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Kites and Balloons Go to WarBy Toni Lee Robinson

The Spanish American War took place in 1898. More than thirty yearshad passed since the U.S. Civil War. The Wild West had been tamed.Things like distance and disease were now life's biggest hurdles. Americanswere eager to leap into the new century. The search was on for new toolsand know-how. Instead of taming new lands, people explored better waysof doing things. We call this technology (tek NAHL uh gee).

It would be a few years before Henry Ford made the first widely usedmotor car. But the world was already coming out of the horse and buggystage. The first motor vehicle built factory style came out in the mid-1890s.Only 15 were made. The vehicle was called the Motor Wagon. It lookedjust like a wagon, except with an engine instead of a horse!

Most homes relied on gas for heating and light. Companies were working hard to make electric power handy foreveryone. They tried out electric gadgets that would do all sorts of things like cooking and washing clothes.Plants to make electric power were being built in many places.

Communication was another big story in these days. By the 1890s, many people who lived in big cities hadtelephones. The telegraph had also been around for a while. It was the fastest way to send messages long distance.As the war heated up, both media took great strides forward. News crews keeping pace with the war filed theirreports first by telegraph. Later, the stories were called in on "battlefield telephones."

The wonder of film was brand new at the time. The earliest films were little more than a few grey frames thatjerked silently along. Yet the first movies packed a powerful punch. One man filmed a crude reenactment of thesinking of the U.S.S. Maine. The U.S. public was deeply moved by the dim, grainy images. They helped push thenation closer to the brink of war.

In fact, the Spanish American War fostered its own "techno burst." The U.S. Navy had begun to modernize aswar loomed. When the war started, the navy cruised out to meet the enemy in the fastest, most powerful ships tobe had. There were seven big steel battleships. Each had firepower more than equal to any ship in Spain's fleet.

The weapons issued to U.S. soldiers weren't so up to date. The Spanish troops carried rifles that usedsmokeless shells. They could be fired without giving away the soldiers' positions. Only a few U.S. units hadsmokeless weapons. One was Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders. After the war, smokeless weapons became therule.

The Gatling gun proved that the newest isn't always the best. The Gatling was an early form of machine gundating back to the Civil War. It had ten barrels that spun as a man turned a crank at the back. The spinning barrelsspit out thousands of bullets in minutes. The big guns were pulled by mules. U.S. troops used four Gatlings in thewar with Spain.

Some tools used for scouting weren't new ideas either. Still, they helped in the key battle of San Juan Hill. Fora time, U.S. troops were trapped at the base of the hill. To spy out a way to the top, a hot air balloon was sent aloft.From the air, a team of spotters searched the jungle-covered hill. The bright balloon was an easy target for theSpanish. It was shot so full of holes it couldn't hold air. Before it fell to earth, though, spotters found a route upthe hill.

Kites may not seem like a weapon of war. By 1898, however, they had been used for hundreds of years. Inancient times, they were sometimes flown at night to frighten enemies. They also lofted cargo over enemy lines.Large kites even carried men who spied out enemy positions. In the war with Spain, several uses for kites wereconsidered. Planners wanted to know if dynamite could be carried by kite and dropped on enemy positions. In atrial, bags of rice were sent by kite and dumped over a certain area.

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The trials pointed out some drawbacks. The main problem was the skittish nature of kites. Their flights varywith air currents and wind speed. In the end, kites were used only for scouting. They carried cameras into the skyto snap pictures. The snapshots helped in planning battles. Reporters also used them in news stories.

Another big story was medicine. Over 5000 men died of illness in the war. That was ten times as many as werekilled in combat. The soldiers died of yellow fever or malaria. Walter Reed led a team of military doctors in Cuba.The team found the diseases were spread by mosquitoes.

To stop them, the doctors had all standing water covered with oil. Even drinking water had to be topped by alayer of oil. The oil killed mosquito larvae. Buildings were sealed and fumigated to kill the insects. By 1901,fewer than 20 people in Cuba died of yellow fever. Walter Reed Army Medical Center was named for thededicated leader of the team.

The mix of old and new ideas in the war with Spain ushered in a new era. It marked the beginning of modernwarfare. From that time till now, technology has played a major part in wars. In the U.S., the turn of the centurybrought a flood of new ideas. The nation emerged from the 1800s as a new world power.

Kites and Balloons Go to War

Questions

1. Explain the word "technology."

2. Give examples of 1898 technology in communications, travel, and weapons of war. Beside each, list thetechnology of today that replaced it.

3. Moving pictures of 1898 were very low quality compared to today's movies. In spite of this, they were apowerful medium. Why might this have been true?

