelling. Perhaps not fond of sudden change, many

publishers and musicians alike were hesitant to abandon their familiar harpsichord for the

new pianoforte too suddenly. The inclusion of both instruments on the title page may

have instilled the comforting belief that many techniques and practices could be passed

quite easily from one instrument to the other. Indeed, certain fundamentals are constant,

and remembering that the early pianoforte was as close in sound and sound possibilities to

the harpsichord as it was to the modem piano, this is a reasonable notion. Given,

however, that the action of the pianoforte required a different touch fkom that of the

harpsichord and that the sound possibilities of the new instrument also increasingly

differed from those of its predecessors, the correlation between new touch, new fingering,

and new instrument became a matter of course.

The hammer action of the pianoforte offered the potential for a wide dynamic

range, and it seems reasonable that once musicians and manufacturers understood the

possibilities, the instrument underwent rapid change in order to exploit them. The

question then arises: did the compositional style at the turn of the nineteenth century

demand an instrument capable of legato playing and wide dynamics, or was this style the

outcome of the new possibilities of the pianoforte and the resultant demand of musicians?

Based on this investigation, the latter is plainly the case, at least as far as keyboard music

is concerned. It must be stated that the legato style evolved as the norm for stringed

keyboard instruments, not because its sound was more pleasing, but because of the

invention and refinement of the pianoforte. This resulted in an increased potential for

several elements of musical composition, including melody, phrasing, range, dynamics,

texture, and articulation.

The legato style, of course, was by no means suddenly introduced and immediately

preferred. M e r all, legato possibilities were as old as any string or wind instrument,

including the human voice and the wind-operated organ. With the stringed keyboard

instruments, however, this legato style now became possible for the f i r3 time, thus adding

a feature that brought it more in line with the capabilities of other instruments. It is thus

understandable why the sharp attack and quick decay created on the harpsichord by a

string being plucked might gradually be abandoned for the possibility of a softer attack and

a prolonged decay brought about by a hammer striking an undarnpened string. That the

evolution of the modem piano should eventually touch upon so many musical elements

and awaken so many new possibilities for exploitation in keyboard composition, a turn

fiom the more detached polyphonic style of the past, fiom limitations in these w n e

musical elements, and from prolongation possible only through rhythmic action or

ornamentation, was surely inevitable. Manufacturing refinements and the demands of

musicians would seem to have played progressively closer, one upon the other.

The progression from articulated legato to a M y connected Iegato is interesting as

described by late eighteenth-century sources: C . P .E. Bach, Marpurg, Pasquali, Tiirk and

Milchmeyer. Although these masters tiom across the continent chronologically covered

the transition fiom the eighteenth to the nineteenth centuries, their views differed

regarding the degree of separation. The line of development, however, is not without

deviation, yet, the overall progression towards the Ieguto style is clear and it becomes

evident that the change from non-legato to legato as the normal keyboard touch occurred

around the turn of the nineteenth century and became consolidated over the next two

decades. With the exception of the few years prior to the turn of the century, pre-

nineteenth-century books in which the player is consistently instructed to play unmarked

1 notes with a Iegato touch are scarce. In contrast, direction to detach unmarked notes

atter the turn of the nineteenth century is increasingly rare. From this situation, in

conjunction with Hullmandel' s, Milchmeyer' s, Clementi' s and Adam's directions to treat

legato as the norm, it may he concluded that by the turn of the nineteenth century, the

general leaning was towards legato as common pra~tice.~

As is evident by the number of instructional books, the turn of the century

witnessed an abundance of treatises addressed specifically to pianists. Clementi has

' The norm for modem pianists includes the belief that all is connected either through strictly legato touch or by use of the damper pedal unless indicated otherwise. Conversely. the opposite is true for the majority of music before the nineteenth cenhuy: this unmarked notation should be played with a detached style. The common practice of this earlier period was to employ non-legato unless the nature of a passage or an indication by the composer suggested the contrary.

In support of the above findings, Raessler labels the period of transition horn the detached style of playing to that of legaro as occurring between 1790 and 1820. m l e r states that %dents of performance practice have Iong been aware that use of legato as the normal touch for stringed keyboard instruments evolved during the early nineteenth century". See Raessler. "Change in Keyboanl Touch Around 1800." 25.

wrongly been given credit for single-handedly creating a new methodology for the new

instrument as it is clear that his presentation of legato fingering drew heavily on earlier

continental and Enghsh tutors in which similar approaches had been recommended. He

must still be praised, however, for his understanding and drawing together of these

suggestions, eliminating the use of older practices, and arranging his treatise in a far more

accessible, detailed, and systematic manner.

