knowledge, networks and nations - royal society · founded in 1660, the royal society is the...

Knowledge, networks and nationsGlobal scientific collaboration in the 21st century

The Royal Society

The Royal Society is a Fellowship of more than 1400 outstanding individuals from all areas of science, mathematics, engineering and medicine, who form a global scientific network of the highest calibre. The Fellowship is supported by over 140 permanent staff with responsibility for the day-to-day management of the Society and its activities. The Society encourages public debate on key issues involving science, engineering and medicine, and the use of high quality scientific advice in policymaking.

We are committed to delivering the best independent expert advice, drawing upon the experience of the Society’s Fellows and Foreign Members, the wider scientific community and relevant stakeholders.

We are working to achieve five strategic priorities:

• Invest in future scientific leaders and in innovation

• Influence policymaking with the best scientific advice

• Invigorate science and mathematics education

• Increase access to the best science internationally

• Inspire an interest in the joy, wonder and excitement of scientific discovery

For further information

The Royal Society Science Policy Centre 6–9 Carlton House Terrace London SW1Y 5AG

T +44 (0)20 7451 2500 F +44 (0)20 7451 2692 E [email protected] W royalsociety.org

Know

ledge, networks and nations

Price £39

ISBN: 978-0-85403-890-9 Issued: March 2011 Report 03/11 DES2096

Founded in 1660, the Royal Society is the independent scientific academy of the UK, dedicated to promoting excellence in science

Registered Charity No 2070430389097808549

ISBN 978-0-85403-890-9

The Royal S

ocietyS

cience Policy Centre report 03/11

March 2011

Cover photo: Strain in graphene opens up a pseudomagnetic gap. Generated by the Condensed Matter Physics Group at the University of Manchester, this image is a representation of the work at Manchester lead by Professor Andre Geim FRS, a Royal Society Research Professor, and Professor Konstantin Novoselov, a Royal Society University Research Fellow. Professors Geim and Novoselov were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2010 for their groundbreaking experiments regarding graphene, a form of carbon, which is the thinnest and strongest material ever isolated. Both men have been cited since their award as ‘global scientists’; both were born and studied in Russia, spent time in the Netherlands, and are now based here in the UK, attracting funding and accolades from UK, European, and international sources. © Paco Guinea 2010.

Knowledge, Networks and Nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century

RS Policy document 03/11Issued: March 2011 DES2096

ISBN: 978-0-85403-890-9© The Royal Society, 2011

Requests to reproduce all or part of this document should be submitted to:The Royal Society6–9 Carlton House TerraceLondon SW1Y 5AGT +44 (0)20 7451 2500F +44 (0)20 7930 2170E [email protected] royalsociety.org

Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century 3

Executive summary .................................... 5

Recommendations ...................................... 8

The Advisory Group .................................. 10

Conduct of the study .................................11

Introduction: going global ........................ 14

Part 1: Scientific landscape in 2011 ......... 151.1Trendsanddevelopmentsinglobalscience...16 1.1.1 Emergingscientificnations.........................19 1.1.2 Assessingresearchqualityandimpact.....24 1.1.3 Globalscientists...........................................26 1.1.4 Braingain,drainandcirculation.................26 1.1.5 Disciplinaryshifts?........................................28 1.1.6 Readingtheresearch...................................29 1.1.7 Openingaccess............................................301.2Applyingscience................................................31 1.2.1BusinessR&D...............................................31 Is business R&D recession proof?...............32 Location of business R&D............................32 1.2.2Patentgrowth...............................................331.3Driversofresearch.............................................34 1.3.1Securingprosperityand stayingcompetitive......................................35 1.3.2Addressingglobalchallenges.....................36 1.3.3Nationalscienceinaglobalage.................361.4Centresforscience............................................37 1.4.1Centresofresearchandinfrastructure......391.5Anewworldorder?........................................... 411.6Theworldbeyond2011.....................................42

Part 2: International collaboration ............ 452.1Patternsofcollaboration....................................46 2.1.1 Collaborationinanationalcontext.............47 2.1.2Whoiscollaboratingwithwhom?.............492.2Regionalcollaboration.......................................54 2.2.1South–Southcollaboration: agrowingtrend............................................542.3Whycollaborate?...............................................57 2.3.1Seekingexcellence......................................57 2.3.2Thebenefitsofjointauthorship..................59 2.3.3Capacitybuildingthroughcollaboration....61 2.3.4Thegeopoliticalpotentialof scientificcollaboration.................................622.4Underlyingnetworks.........................................62 2.4.1Tappingintotheglobalnetworks ofscience......................................................632.5Enablingcollaborationtopromote excellentscience................................................64 2.5.1Technology....................................................64 2.5.2Fundingmechanisms..................................672.6Harnessingcollaboration...................................70

Contents

DesignsofvasesandteapotsthatwouldbefoundinahouseofamerchantinCanton,fromDesigns of Chinese buildings,byWilliamChambers,1757.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.

4 Knowledge, networks and nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st century

Part 3: Global approaches to global problems .................................... 713.1Scientificsolutions.............................................733.2Globalresearchgovernance............................. 74 3.2.1Challenge-ledresearchinitiatives...............75 3.2.2Integratingchallengesand maximisingresources..................................77 3.2.3Buildingcapacityandresilience.................783.3Casestudies.......................................................79 3.3.1Theworld’slargestwarningsystem: theIntergovernmentalPanelon ClimateChange(IPCC)................................80 3.3.2Centresofexcellenceinagriculture: theConsultativeGrouponInternational AgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)....................83 3.3.3Atransformativeimpactonglobalhealth: theBillandMelindaGatesFoundation......86 3.3.4Towardssustainableenergy: theInternationalTokamak ExperimentalReactor(ITER).......................90 3.3.5CapturingtheinitiativeonCO2: theglobaleffortstodeploycarbon captureandstorage(CCS)technology......933.4Co-ordinatedeffortstotackle globalproblems..................................................97

Conclusions and recommendations: Cultivating the global scientific landscape................................. 103

Glossary of acronyms ............................. 108

Acknowledgments ...................................110

MapofChina,fromAn embassy from the East-India Company of the United Provinces to the Grand Tartar Cham,byJohnNieuhoff,1669.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.


Scienceisaglobalenterprise.Todaythereareover7millionresearchersaroundtheworld,drawingonacombinedinternationalR&DspendofoverUS$1000billion(a45%increasesince2002),andreadingandpublishinginaround25,000separatescientificjournalsperyear.Theseresearcherscollaboratewitheachother,motivatedbywishingtoworkwiththeverybestpeopleandfacilitiesintheworld,andbycuriosity,seekingnewknowledgetoadvancetheirfieldortotacklespecificproblems.

Knowledge, Networks and Nationsreviews,basedonavailabledata,thechangingpatternsofscience,andscientificcollaboration,inordertoprovideabasisforunderstandingsuchongoingchanges.Itaimstoidentifytheopportunitiesandbenefitsofinternationalcollaboration,toconsiderhowtheycanbestberealised,andtoinitiateadebateonhowinternationalscientificcollaborationcanbeharnessedtotackleglobalproblemsmoreeffectively.FromSingaporetoSouthAfrica,newresearchers

andresearchcommunitiesarereshapingthelandscapeforscienceandinnovation,solongdominatedbytheUSA,JapanandEurope.Thisreportexploresthischanginggeographyofscienceandinnovation.InPart1,itmapsandinvestigateswhereandhowscienceisbeingcarriedoutaroundtheworldandthewaysinwhichthispictureischanging.• Science in 2011 is increasingly global,occurringinmoreandmoreplacesthaneverbefore.Scienceisaddressingquestionsofglobalsignificance.Itissupportedbygovernments,business,philanthropistsandcharities.