4. The technology of the U.S. Navy at the start of the war was ______ compared to that available to groundtroops.

A. More up to dateB. OutdatedC. About the sameD. Unknown

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5. The main advantage of smokeless bullets was:

A. Soldiers weren't exposed to the health hazard of smoke.B. They were more accurate.C. They were lighter to carry.D. When they were fired, there was no smoke to give away soldiers' positions.

6. A hot air balloon was used for ______ in the Spanish American War.

A. Rescuing soldiers trapped on a hilltopB. Carrying men behind enemy linesC. ScoutingD. Giving the enemy a false idea of where U.S. troops were located

7. Explain how kites have been used in wars. What was their job in the Spanish American War?

8. What contribution did Walter Reed make to medicine at the time of the Spanish American War?

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Isolation vs. Expansion - Background of America's War with SpainBy Toni Lee Robinson

It was 1898. The nation that had begun as a bunch of ragtag rebels throwing rocks at the world's mostpowerful army had grown up. Amazingly, it had won its independence. At the time, the British Empire spannedthe world. The young nation had even withstood a second war against Britain. It had bounced back from thehumiliation of seeing its capital reduced to ashes. It had even withstood the dreadful wounds of a war withinitself.

The United States was no longer an upstart band of colonies. It was a union, over one hundred years old, solidand strong. Through all its struggles, its people had constantly pushed out its boundaries. A vast wilderness hadbeen tamed. Now the country sprawled across the North American continent. It truly stretched "from sea toshining sea."

Ships carrying goods from U.S. fields and factories docked at all the world's ports. From all over the world,other ships brought people to the nation's wide shores. The newcomers looked to America for their future. Manythousands had hung their hopes on the "broad stripes and bright stars."

In the 1890s, the U.S. and the world were getting ready for the coming of a whole new century. For manyAmericans, times were good. They had made it through a nasty economic storm in the early part of the decade.Now, factories were humming and people were buying goods. In most sectors, money was flowing.

The importance of foreign affairs was not lost on the money makers. They knew that far-off markets helpedAmerican business thrive. Still, for the better part of the last century, the attitude of most had been "There's noplace like home!" Americans should look to America, people said, and leave the rest of the world to look afteritself.

Isolationism had been the prevailing way of looking at the world almost since the nation's birth. Americanswere interested in selling goods to distant markets. Beyond that, they had little desire to be involved in foreignrelations.

In the early days, there was concern over the threat of European presence in the "neighborhood." The U.S. hadgone into the War of 1812 overly confident in their military might. They had even tried to grab Canada forthemselves. They'd gotten a scare when Britain not only proved herself fully capable of hanging on to Canada, butthreatened to sweep through the U.S. as well.

Americans were thankful when the U.S., in the end, managed to hold its own. The events of the second war, aswell as the actions of European powers, made Americans rethink their strategy. Just how secure were they? Theworld powers were always in the market for new territory. They had snapped up many nooks, crannies, and handylittle islands in what was then the new world. The vast, resource-rich lands of America would make a fine prize. Ifone of its land-hungry neighbors came calling, would the U.S. be able to defend itself?

In 1823, President James Monroe gave a speech to Congress. In it, he served notice to European nations. Ifyou're thinking of grabbing more land in our neck of the woods, he told them, forget it! Of course, his exactwords were more formal, but that's the idea. He told European countries that fishing for colonies in the Americaswould be considered an act of war against the U.S. The declaration came to be known as the Monroe Doctrine.

Down through the years, Monroe's words had been the guide for U.S. foreign policy to one degree or another.They had been put to the test during the 1860s. As the U.S. fought its Civil War, France made a bold play forcontrol right on America's doorstep. French forces raised up a European king on the throne in Mexico.

As the Civil War ended, U.S. troops were sent to the Mexican border. War was narrowly avoided when Frenchtroops were called home to deal with other problems. Mexicans threw off the unwanted king and peace wasrestored. The Monroe Doctrine had been upheld.

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By and large, though, the people who had fought two wars for their freedom had no desire to go to battle for anylesser cause. The 1890s brought other questions for Americans, however. What about someone else's freedom?Was the U.S. willing to go to war for someone else's just cause?

Expansionism became a more popular idea as the 1800s drew to a close. In defending the great ideal offreedom, America might add to its territory. Wouldn't that be a just reward? The U.S. had absorbed its wilderness.There was no more new land waiting to be settled. Surely there would always be a need for more land andresources to supply a growing population. Could there, after all, be some reason besides self-defense to go to war?