Peter Le Huray and Glyn Jenkins, in their article on Fingering in New Grove,

discuss the subject in four chronological segments: up to 1650, 1650- 1 750, 1 750- 1 800,

and modern principles. The division at 1800 is problematic. Perhaps the categories which

we historians have created should be adjusted to reflect the contents of the keyboard

treatises a little more accurately. The material labeled 1750- 1800 creates the illusion that

1801 marked the first use of modem principles. This is incorrect. The two categories

might better be combined under one heading, since much of the material prior to 180 1 was

already consistent with modem fingering practices. A review of English keyboard

treatises published during the last fifteen years of the eighteenth century clearly reveals

that the authors of these lesser known works were already incorporating principles of

modem fingering and attaching importance to a legu~o style of playing.

The pianoforte was invented in Italy by Cristofori around 1698 and went into

production as from around 1706. It was not until the mid-eighteenth century, however,

that it gained popularity and the manufacturing of pianos across the continent commenced

on a large scale. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, in response to this new

instrument's possibilities, composers were beginning to write music that could not be

accommodated on the still popular harpsichord or clavichord. Out of the possibilities

already suggested by some of the earliest pianofortes through the refinements

progressively made to subsequent instruments, and fiom the demands made by composers

anxious to exploit the new potential for several of their existing musical elements, the

pianoforte evoived and continued to gain extreme popularity approximately one century

after its invention. Clearly, by 1800, it was the obvious instrument of choice with an

increased dynamic range and an ability to produce the new preferred legato style.

Appropriately, this new style of playing demanded a new style of fingering which would

facilitate such a connected line through equal utilization of all fingers, with the resultant

establishment of modem principles of fingering.

Paraphrasing Voltaire, Parrish suggests that if the piano had not already existed, it

would have been necessary to invent it.' He subsequently draws upon Rene Brancour's

history of musical instruments for the following comment:

Protrd of its marrow sutmh, to which it givrs a laborless birth, nte piano dugs along like she phlegmatic English,

And, like an ringratefil child, jeers at the frail harpsichord. Chevalier de pis4

Parrish. "Criticisms of the Piano," 428.

' Reference to Chevalier de Piis in R e d Brancour. Histoire des instnrnients tie rnusique (Paris: 192 1). Cited in Parrish. "Criticisms of the Piano." 432.

Author Unknown, The Preceptor for the Pianoforte, the Organ or Harpsichord. London: 1785. Reprint ed., New York: Broude Brothers, 1967.

Author Unknom Nrw Instructions for Playhg the Harpsichord. Pianforte or Spinet. London: 1789. Reprint ed., New York: Broude Brothers, 1967.

Bartheiemon, Franqois-Hi p polyte. A New Tutor for the Harpsichord or Forte Piano. London: Printed for the author, [c. 17901.

Kollmann, Augustus Frederic Christopher. The Firsf Beginning on the Piano Forte. London and Edinburgh: Corri & Dussek, for the author, 1795.

Danb y, John. The Rudiments of the Pium Forte and Harpsichord. London: Printed for G. Smart, 1796.

Hook, James. Chi& di MusicaA C1omplete Book of lnstructiom for Begir~ners on the Harpsichord, or Piano Forte, Op. 8 / . London: H . Bland & Weller, 1796.

Hullmandel, Nicolas-Josep h . Principles of Music Chiefly Calcz~iatcid for the Pianoforte or Harpsichord London: For the author, 1796.

Dale, Joseph. Introchrction to the Piano Forte, Hmpsichord or Organ, Books I and 11. London: Printed for the author, 1796 and 180 1.

Author Unknown, Music Made F w . London: Printed and published by the patentee, 1798.

McKerrall, John. A Fmnifiar Introduction to the First Principles of Music.. . on the Hmpsichord or Piano Forte. London: Longman & Clementi, for the author, 1800.

Clementi, Muzio. Introduction to the Art of Playing on the P i m Forte. London, 180 1 . Reprint ed. with introduction by Sandra P. Rosenblum. New York: Da Capo, 1974.

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