• Thereareparticularcountrieswherethisincreasedactivityisespeciallystriking,withinvestmentandscientificproductivityoutstrippinggeneraltrendsofgrowth.TheriseofChinahasbeenespeciallynotable,overtakingJapanandEuropeintermsofitspublicationoutputinrecentyears.BeyondChina,rapiddevelopmentshavealsotakenplaceinIndia, Brazilandnew emergent scientific nationsintheMiddleEast,South-EastAsiaandNorthAfrica,aswellasastrengtheningofthesmallerEuropeannations.

• However,the traditional ‘scientific superpowers’ still lead the field.TheUSA,WesternEuropeandJapanallinvestheavilyinresearchandreceiveasubstantialreturnintermsofperformance,withlargenumbersofresearcharticles,thelion’sshareofcitationsonthosearticles,andsuccessfultranslation,asseenthroughtheratesofpatentregistration.

• Thecontinuedstrengthofthetraditionalcentresofscientificexcellenceandtheemergenceofnewplayersandleaderspointtowardsanincreasingly multipolar scientific world,inwhichthedistributionofscientificactivityisconcentratedinanumberofwidelydispersedhubs.

• Beyond these hubs, science is also flourishing.Therecognitionoftherolethatsciencecanplayindrivingeconomicdevelopment,andinaddressinglocalandglobalissuesofsustainability,hasledtoincreasedresearchactivityandtheapplicationofscientificmethodandresultswithinlessdevelopedcountries.

Executive summary


Part2revealstheshiftingpatternsofinternationalcollaboration.Internationalscienceislargelyconductedthroughbottom-up,informalconnections,asscientistsbecomemoremobileandaslargeandoftencomplexdataaresharedattheclickofabutton.Buttop-down,solutions-orientedinitiativesarealsohelpingtoshapetheresearchlandscape,asscientistsorganisethemselves,orarebeingorganised,totacklesharedconcerns.• The scientific world is becoming increasingly

interconnected, with international collaboration on the rise.Todayover35%ofarticlespublishedininternationaljournalsareinternationallycollaborative,upfrom25%15yearsago.

• Collaboration is growing for a variety of reasons.Developmentsincommunicationtechnologiesandcheapertravelmakeiteasierthaneverbeforeforresearcherstoworktogether;thescaleofresearchquestions,andtheequipmentrequiredtostudydemandsthatresearchersaremobileandresponsive.Collaborationenhances the qualityofscientificresearch,improves the efficiency and effectivenessofthatresearch,andisincreasingly necessary,asthescaleofbothbudgetsandresearchchallengesgrow.

• However,the primary driver of most collaboration is the scientists themselves.Indevelopingtheirresearchandfindinganswers,scientistsareseekingtoworkwiththebestpeople,institutionsandequipmentwhichcomplementtheirresearch,wherevertheymaybe.

• Theconnectionsofpeople,throughformalandinformalchannels,diasporacommunities,virtualglobalnetworksandprofessionalcommunitiesofsharedinterestsareimportantdriversofinternationalcollaboration.These networks span the globe. Motivated by the bottom-up exchange of scientific insight, knowledge and skills, they are changing the focus of science from the national to the global level.Yetlittleisunderstoodaboutthedynamicsofnetworkingandthemobilityofscientists,howtheseaffectglobalscienceandhowbesttoharnessthesenetworkstocatalyseinternationalcollaboration.

• Collaboration brings significant benefits,bothmeasurable(suchasincreasedcitationimpactandaccesstonewmarkets),andlesseasilyquantifiableoutputs,suchasbroadeningresearchhorizons.Thefacilitationofcollaboration,therefore,hasapositiveimpactnotonlyonthescienceconducted,butonthebroaderobjectivesforanysciencesystem(bethatenhancingdomesticprosperityoraddressingspecificchallenges).


Part3ofthisreportexplorestheroleof

internationalscientificcollaborationinaddressingsomeofthemostpressingglobalchallengesofourtime.Thereportconcentratesonfivecasestudies,andconsidersthestrengthsandshortcomingsofexistingmechanismswhichbringscientificcommunitiestogethertoaddressglobalchallenges.IPCC, CGIAR, the Gates Foundation, ITER and efforts to deploy carbon capture and storage technologydemonstratehowscienceisalreadybeingusedtorespondtothesechallenges,andprovidemodelsandlessonsforhowitmightbebetterdeployedinthefuture.• Theglobalscientificcommunityisincreasinglychargedwithordrivenbytheneedtofindsolutionstoarangeofissuesthatthreatensustainability.These ‘global challenges’ have received much attention in recent years, and are now a key component of national and multinational science strategies and many funding mechanisms.

• Global challenges are interdependent and interrelated:climatechange,water,foodandenergysecurity,populationchange,andlossofbiodiversityareallinterconnected.Thedynamicbetweentheseissuesiscomplex,yetmanyglobalassessmentandresearchprogrammesaremanagedseparately,oftenreflectingalackofco-ordinationinthepolicysphere.Governments,civilsocietyandtheprivatesectorneedtotakeabroaderperspectiveonglobalchallengesinordertoappreciatehowtheyareinterrelated.

• Globalchallengesarebeingaddressedviaanumberofdifferentorganisationalmechanisms:throughintergovernmentalorinternationalbodies,throughnationalsystems,andbyprivateindividualsandcorporations.Thesemechanismsoftendeploynovelandinnovativeformsofpartnership,someofwhichworkwell,otherslessso.Valuable lessons can be drawn from existing models in designing, participating in and benefiting from global challenge research.

• Science is essential for addressing global challenges, but it cannot do so in isolation.Awiderangeofapproacheswillberequired,includingtheappropriateuseoffinancialincentives,incorporatingnon-traditionalformsofknowledge,andworkingwiththesocialsciencesandwiderdisciplines.Scienceiscrucialbutitisunlikelytoproducealltheanswersbyitself:thescienceinfrastructureworksbestwhenitissupportedby,andenables,othersystems.

• All countries have a role in the global effort to tackle these challenges,bothindefiningandprioritisingthemandinusingglobalresearchoutputtoinformlocal,nationalandregionalresponses.Thisneedisincreasinglybeingacknowledgedforinclusivityandcapacitybuildingacrossregionsandcontinents,inhelpingtomeet(national)needs,andindevelopingaglobalinfrastructurethatisresilienttonewchallenges.


Knowledge, Networks and Nations concludes with a set of recommendations to further strengthen global science.Thisreportcallsformorecreative,flexibleandbetter-resourcedmechanismstoco-ordinateresearchacrossinternationalnetworksandtoensurethatscientistsandsciencecanfulfiltheirpotential.Italsocallsformorecomprehensiveandinclusivewaysofmeasuringandevaluatingthesciencewhichisdeliveredandappliedinallitsformsaroundtheworld.Finally,thereporthighlightstheimportanceofscience—andthewiderevidencebase—inunderpinningrobustpolicymaking,especiallyaroundsharedglobalchallenges.Understandingglobalsciencesystems,their

mechanismsandmotivations,isessentialifwearetoharnesstheverybestsciencetoaddressglobalchallengesandtosecurethefutureofourspeciesandourplanet.

Recommendations1. Support for international science should be

maintained and strengthened• Evenindifficulteconomictimes,national

governments need to maintain investment in their science basetosecureeconomicprosperity,tapintonewsourcesofinnovationandgrowth,andsustainvitalconnectionsacrosstheglobalresearchlandscape.Sustainedinvestmentbuildsanation’scapacitytoassimilateexcellentscience,whereveritmayhavebeenconducted,forthatcountry’sbenefit.