The gathering clouds of war caused a scramble among American military leaders. The U.S. was proud of itsnavy. It had played a vital part in past military victories. Recently, it had been overhauled and enlarged. In theyears since the Civil War, however, ground forces had been cut back. Money had not been allotted to keep thearmy up to date. Know-how was in short supply as well. Most War Department jobs had been handed out on thebuddy system. In many ways, America wasn't ready to fight a war.

Isolation vs. Expansion - Background of America's War with Spain

Questions

1. Explain some of the changes America had gone through in the hundred years between her independenceand the coming of the 1900s.

2. Explain the isolationist way of thinking about foreign affairs.

3. How did the War of 1812 contribute to America's desire for isolation?

4. The Monroe Doctrine was a statement directed at ______.

A. BritainB. Congressmen who came to Washington not knowing how government worked.C. The European nationsD. Spain

5. True or false. The Monroe Doctrine was the basis for U.S. troops being sent to the U.S./Mexico border afterthe Civil War.

A. FalseB. True

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6. Expansionists thought the U.S. should go to war with Spain mainly because ______.

A. They had a deep desire to see the Cuban people freed.B. They were afraid Spain might attack the U.S. and take its property.C. It would help American business.D. They thought the U.S. should look for new land.

7. Why did the threat of war cause U.S. military leaders concern in 1898?

8. In your opinion, what result would be likely if military leaders got their jobs as a political payback insteadof for their knowledge and experience?

Give some examples of isolationist and expansionist policies in the world today. In your opinion, which is thebest philosophy? Why?

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Remember the Maine! - Causes of America's War with SpainBy Toni Lee Robinson

Whether the U.S. was ready or not, there was a war waiting in thewings. The drama was taking place in some exotic islands just off thesouthern edge of the U.S. Cuba and Puerto Rico had long been coloniesof Spain. The Spanish empire had once cut a proud swath through manyregions of the world. Now, these small, poor territories and thePhilippines, halfway around the world in Asia, were all that was left.

The islands were pulsating with discontent. Cuba had been a hotbed ofstrife for several years. A guerrilla force of Cuban natives was waging abloody war against the Spanish overlords. A long struggle called the TenYears' War had ended in 1878. Still, the conflict ebbed and flowed. Firstone side and then the other won territory. Again and again, the Cubanrebels would strike and fade away into the countryside. While they rarelywon a major victory, it seemed they couldn't be beaten.

As things stood, Spanish General Valeriano Weyler realized, the uprising would never be put down. The rebelscould count on the people of the countryside for supplies and refuge. General Weyler had a solution to theproblem. He used his army to force the villagers from their homes. The Spanish army moved thousands of men,women, and children from outlying areas into camps in the cities.

Conditions in the camps were horrible. Many thousands of people died of disease and starvation. During thistime, the Spanish ruled with an iron fist. Suspected rebels were shot. Even those thought to be in support of therevolt were killed, most without trials.

Among those executed were 53 crew members of the Virginius, a vessel flying the American flag. The shiphad been captured in October, 1873, by the Spanish. It was suspected of running guns to Cuban rebels. The shipwas taken in Jamaican waters and brought to Cuba. Only the intervention of a British warship stopped theexecutions of the rest of the crew.

U.S. newspaper publishers were eager to bring this and other events of the war to light. They printed gorydetails of the bloodshed and injustice. Over their breakfast tables, Americans learned all about the violence inCuba. Some of what they learned might not have been true. Publishers weren't above embellishing and inventingto keep the public riveted. Sensational stories sold papers.

The reports also prompted some serious soul-searching. Was Cuba's fight for freedom a good enough reasonfor Americans to go to war? On the one hand, injustice was running rampant. Innocent people were dying. On theother hand, Spain's power was dwindling. The rebels were wearing them down. Chances were, sooner or later,Spain would give up and grant Cuba its freedom.

As Spain faded, though, a new possibility presented itself. A stronger country could overpower her and bullyits way in. A fierce foreign military within striking distance wasn't a pleasant prospect for the U.S. Meanwhile,the Cuban people were struggling for freedom, an ideal dear to the heart of Americans.

The climate of public opinion in the U.S. began to tilt toward war. Then, in February of 1898, Americanslearned of the sinking of the U.S.S. Maine. The Maine had steamed into the harbor at Havana, Cuba, less than amonth earlier. The battleship had been sent to protect American interests during the upheaval taking place onCuban soil.

Late in the evening on February 15, an explosion tore the battleship apart. Its bow, where most of the 375-mancrew was sleeping, sank immediately to the bottom of the harbor. Two hundred seventy-four men died. More thanfifty were injured.