• International activities and collaboration should be embedded in national science and innovation strategiessothatthedomesticsciencebaseisbestplacedtobenefitfromtheintellectualandfinancialleverageofinternationalpartnerships.

• Commitments to multinational research efforts and infrastructures should not be seen as easy targets for cuts during a period of economic turbulence.Tocutsubscriptionstojointresearchendeavours,withoutduediligenceandassessment,isafalseeconomy.Bydisengagingfromtheseefforts,countriesruntheriskofisolatingtheirnationalscienceandlosingrelevance,qualityandimpact.

2. Internationally collaborative science should be encouraged, supported and facilitated

• Research funders should provide greater support for international research collaborationthroughresearchandmobilitygrants,andothermechanismsthatsupportresearchnetworks.

• National border agencies should minimise barriers to the flow of talented people,ensuringthatmigrationandvisaregulationsarenottoobureaucratic,anddonotimpedeaccessforresearcherstothebestscienceandresearchacrosstheworld.

• National research policies should be flexible and adaptiveinordertoensurethatinternationalcollaborationbetweentalentedscientistsisnotstifledbybureaucracy.

3. National and international strategies for science are required to address global challenges

• Recognisingtheinterconnectednessofglobalchallenges,funders of global challenge programmes should devise ways to better co-ordinate their efforts, share good practice, minimise duplication and maximise impact.Wherepossible,theseshoulddrawonexistinginfrastructureorsharedtechnology.


• National research funding should be

adaptive and responsive to global challenges,supportingtheinterdisciplinaryandcollaborativenatureofthesciencerequiredtoaddresstheseissues.

• In devising responses to global challenges, governments worldwide need to rely on robust evidence-based policy making,andbringexcellentscientistsintothepolicyadvisoryprocess.

4. International capacity building is crucial to ensure that the impacts of scientific research are shared globally

• Researchers and funders should commit to building scientific capacity in less developed countriestohelpimprovetheirabilitytoconduct,access,verifyandusethebestscience,andtoensurethattheycancontributetoglobalscientificdebatesanddeveloplocalsolutionstoglobalproblems.

• Scientific capacity building must involve financial support for authors in developing countries to publish in open access journals.Openaccesspublishinghasmadeawealthofscientificliteratureavailabletothedevelopingworld,butconverselyhasmadeitharderfortheirscientiststopublishunderthe‘authorpays’model.

• National academies, learned societies and other similar institutions should actively promote public and wider stakeholder dialogue to help identify, shape and respond to global challenges and their local manifestations.

5. Better indicators are required in order to properly evaluate global science

• UNESCO (and other agencies such as the OECD) should investigate new ways in which trends in global science can be captured, quantified and benchmarked,inordertohelpimprovetheaccuracyofassessmentsofthequality,useandwiderimpactofscience,aswellastogaugethevitalityoftheresearchenvironment.

• There is a specific lack of data on the flow and migration of talented scientists and their diaspora networks.UNESCO,OECDandothersshouldinvestigatewaysofcapturingthisinformationasapriority,whichwouldenablepolicymakerstobetterunderstand,nurtureandoverseeglobalscienceforthebenefitofsocietyasawhole.

InstructivememoireonthenewchronologicaltableofthehistoryofChina,bytheViceroyofCanton,1724.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.


Advisory GroupProfessorSirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS(Chair),DirectorofEnergyResearch,UniversityofOxfordProfessorSirLeszekBorysiewiczKBEFRS,ViceChancellor,UniversityofCambridgeProfessorLornaCasseltonFRS,ForeignSecretaryandVicePresident,TheRoyalSocietyProfessorSirGordonConwayKCMGDLFRSFRGS,ProfessorofInternationalDevelopment,ImperialCollegeLondonProfessorMohamedHassan,Co-Chair,InterAcademyPanel(IAP);ExecutiveDirectoroftheAcademyofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS)(untilMarch2011)ProfessorMelissaLeach,Director,STEPSCentre,InstituteofDevelopmentStudies,UniversityofSussexProfessorAngelaMcLeanFRS,AllSoulsSeniorResearchFellow,DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofOxfordProfessorGoverdhanMehtaFRS,CSIRBhatnagarFellowandHonoraryProfessor,DepartmentofOrganicChemistry,IndianInstituteofScienceProfessorJohnMitchellOBEFRS,DirectorofClimateScience,MetOfficeDrColinOsborne,RoyalSocietyUniversityResearchFellow,DepartmentofAnimalandPlantSciences,UniversityofSheffieldProfessorMartynPoliakoffCBEFRS,ResearchProfessorinChemistry,TheUniversityofNottinghamDrPhilRufflesCBEFREngFRS,FormerDirector,EngineeringandTechnology,RollsRoyceplcProfessorCarolineWagner,SchoolofInternationalAffairs,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity

Royal Society Science Policy CentreLukeClarke,PolicyAdviserLauraDawson,SeniorPolicyAdviserNatalieDay,SeniorPolicyAdviserDrTraceyElliott,HeadofInternationalHarrietHarden-Davies,InternTonyMcBride,HeadofStrategyJamesMeadway,SeniorPolicyAdviserSarahMee,PolicyAdviserIanThornton,PolicyAdviserDrJamesWilsdon,DirectorofSciencePolicyRapelaZaman,SeniorPolicyAdviser

Review PanelTheRoyalSocietygratefullyacknowledgesthecontributionofthereviewers.TheReviewPanelwasnotaskedtoendorsetheconclusionsorrecommendationsofthereport,nordidtheyseethefinaldraftofthereportbeforeitsrelease.

ProfessorJohnPethicaFRS(Chair),PhysicalSecretary,RoyalSocietyProfessorBruceAlbertsForMemRS,DepartmentofBiochemistryandBiophysics,UniversityofCaliforniaSanFranciscoProfessorJuanAsenjo,President,ChileanAcademyofSciencesDrMatthewFreemanFRS,Head,DivisionofCellBiology,MRCLaboratoryofMolecularBiologyProfessorSirBrianHeapCBEFRS,FormerDirector,InstituteofAnimalPhysiologyandGeneticsResearchProfessorGeoffreyOldhamCBE,HonoraryProfessor,SPRU—ScienceandTechnologyPolicyResearch,UniversityofSussex

The Advisory Group


ThestudyleadingtothisreportwasoverseenbyanAdvisoryGroupofFellowsoftheRoyalSocietyandotherdistinguishedexperts,supportedbythestaffoftheRoyalSocietySciencePolicyCentre.Elsevierhasprovidedfinancialsupport,andfullaccesstotheirpublicationdatabasesandanalyticalservicesthroughoutthestudy.Thedraftingofthereport,itsconclusionsandrecommendationsarethoseoftheRoyalSocietyalone.

Knowledge, Networks and Nations: Global scientific collaboration in the 21st centuryhasbeenapprovedbytheCounciloftheRoyalSociety.

Advisory Group and terms of referenceTheRoyalSocietyestablishedanAdvisoryGroupmadeupofinternationallyrenownedscientistsandsciencepolicyexpertsfromaroundtheworld,chairedbySirChrisLlewellynSmithFRS.Theaimofthestudy,asoutlinedintheTermsofReference,wastoprovideananalysisoftheglobalscientificlandscapein2011foraglobalaudienceofscientists,governments,business,internationalorganisationsandNGOs.Itsspecificgoalswereto:• Provideanoverviewofhow,where,whyandbywhomscientificresearchisbeingcarriedoutacrosstheworld,andthewaysinwhichthispictureischanging.

• CompilebothquantitativeandqualitativeevidencetoofferanoverviewofthesedevelopmentsthroughtheuseofElsevier’sandotherdatabasessuchasUNESCOandOECD,andbymakinguseoftheSociety’sextensiveinternationalnetworks,includingitsglobalFellowshipofover1,400outstandingindividualsfromallareasofscience,mathematicsandengineering.

• Identifyandassessillustrativeexamplesofopportunitiesandchallengesthesechangespresentforpolicymakers,scientists,intergovernmentalagenciesandbusiness.

• Examineanddiscusshowinternationalscientificcollaborationcanbebetterutilisedtoaddressglobalproblemssuchasclimatechange,foodandwatersecurity,andinfectiousdiseases.

• Drawconclusionsaboutthecollaborativenatureofresearchinthe21stcentury,andconsiderthepotentialimplicationsforpolicymakers.

ThestudywasformallylaunchedinJanuary2010.

Collection of evidenceEvidencegatheringfortheprojecttookplaceinfiveways:• aformalprocess,throughadetailedCallforEvidence;

• aspecialdiscussionsessionformembersoftheInterAcademyPanel,heldtocoincidewithitsGeneralAssemblyattheRoyalSocietyinJanuary2010;

• face-to-faceandtelephoneinterviewswithkeyfiguresininternationalscienceandsciencepolicyfromaroundtheworld;

• extensivedeskresearch;• dataanalysis,includingworkwithElsevier.

Conduct of the study


Call for evidenceTheCallforEvidencewassentouton27April2010toFellowsoftheRoyalSociety,RoyalSocietyResearchFellowsandtheworld’sscienceacademies,throughtheInterAcademyPanel(IAP),theAcademyofSciencesfortheDevelopingWorld(TWAS),andtheUKGovernment’sScienceandInnovationNetwork(SIN).Wereceived80responsesfromindividuals,

academies,researchinstitutions,governmentdepartmentsandotherorganisationsfromaroundtheworld.Thesearelistedattheendofthereport.

Elsevier methodologyUnlessotherwiseindicated,allofthedatarelatingtopublicationoutputandimpactinthisreporthavebeenprovidedbyElsevier.Wewouldliketoacknowledgetheanalysisandinsightsprovidedbythefollowingindividuals:• DrAndrewPlume,AssociateDirector,Scientometrics&MarketAnalysis—Research&AcademicRelations

• MayurAmin,SeniorVicePresident—Research&AcademicRelations

• DrHenkMoed,SeniorScientificAdvisor—Academic&GovernmentMarkets

• NielsWeertman,VicePresident,SciVal—Academic&GovernmentMarketsPublicationdataarederivedfromScopus,the

world’slargestabstractandcitationdatabaseofpeer-reviewedliterature.Scopuscontainsover41millionrecordsacross18,000journalsandcoversregionalaswellasinternationalliterature.Publicationoutputsinthisreportaredefinedasarticles,reviewsandconferencepaperspublishedinthesejournals.Whereweconsideroveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludeoutputsinalldisciplines.

Defining global scienceTheRoyalSocietydefines‘science’as‘naturalknowledge’.Inpractice,thisincludesthenaturalsciences,mathematicsandengineering.Forthepurposesofthisreport,wherewediscussoveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludesocialsciences,theartsandhumanities(inpractice,theserepresentaverysmallproportionofpublicationoutput—8.9%);thiscoverageisusedtomatchthe‘input’statistics,whichallregister‘research’and‘researchers’,whicharedisciplineneutral.However,ourexamples,casestudiesandobservationsaredrawnfromthescientificcommunity.Throughoutthisreport,weuseanumber

ofsourcestocharacteriseandquantifywhatishappeninggloballyinscience.Inthisweareconstrained,tocertainextents,bytheavailabledata.Inordertoachievethewidestinternationalcoverage,wehavemadeuseofUNESCOdataonthenumbersofresearchers,1andtheexpenditureonresearchanddevelopmentasindicatorsofexpenditureandmanpowerinscience(althoughalargeproportionof‘researchanddevelopment’isspentonDratherthanRand,assuch,reachesbeyondstrict‘sciencespending’).


ThesestatisticsareavailablethroughtheUNESCO

InstituteofStatistics,andhavebeencomprehensivelypresentedandanalysedintherecentUNESCOScienceReport,publishedinNovember2010.Publicationandpatentdataareincompleteproxies

forscientificoutputandscientifictranslation,thefirstbeingpredominantlytheoutputofacademicscience,andtheotherrelatingtotheexploitationofideasandconceptsratherthannecessarilybeingspecificallyscientific.However,theyarethetwomainquantifiable,globallycollated,andcommonlyusedsourcesofdataontheproductionandconsumptionofscience.Byusingthesedata,wearereflectingthecurrent‘termsofreference’fordiscussionsofglobalscience.Itiswidelyacceptedthattheyareinadequatetofullyexploretherichnessof21stcenturyscience.Thepaucityofrichersourcesofdataoffersachallengetonational,multilateralandglobalbodiestoexplorewaysofbettermeasuringtheinputs,outputsandimpactsoftheglobalscientificlandscape.

1 TheOECDdefinesresearchersas‘professionalsengagedintheconceptionorcreationofnewknowledge,products,processes,methodsandsystemsandalsointhemanagementoftheprojectsconcerned’.SeeOECD(2002).Frascati manual: proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.

PagefromanotebookonscientificexpeditionstoMatoGrosso,Brazil,1967to1969,byIainBishop.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.

http://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDFhttp://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9202081E.PDF


Introduction: going globalWhenHenryOldenbergfoundedtheworld’sfirstscientificpublicationin1665,2itdrewonemergingideasfromGermany,Italy,Hungary,FranceandeventheBermudas.Itenjoyedawideinternationalreadership.Oldenburg,andtheotherfoundingfellowsoftheRoyalSociety,dedicatedthisfirsteditionof‘PhilosophicalTransactions’tosharing‘theHappyinventionsofobligingMenallovertheworld,totheGeneralBenefitofMankind’.ButOldenbergcouldneverhaveimagined

howmany‘obligingmen’andwomenwouldbecontributingtoscientificknowledgeacrosstheworldin2011.Sciencehastransformedourlivesinwayswhichwouldhavebeeninconceivablein1665.Justhowitwillevolveoverthecomingcenturyisequallyinconceivable.Yetonethingseemscertain:scienceisinherentlyinternationalandwillonlybecomemoreso.AsLouisPasteuronceputit,‘Knowledgebelongs

tohumanity,andthusscienceknowsnocountryandisthetorchthatilluminatestheworld.’Largelyfundedatanationallevelandconductedprimarilyinnationalinstitutions,scienceisstillmoredeterminedbyplacethanPasteur’sdeclarationwouldsuggest.Andyet,itisaworldwideendeavour.In2008,218countriesproducedover1.5millionresearchpapers,fromTuvalu’sonepaper,totheUK’s98,000,China’s163,000,andtheUSA’s320,000.3In2007,Swedenspentnearly3.7%ofitsgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)onresearchanddevelopment(R&D),Canadaspent2%,‘emerging’Indiaspent0.8%,andoilrichSaudiArabia0.04%.4Researchinvestmentandoutputarefarfromevenlyspreadacrosstheworld,

buttherearefewplaceswhicharenotinsomewaypartofthescientificlandscape.Scienceisconductedinmoreplacesthanever

before,butitisalsomoreinterlinked.Overone-thirdofresearchpapersarethedirectresultofinternationalcollaboration,withauthors’addressesfrommorethanonecountry.5Thenumberofinternationallyco-authoredpapershasmorethandoubledsince1990.6Researchersareincreasinglymobile,travellinglongdistancestoworkwiththebestcolleaguesintheirfield,toaccessresourcesandshareideasandfacilities.Andtheyarebeingsupportedinternationallythroughcross-borderfundingfrominternationalorganisations(charities,philanthropicfundingandbusiness),multilateralinitiativesbetweengovernmentsandresearchcouncils,multinationalfundingbodiesandsharedscientificinfrastructure.Thescientificcommunityisinfluencedby

globalisation,andisalsodrivenbyitsowndynamics.Scientistshavebeenbothmotivatedandenabledtoworkacrossdisciplinaryandinternationalbordersbytechnologicaladvancesandshiftsingeopolitics.Butsciencehasalwayspushedboundaries,betheytechnologicalornationalandpolitical.Globalscienceisincreasing,butitisalsonothingnew.ThefoundingmembersoftheRoyalSociety350yearsagolookedbeyondnationalborderstoextendthefrontiersofnaturalknowledge.Today’sscientificpioneerswillneedtoknowhowtonavigatethechangingglobalscientificlandscapeiftheyaretokeepextendingthosefrontiers.Thisreportisintendedtohelpthemunderstandthedynamicsofthiscomplexandfast-evolvingphenomenon.