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A naval inquiry concluded that the explosion was caused by a mine. The navy panel couldn't pin the guilt on anyone group. Spain, however, controlled the harbor. If agents of that nation hadn't planted the mine, it was said, theyhad allowed it to be planted by someone else. U.S. newspapers screamed for war with Spain. The public agreed.Later, "Remember the Maine!" would be a battle cry for rallying U.S. soldiers.

(Actually, a hundred years and four investigations later, it has yet to be proven what happened to the Maine.Some people have insisted the blast was an accident, while most agree with the navy's findings about a mine.Who planted the mine is still as much a mystery as it was in 1898. Some experts argue that the Cubans had moreto gain by planting the mine than the Spanish. After all, the explosion was sure to bring the U.S. into the conflicton the side of the rebels.)

In April, President McKinley asked Congress to send U.S. troops to Cuba. Congress agreed. They passed aresolution declaring Cuba a free nation. Spain must leave Cuba, they said, and the U.S. military would dowhatever it took to chase them out. Congress also vowed that the U.S. had no intention of placing any claim onCuba after Spain was ousted. These provisions had been formulated by Senator Teller of Colorado. They werepassed as the Teller Amendment. The U.S. was at war.

Remember the Maine! - Causes of America's War with Spain

Questions

1. Describe the state of the Spanish Empire in 1898.

2. Explain the origins of the conflict in Cuba. Who was fighting? Why?

3. The Spanish army forced Cubans into concentration camps in the cities because:

A. They wanted the Cubans to have better educational opportunities.B. People living in rural areas had been giving refuge and supplies to rebels.C. The population of the cities was falling and they needed workers.D. Disease was a constant danger in the rural areas.

4. True or false. In 1898, Americans were ill-informed about events in Cuba because U.S. newspapers refusedto print the stories of violence and injustice.

A. FalseB. True

5. What was the meaning of the cry, "Remember the Maine!"?

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6. List the three theories about what happened to the Maine.

7. The Teller Amendment:

A. Declared that the U.S. would invade Spain.B. Declared Cuba a free country and committed U.S. forces to forcing Spain out.C. Urged Spain to negotiate with Cuba for fair treatment of the colonyD. Insisted on reparations from Spain to compensate for the Maine

8. In your opinion, what was the most compelling reason the U.S. went to war with Spain? Was it a validreason? Why or why not?

Describe the government and culture of Cuba today. What signs are there of the fact that the country was oncea colony of Spain?

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At War with Bigotry - Buffalo Soldiers in the Spanish American WarBy Toni Lee Robinson

After the U.S. Civil War, troops were needed for remote outposts in theWest. Troop strength had been cut after North and South had madepeace. At the same time, the military was kept busy subduing nativetribes as white settlers pushed west. The newly formed 9th and 10th U.S.Cavalry Regiments were called upon to fill the manpower gap.

The soldiers of the 9th and 10th were not green recruits. They hadfought for the Union as members of the U.S. Colored Troops. They wereblack units staffed with white officers. A few years later, they werejoined by two infantry units, the 24th and 25th. These were also made upof black soldiers.

For the next two decades, the four units served in the American West. They put up forts, strung telegraph line,built roads, and guarded mail shipments. That was in addition to the main task-confronting the Apache, Kiowa,Sioux, and other tribes who strongly objected to being cornered on reservations. It was the Kiowa who gave theblack troops their nickname-"Buffalo Soldiers."

In their many skirmishes with the tribes, the black troops proved as tough and fearsome as the shaggy king of thePlains. Nearly 20 Medals of Honor were awarded amongst the four units during the "Indian Wars." Back in"civilization," however, it didn't matter how bravely a black soldier had served his country. He was subject to thesame bias as before. He was still barred from white society, except as a servant.

By the mid-1890s, the Buffalo Soldiers had worked themselves out of a job. The West had been tamed. Nativetribes had been confined to their allotted lands. Then, towards the end of the decade, a long-simmering conflict justsouth of U.S. shores boiled over. America joined Cuban freedom fighters to oust Spain from the area. Again,troops were needed to fill the gap.

The men of the four black units were useful assets to the U.S. Army. All were seasoned soldiers. They had proventhemselves under difficult conditions. One hazard of the tropics for white troops was disease. It was widely thoughtthat the illnesses would have no effect on African Americans.

The Buffalo Soldiers were among the first of the regular army called to duty in Cuba. The units were sent tostaging areas near Tampa, Florida. In southern towns, the old prejudice was alive and well. The black men who'dproudly done the U.S. military's job in the West were now insulted and demeaned. They endured racial slurs. Theirdaily lives were controlled by humiliating Jim Crow rules.