2 On6March1665,thefirstissueofPhilosophicalTransactionswaspublishedundertheeditorshipofHenryOldenburg,whowasalsotheSecretaryoftheSociety.

3 DatafromElsevier’sScopus.

4 DatafromtheUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,Montréal,Canada.


6 LeydesdorffL&WagnerC(2005).Mapping global science using international co-authorships: a comparison of 1990 and 2000.InternationalJournalofTechnologyandGlobalization3.Foradiscussionofhowinternational

collaborationhasgrownoverallandattheregionallevel,seeWagnerC&LeydesdorffL(2005).Network structure, self-organization and the growth of international collaboration in science.ResearchPolicy34,10,1608–1618.

http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/sciencenets/mapping.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdfhttp://www.leydesdorff.net/cwagner/collabnets.pdf


Anewmanifestationofthecelebrated“Mollowtriplet”,oneofthefundamentalspectralshapesoflight-matterinteraction,fromDrElenadelValle,RoyalSocietyNewtonInternationalFellow,SchoolofPhysicsandAstronomy,UniversityofSouthampton.ThetripletasfoundbyMollowemergesinthelightemittedbyanatomwhenexcitedbyalaser.Thedepictedtripletisthecounterpartemissionfromanatomwhenexcitedincoherentlyinsideacavity.©DrElenadelValle,2010.

PART 1

Scientific landscape in 2011


PART1

Scientificlandscapein2011

Scienceisgrowingglobally.Sincethebeginningofthe21stcentury,theglobalspendonresearchanddevelopmenthasnearlydoubled,publicationshavegrownbyathird,andthenumberofresearcherscontinuestorise(seeTable1.1).NorthAmerica,Japan,EuropeandAustralasiahaveallwitnessedgrowth,witheachincreasingspendingbyaroundone-thirdbetween2002and2007.Inthesameperiod,‘developingcountries’,7includingtheemergingeconomiesofChina,IndiaandBrazil,morethandoubledtheirexpenditureonR&D,increasingtheircontributiontoworldR&Dspendingby7percentagepointsfrom17%to24%.8

Table1.1.Global science by numbers.9 Spend on research

and developmentNumbers of researchers

Number of publications

US$ %GDP

2007 1145.7bn 1.7 7.1m 1.58m

2002 790.3bn 1.7 5.7m 1.09m

Thearchitectureofworldscienceisalsochanging,withtheexpansionofglobalnetworks.Theseinvolvenetworksofindividuals,mostlyself-organisedbutsometimesorchestrated(asintheHumanGenomeProject).Somenetworksarebasedoncollaborationsatinternationalorganisations(suchasCERN);othersarefundedinternationally,bymultinationalbusinesses(whichfundtheirownlaboratoriesandworkinuniversitiesacrosstheglobe),bymajorfoundations(suchasGates),orbycross-nationalstructuressuchastheEU.Theseglobalnetworksincreasinglyexertasignificantinfluenceontheconductofscienceacrosstheworld.

1.1 Trends and developments in global science TheUSAleadstheworldinresearch,producing20%oftheworld’sauthorshipofresearchpapers,10dominatingworlduniversityleaguetables,11andinvestingnearlyUS$400billionperyearinpublicandprivateresearchanddevelopment.12TheUK,Japan,GermanyandFranceeachalsocommandstrongpositionsinthegloballeaguetables,producinghighqualitypublicationsandattractingresearcherstotheirworldclassuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes.Thesefivecountriesaloneareresponsiblefor59%ofallspendingonscienceglobally.13

However,thesecountriesdonotcompletelydominateglobalscience.Between1996and2008theUSAlostone-fifthofitsshareoftheworld’sarticleauthorship,Japanlost22%andRussia24%.TheUK,GermanyandFrancealsofellbackinrelativeterms.14Figure1.1showshowthenumberofarticleshasgrownandhowtheirdistributionacrosstheworldhaschangedinrecentyears,betweentheperiods1999to2003(Figure1.1a)and2004to2008(Figure1.1b).Thetraditionalscientificleadershavegradually

losttheir‘share’ofpublishedarticles.Meanwhile,Chinahasincreaseditspublicationstotheextentthatitisnowthesecondhighestproducerofresearchoutputintheworld.IndiahasreplacedtheRussianFederationinthetopten,climbingfrom13thin1996totenthbetween2004and2008.FurtherdownthelistSouthKorea,Brazil,Turkey,SouthEastAsiannationssuchasSingapore,Thailand,andMalaysia,andEuropeannationssuchasAustria,GreeceandPortugalhaveallimprovedtheirstandingsintheglobalscientificleaguetables.15


Key

United StatesJapanUnited KingdomGermanyFranceChinaItalyCanadaRussian FederationIndiaSpainOther

26%

8%

7%

7%5%4%4%

3%3%

3%

30%

21%

6%

7%

6%4%

10%

4%3%

3%2%

34%

Fig a Fig b

Changesintherankingofnationswithintheleaguetablesareshiftingatthesametimeastotaloutputisincreasing.Forexample,Italymaintainedasteadyshareofpublicationsbetween1996and2008(3.5%ofworldproductioninbothyears,fluctuatingbetween3%and4%overthewholeperiod);butinordertoholdthispositionitincreaseditsnumberofarticlesby32%.Allovertheworld,somecountriesarerunningtostandstill16whileothersarebreakingintoasprint.

Figure1.1. Proportion of global publication authorship by country17 The top ten producing countries in each period are shown. Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008

Key

United StatesJapanUnited KingdomGermanyFranceChinaItalyCanadaRussian FederationIndiaSpainOther

26%

8%

7%

7%5%4%4%

3%3%

3%

30%

21%

6%

7%

6%4%

10%

4%3%

3%2%

34%

Fig a Fig b

7 BasedonthestandardUnitedNationsStatisticsDivisionclassification(compositionofmacrogeographical(continental)regions,geographicalsub-regions,andselectedeconomicandothergroupings).

8 UNESCO(2010).UNESCO science report 2010.DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).UNESCOPublishing:Paris,France.DataareprovidedinUS$peggedatcurrentprices(2007pricesin2007,2002pricesin2002)andreflectpurchasingpowerparity.

9 Spendonresearchanddevelopment:datafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).Numberofresearchers:datafromUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,UNESCOInstituteforStatistics:Montréal,Canada.Numberofpublications:datafromElsevier’sScopus.

10 DatafromElsevier’sScopus.Ifanauthoronapapergivesacountryashisorheraddress,thatpaperisassignedtothatcountry.SoapaperwhichhasbeenwrittenbyauthorsintheUK,SpainandGermanywouldbeassignedasasinglepaperineachcountry(thatpaperthereforebeingaccountedforthreetimesasa‘national’paper).Figure1.1showsthetotalnumberofindividualpaperswithoutanymultiplecounting.Thetotalnumberof‘national’papers(ie.withpaperscountedmultipletimesifthereareauthorsbasedinmorethanonecountry)in2007was1,580,501;in2002thiswas1,093,564.TheUSAproduced316,317‘national’papersin2008(221,707withtheUSAasthesoleauthors,and94,610incollaborationinternationally);thisrepresents19.97%ofall‘national’papersglobally.

11 TheQSrankingshavesixUSuniversitiesinthetop10

(CambridgeintheUKisrankedfirst,andtheotherthreearealsointheUK).IntheTimesHigherEducationWorldUniversityRankingstheUSAholdsthetopfivepositions,sevenofthetop10placesand27ofthetop50(theremainingthreeinthetoptenareintheUK).IntheARWURankingsthefourtoppositionsand17ofthetop20areUSuniversities(theremainingthreeinthetop20aretheUniversitiesofCambridge,OxfordandTokyo).Source:AcademicRankingofWorldUniversities(2010)availableonlineathttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsp;QSTopUniversityRankings(2010)athttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/home;TimesHigherEducationWorldUniversityRankings(2010)athttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.html,accessed29September2010.

12 NationalScienceBoard(2010).Science and engineering indicators 2010.NationalScienceFoundation:Arlington,VA,USA.

13 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).



16 RoyalSociety(2010).The scientific century: securing our future prosperity.RoyalSociety:London,UK.

17 DatafromElsevier’sScopus.Thesechartsshowthetop10countriesbynumberofpublications,withallothercountriesincludedinthe‘other’segment.Thepiechartsarescaledtorepresenttheincreasedvolumeofpublicationsinthetwotimeperiods.In1999–2003therewere5,493,483publicationsglobally,andin2004–2008therewere7,330,334.

http://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://www.unesco.org/science/psd/publications/science_report2010.shtmlhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.arwu.org/ARWU2010.jsphttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/homehttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/index.htmlhttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind10/start.htmhttp://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/

PART1



Box1.1.A note on the dataExpenditureonresearchanddevelopment(R&D)isusedthroughoutthisreportasaproxyforspendingonscience.Grossexpenditureonresearchanddevelopment(GERD),ascollatedbytheOECDandUNESCO,andusedinthisreport,includesinvestmentbygovernmentandbusinessenterprise,fundingfromoverseassources,and‘other’sources,whichcanincludefundingbyprivatefoundationsandcharities.Inareasofthereportwedistinguishbetweentheproportionofthisgrossexpenditurespentbybusinessenterprise(BERD),andthatspentbygovernment(GOVERD).Thisisacommonlyused,yetlargelyunsatisfactoryproxyforscience(and/orresearch)spending.Alargeproportionof‘researchanddevelopment’isspentonDratherthanR(withthelargestproportionspentonproductdevelopment).Assuch,thisfiguregoesbeyondtheactualamountofmoneydedicatedtofundingresearch,

inwhicheversector,butitisassumedthatthishassomerelationshiptotheupstreaminvestmentinsciencethatprecedesit.Unlessotherwisestated,wherechangesin

expenditureovertimearediscussedinthereport,thefiguresusedarebasedoncurrentUS$prices(2004dollarsin2004,2008dollarsin2008)andpurchasingpowerparity,18ascalculatedbyeithertheOECDorUNESCO.Whenwereferto‘papers’inthereport,this

referstopeer-reviewedarticleswhichhaveappearedininternationaljournals.Thesedatahavebeendrawn,unlessotherwisenoted,fromElsevier’sScopusdatabase.19Wherewediscussoveralltotalsofpublications,theseincludesocialsciences,theartsandhumanities(inpractice,theserepresentaverysmallproportionofpublicationoutput—8.9%);thiscoverageisusedsoastomatchthe‘input’statistics,whichallregister‘research’and‘researchers’,whicharedisciplineneutral.

Article:‘CroonianLecture:Ontheanatomicalstuctureoftheeye’,byEverardHome,drawingsbyFranzBauer.PTvol112,1822,pp76-85.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.


1.1.1EmergingscientificnationsChina’sriseuptherankingshasbeenespeciallystriking.ChinahasheavilyincreaseditsinvestmentinR&D,withspendinggrowingby20%peryearsince1999toreachoverUS$100billionayeartoday(or1.44%ofGDPin2007),20inpursuitofitsgoalofspending2.5%ofGDPonR&Din2020.21Chinaisalsoturningouthugenumbersofscienceandengineeringgraduates,with1.5millionleavingitsuniversitiesin2006.22

China,India,SouthKoreaandBrazilareoftencitedasrisingpowersinscience.23Indiaproducesroughly2.5millionscienceandengineeringgraduateseachyear.24In2008,India,theworld’ssecondmost

populouscountry,succeededinsendingitsfirstunmannedflighttothemoon,becomingonlythefourthcountrytolandacraftonthelunarsurface.Brazil,inlinewithitsaspirationtobea‘naturalknowledgeeconomy’,buildingonitsnaturalandenvironmentalresources,isworkingtoincreaseresearchspendingto2.5%ofGDPby202225(fromjustover1.4%in2007).26SouthKoreahaspledgedthatR&Dspending,(3.2%ofGDPin2007),willreach5%ofGDPby2012.27

Thesecountriesarenotaloneinrapidlygrowingtheirsciencebases.Overthelast15years,eachoftheG20countrieshasbeenincreasingitsresearchproductionandmosthavescaleduptheproportion

18 Purchasingpowerparity(PPP)measurestheamountofagivencurrencyneededtobuythesamebasketofgoodsandservicesasoneunitofthereferencecurrency—inthisreport,theUSdollar.Itishelpfulwhencomparinglivingstandardsindifferentcountries,asitindicatestheappropriateexchangeratetousewhenexpressingincomesandpricesindifferentcountriesinacommoncurrency.

19 ForfurtherinformationonthemethodologyusedbyElsevier,pleaseseetheConductoftheStudyonpage11.

20 OECD(2006).China will become world’s second highest investor in R&D by end of 2006, finds OECD.Pressrelease,4December2006.OfficeforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.

21 TheStateCouncilofthePeople’sRepublicofChina(2006).The national medium- and long-term program for science and technology development (2006–2020): an outline.Beijing,China.

22 MinistryofScienceandTechnologyofthePeople’sRepublicofChina(2007).S&T statistics data book 2007.Beijing,China.Thisistheequivalentof

0.66%oftheChinesepopulationagedbetween15and24,whichwasprojectedtobe228,663,000in2010accordingtotheUnitedNationsPopulationDivision.UNESCOstatisticsindicatethatthemostrecentfiguresoftotalscience,engineering,manufacturingandconstructiongraduates,expressedasapercentageoftheirprojectedpopulationof15–24-year-oldsfor2010(aspertheUNstatisticsabove),wouldequal0.95%intheUSA(428,256graduatesinthesedisciplinesin2008againstaprojectedpopulationaged15–24of44,880,000in2010),and1.73%intheUK(140,575graduatesinthesedisciplinesin2007againstaprojectedpopulationof8,147,000in2010).Thesearenotperfectcomparisons,asthemostrecentyearforwhichwehavegraduatedataavailablevariesbycountry,anditdoesnottakeintoaccountgraduatesabovethisagerange,ortheproportionofpeopleinthelowerendofthisagerangewhoareunlikelytograduateattheirage.Sources:PopulationDivisionoftheDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsoftheUnitedNationsSecretariat(2008).World population prospects: the 2008 revision.Availableonlineathttp://esa.un.org/unpp,accessed7

January2011;UNESCOInstituteforStatisticswebsite:http://www.uis.unesco.org/,accessed13January2011.