Most of the soldiers met the insults with stoic restraint. But tension prowled the streets. Violence loomed justbeneath the surface of every contact between black soldiers and whites. The war seemed a bitter joke to manyblack people. The U.S. was eager to come to the aid of those oppressed by Spain. At the same time, its own blackcitizens struggled with oppression every day.

Still, the soldiers were anxious to depart for the battlefield. Anything was better than the hostility all around themin the staging camps. Besides, most believed the war was another chance for them to prove themselves. Once morethey would march out under U.S. colors, laying their lives on the line. Surely now the hard edge of hatred wouldsoften.

Finally, the time came. Two days after setting foot on Cuban soil, the soldiers saw their first battle. At LasGuasimas, two columns of U.S. troops had already come against a fortified Spanish defense. Having battled densejungle to get to the scene, Buffalo Soldiers were the last column to join the assault.

The black troops burst from the brush with a mighty yell. As they charged toward the enemy, the Spanish linecrumbled. The defenders gave up and ran. Observers praised the Buffalo Soldiers' brave charge. In the retelling of

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the event, however, another group stole the limelight. Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders had also fought in thebattle. The well-known group's exploits were highlighted. The role of the Buffalo Soldiers was barely mentioned.

A week later came the key battle at San Juan Hill. Here, U.S. troops fought their way uphill against an enemybarricaded at the top. Spanish bullets rained down on the Americans. Black soldiers fought just as fiercely as theother U.S. units. At one point, the Rough Riders were pinned down by enemy fire. Bullets were zinging in from allsides. Charging into the relentless gunfire, the 10th Cavalry came running to the rescue.

"If it hadn't been for the black cavalry, the Rough Riders would have been exterminated," one of Roosevelt's menexclaimed. Some accounts placed black troops first at the top of San Juan Hill, though that honor was later claimedby other units. Military officialdom recognized the valor of the black troops. The Medal of Honor was awarded tofive men of the 10th Cavalry. Certificates of Merit were given to another 21.

Later, the 25th infantry unit confronted a more subtle enemy. The troops were sent to render aid to a hospital fullof yellow fever victims. Eight white regiments had bowed out of the job. Of 35 remaining members of the 25th, 19became ill. Still, the black soldiers carried out their duties, even staying on as part of the occupation force after thewar's end.

For a few shining moments, the victory over Spain seemed to mellow old mind-sets. The black soldiers werecalled heroes along with all the others. "The services of no four white regiments can be compared with thoserendered by the four colored [units]," wrote a reporter. "They were at the front at Las Guasimas, at El Caney and atSan Juan, and what was the severest test of all...in the yellow fever hospitals."

The praise was short-lived, however. In fact, the treatment of black soldiers worsened after the war ended. By theturn of the century, it was decided that the usefulness of "colored" troops was limited. They were totally dependent,the military claimed, on the leadership of white officers. Gradually, the status of black army units was downgraded.They were channeled into service jobs and menial labor.

In 1948, President Harry Truman would issue an executive order ending racism in the U.S. Armed Forces. Untilthen, it would be a long, uphill fight for black soldiers.

At War with Bigotry - Buffalo Soldiers in the Spanish American War

Questions

1. The 9th and 10th U.S. Cavalry Regiments were formed from ______ after the Civil War.

A. Hundreds of homeless, destitute freed slavesB. Loyal black men who had stayed in the South to support the ConfederacyC. Displaced plantation ownersD. The remnants of U.S. Colored Troops units which had fought for the Union

2. Describe the duties of black cavalry and infantry units in the American West from 1866 to the early 1890s.

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3. List three reasons U.S. Army officials called upon the Buffalo Soldiers to go to Cuba.

4. Explain the irony involved in the Spanish American War that embittered some black people.

5. Black troops were uncomfortable in the Tampa staging area because:

A. They knew they would soon be facing death in the war.B. They were subjected to racial prejudice.C. They were used to a cooler climate.D. There weren't enough facilities or food for everyone.

6. One reason black troops in the Spanish American War didn't get proper recognition was ______.

A. They hated to have their pictures taken and/or to speak to reporters.B. Most people focused on Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders and forgot about the contributions of black

soldiers.C. They proved to be lazy and cowardly in confronting Spanish troops.D. Their best efforts couldn't keep Spain from winning the war.

7. The 25th U.S. Infantry performed an important task in Cuba besides fighting the Spanish. What was it?

A. Helping in a hospital overrun by yellow fever victimsB. Hunting wild boarC. Hauling fresh water for Cuban communitiesD. Keeping the Cubans from taking revenge on the Spanish residents

8. In your opinion, what caused whites to treat black soldiers so badly even though the soldiers had riskedtheir lives for their country?