23 SeeBoundK(2007).India: the uneven innovator;WebbM(2007).South Korea: mass innovation comes of age;WilsdonJ&KeeleyJ.China: the next science superpower?;BoundK(2008).Brazil, the natural knowledge economy.Demos:London,UK;AdamsJ&WilsdonJ(2006).The new geography of science: UK research and international collaboration; AdamsJ&KingC(2009).Global research report: Brazil;AdamsJ,KingC&SinghV(2009).Global research report: India;AdamsJ,KingC&MaN(2009).Global research report: China.Evidence,aThomsonReutersbusiness:Leeds,UK.Battelle(2009).2010 global R&D fund-ing forecast.Battelle:Columbus,OH,USA.WilsdonJ(2008).The new geography of science.PhysicsWorld,October2008.GilmanD(2010).The new geography of global innovation.GoldmanSachsGlobalMarketsInstitute:NewYork,NY,USA.

24 BoundK(2007).India: the uneven innovator.Demos:London,UK.India’spopulationagedbetween

15and24wasprojectedtobejustunder234millionaccordingtotheUN.Ifallthose2.5milliongraduateswerewithinthatagerange,theywouldrepresent1.07%ofthepopulationinthatagerange.Source:UnitedNationswebsite.World population prospects: the 2008 revision.PopulationDivisionoftheDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairsoftheUnitedNationsSecretariat.Availableonlineathttp://esa.un.org/unpp,accessed7January2011.

25 KuglerH(2011).Brazil releases science blueprint.SciDev.Net,7January2011.Availableonlineathttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.html,accessed17January2011.

26 PetherickA(2010).Science safe in Brazil elections.Natureonline,29September2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.html,accessed17January2011.

27 StoneR(2008).South Korea aims to boost status as science and technology powerhouse. ScienceInsider,23December2008.Availableathttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.html.

http://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37770522_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National Outline for Medium and Long Term S&T Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National Outline for Medium and Long Term S&T Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National Outline for Medium and Long Term S&T Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National Outline for Medium and Long Term S&T Development.dochttp://www.cstec.org/uploads/files/National Outline for Medium and Long Term S&T Development.dochttp://www.most.gov.cn/eng/statistics/2007/index.htmhttp://www.most.gov.cn/eng/statistics/2007/index.htmhttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://www.uis.unesco.org/http://www.uis.unesco.org/http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.scribd.com/doc/1037304/Demos-Korea-Innovationhttp://www.scribd.com/doc/1037304/Demos-Korea-Innovationhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlaschinahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlaschinahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://www.demos.co.uk/files/Demos_Evidence_China.pdf?1240939425http://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/GRR-Brazil-Jun09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/GRR-Brazil-Jun09.pdfhttp://science.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-India-oct09_ag0908174.pdfhttp://science.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-India-oct09_ag0908174.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-china-nov09.pdfhttp://researchanalytics.thomsonreuters.com/m/pdfs/grr-china-nov09.pdfhttp://www.rdmag.com/uploadedFiles/RD/Featured_Articles/2009/12/GFF2010_ads_small.pdfhttp://www.rdmag.com/uploadedFiles/RD/Featured_Articles/2009/12/GFF2010_ads_small.pdfhttp://physicsworld.com/cws/archive/print/21/10http://physicsworld.com/cws/archive/print/21/10http://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/global-markets-institute/featured-research/innovation-doc.pdfhttp://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/global-markets-institute/featured-research/innovation-doc.pdfhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://esa.un.org/unpphttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/brazil-releases-science-blueprint.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100929/full/467511b.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.htmlhttp://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2008/12/south-korea-aim.html


PART1


Arg

enti

na

Au

stra

lia

Bra

zil

Ch

ina

Ind

iaIn

do

nes

ia

Mex

ico

Rep

ub

lic o

f K

ore

a

Sau

di A

rab

iaS

ou

th A

fric

a

Turk

ey

Can

ada

Fran

ce

Ger

man

y

Ital

y

Jap

anR

uss

ian

Fed

erat

ion

Un

ited

Kin

gd

om

Un

ited

Sta

tes

10%

8%

6%

4%

0%

-2%

2%

-4%

Arg

enti

na

Au

stra

lia

Bra

zil

Ch

ina

Ind

ia

Ind

on

esia

Mex

ico

Sau

di A

rab

ia

Ko

rea,

Rep

ub

lic o

f

So

uth

Afr

ica

Turk

ey

Can

ada

Fran

ce

Ger

man

y

Ital

yJa

pan

Ru

ssia

n F

eder

atio

n

Un

ited

Kin

gd

om

Un

ited

Sta

tes

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

16%

18%

20%

Figure1.2. Science in the G20G8 labelled in red. Fig a. Annual growth in publications 1996-2008.28 Fig b. Annual growth in GDP spending on R&D 1996-200729

Fig a Fig b


oftheirGDPspentonR&D(seeFigure1.2).Increasedinvestmentandincreasedpublicationshavetakenplaceintandem.Thegrowthofcommitmenttoscienceinanumberofthenon-G8nationsisespeciallystriking.

TurkeyhasimproveditsscientificperformanceataratealmostrivallingthatofChina.Havingdeclaredresearchapublicpriorityinthe1990s,theTurkishGovernmentincreaseditsspendingonR&Dnearlysix-foldbetween1995and2007,andnowspendsmoreannuallyincashtermsthaneitherDenmark,FinlandorNorway.30Overthisperiod,theproportionofTurkey’sGDPspentonR&Drosefrom0.28%to0.72%,andthenumberofresearchersincreasedby43%.31Fourtimesasmanypaperswerepublishedin2008asin1996.32ThenumberofpublicationsfromIranhasgrown

fromjust736in1996to13,238in2008—makingitthefastestgrowingcountryintermsofnumbersofscientificpublicationsintheworld.33InAugust2009,Iranannounceda‘comprehensiveplanforscience’focusedonhighereducationandstrongerlinksbetweenindustryandacademia.TheestablishmentofaUS$2.5millioncentrefornanotechnologyresearchisoneoftheproductsofthisplan.OthercommitmentsincludeboostingR&Dinvestmentto

4%ofGDP(0.59%ofGDPin2006),andincreasingeducationto7%ofGDPby2030(5.49%ofGDPin2007).34Since1996,R&DasapercentageofGDPin

Tunisiahasgrownfrom0.03%to1.25%in2009.35Duringthesameperiod,asubstantialrestructuringofthenationalR&Dsystemsawthecreationof624researchunitsand139researchlaboratories,ofwhich72aredirectedtowardslifeandbiotechnologicalsciences.36Lifesciencesandpharmaceuticalsremainatoppriorityforthecountry,withthegovernmentannouncinginJanuary2010thatitwantedtoincreasepharmaceuticalsexportsfive-foldinthenextfiveyearswhilealsoaimingtohave60%oflocalmedicineneedscoveredbythecountry’sownproduction.37

In1996,Singaporeinvested1.37%ofGDPinR&D.By2007thishadreached2.61%ofGDP.38Thenumberofscientificpublicationshasgrownfrom2,620in1996to8,506in2008,almosthalfofwhichwereco-authoredinternationally.39TheAgencyforScience,TechnologyandResearch(A*STAR)iscentraltothegovernment’scommitmenttoinvestmentinworldclassresearchandinfrastructure,andoverseesSingapore’s14researchinstitutesandassociatedcentreswithinflagshipdevelopmentssuchasBiopolisandFusionopolis.40AtacostofoverUS$370million,


29 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre,Montréal,Canada.Notethatstatisticsforsomecountriesacrosstheperiodareincomplete.Theclosestaccountableyearsintheperiodareusedwherecompletestatisticsarenotavailable.

30 OECD(2010).Main science and technology indicators (MSTI): 2010 edition, version 1.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.

31 OECD(2009).Main science and technology indicators (MSTI): 2009

edition.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.


33 Science-Metrix,Thirty years of science.Montreal:http://www.Science-Metrix.com,accessedNovember2010.

34 SawahelW(2009).Iran: 20-year plan for knowledge-based economy.UniversityWorldNews.

35 MadikizelaM(2005).The science and technology system of the Republic of Tunisia.From‘CountryStudies:ArabStates’,UNESCO

website.Availableonlineathttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdf.

36 MadikizelaM(2005).The science and technology system of the Republic of Tunisia.From‘CountryStudies:ArabStates’,UNESCOwebsite.Availableonlineathttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdf.

37 GlobalArabNetwork(2010).Tunisia to boost pharmaceutical & biotechnological industry. GlobalArabNetwork,13January2010.

Availableonlineathttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.html.

38 DatafromtheUNESCOInstituteforStatisticsDataCentre.Montréal,Canada.


40 Seehttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspx,accessed29September2010.

http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/26/0,3343,en_2649_33703_1901082_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.Science-Metrix.comhttp://www.Science-Metrix.comhttp://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090827175231370http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/education/en/files/55545/11998913265Tunisia.pdf/Tunisia.pdfhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201001134357/Science-Health/tunisia-to-boost-pharmaceutical-a-biotechnological-industry.htmlhttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143&IF_Language=enghttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspxhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/AboutASTAR/Overview/tabid/140/Default.aspx


PART1


Biopolisisahigh-techbiomedicalparkwhichthegovernmentlaunchedin2003.Sincethen,thecountry’sbiotechexpertisehascontinuedtoexpandandisattractingsomebigplayerssuchasNovartis,GlaxoSmithKlineandRoche.41Thepictureofscientificresearchisalsostarting

tochangeacrosstheMiddleEast,wherethereareanumberofsignificantnewcommitmentstoscience.Gas-richQataraimstospend2.8%ofGDPonresearchby2015.Withapopulationofjustover1.4million(ofwhicharound85%areforeignworkers)andacurrentGDPofUS$128billion,thistarget,ifrealised,wouldcombinetogiveGERDpercapitaofUS$2,474.42Sincethemid-1990s,theQatariGovernmenthasintroducedanumberofeducationreformsandhasinvestedaroundUS$133billionininfrastructureandprojectsdesignedtocreateaknowledge-basedeconomy.43TheUnited Arab Emiratesisattemptingtocreatetheworld’sfirstfullysustainablecityandinnovationhub—theMasdarInitiative.Duetoopenin2011,Masdarwilleventually

house50,000peopleand1,500businessesfocusedonrenewableenergyandsustainabletechnologies.44GE,BP,Shell,MitsubishiandRolls-Royceareamongthosewhohavejoinedasstrategicpartners.45Elsewhere,manyoftheworld’spoorestcountries

haveplacedsciencebehindmoreimmediatepriorities,suchashealthcareandprimaryeducation.Thisisnottosaythatscienceandresearcharenothavinganimpactinthelessdevelopedworldatall,orthattherearenosignsofgrowth.Cambodiaproducedonlysevenarticlesin1996,butincreasedthisto114by2008.BothUgandaandPeru,inthesameperiod,increasedtheiroutputsfour-fold,albeitfromlowbases(Ugandafrom116to477papers,Perufrom153to600).46Inthesecountries,aselsewhere,thereisoftenalsoawealthofinformalinnovationcarriedoutbyfarmers,47localhealthpractitionersandsmallfirms—frequentlydrawingonlocalknowledgeandlargelyunacknowledgedinformalmetrics,letalonepublishedinresearchpapers.48

TheKingofTonkinandretinueontheirwaytoaceremonialblessingoftheground.AnillustrationforSamuelBaron’sA description of the kingdom of Tonqueen,1685.FromtheRoyalSocietylibraryandarchive.


Box1.2. Measuring global science through publicationsTraditionally,globalscientificoutputhasbeenmeasuredthroughtheanalysisofpublishedpapersinpeer-reviewedjournals.Peerreviewmeansthatthesciencethatispublishedhasbeensubjectedtoindependentscrutinyandapprovedbyqualifiedscientists,andtherebyassuresitsqualityandcredibility.Thevolumeofscientificliteratureinpeer-reviewedjournalsisvast.Individualarticlesareabstractedandcollectedontodatabaseswhicharethensearchablebytheirusers,usuallythroughsubscription.ThemostcomprehensiveoftheseservicesareScopus(maintainedbyElsevier)andWebofScience(maintainedbyThomsonReuters).Theseservicesprovideaccesstoinformationabouttitles,authors,abstracts,keywordsandreferencesforthousandsofjournalarticleseachyear.Thesedataareusedtoassessthequalityofresearchand,throughitsuseasmeasuredbycitations,itsimpact.Thereare,however,notablegapsinthe

coverageofthebibliometricdatabases.Insomecasesthismaymeanthattheofficialpublicationfiguresunder-representthetrueextentofscientificactivity.Forexample,therearemanypeer-reviewedjournalswhichdonotappearin

theindexingservices.Regional,nationalandlocaljournalsinthenon-English-speakingpartsoftheworldareoftennotrecognisedand,asaconsequence,journals,conferencesandscientificpapersfromsomecountriesarenotwellrepresentedbyabstractingservices.Muchscientificliteratureisalsoproducedfor

non-peer-reviewedpublications(andhencenotcoveredbyScopusorWebofScience).Oftenreferredtoas‘grey’literature,thiscaninclude:technicalreportsfromgovernmentagenciesandNGOs;workingpapersfromresearchgroupsorcommittees;governmentwhitepapers;conferenceproceedingsandsymposia;andagrowinglevelofpublicationoninternetsites.Allofthesearepotentiallyvaluablecontributionstotheglobalstockofknowledge,buttheyarenotaccountedforintraditionalassessmentsofresearchoutput.Initsanalysesofglobalsciencethrough

bibliometricdata,thisreportdrawsexclusivelyonthesepeer-reviewedsourcesofresearch,andspecificallyonElsevierdata.Itisclearthatbibliometricdataalonedonotfullycapturethedynamicsofthechangingscientificlandscape.However,theypresentlyoffertheonlyrecognisedandmostrobustmethodologyfordoingso.

41 SingaporeEconomicDevelopmentBoard(2010).Pharmaceutical and biotech companies partner Singapore to accelerate innovation in Asia.Pressrelease,4May2010.SingaporeEconomicDevelopmentBoard:Singapore.

42 Authors’calculations.Qatar’spopulationis1,448,446andithasaGDPofUS$128billion.Source:USStateDepartmentwebsite.

Seehttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5437.htm,accessed8February2011.2.8%of128billionis3,584million,whichwhendividedbythepopulationgivesusafigureof2,474.38.

43 Source:QatarFoundationwebsite.Seehttp://www.qstp.org.qa/output/page559.asp,accessed30September2010.

44 Source:Masdar(2008).Seehttp://www.masdar.ae/en/mediaCenter/newsDesc.aspx?News_ID=40&MenuID=0,accessed29September2010.Masdar(theAbuDhabiFutureEnergyCompany):AbuDhabi,UnitedArabEmirates.

45 EnglandA(2007).Abu Dhabi eyes renewable energy future.FinancialTimes,4April2007.


47 ScoonesI&ThompsonJ(2009).Farmer first revisited: innovation for agricultural research and development.InstituteofDevelopmentStudiesattheUniversityofSussex:Brighton,UK.

48 STEPSCentre(2010)Innovation, sustainability, development: a new manifesto.STEPSCentre:Brighton,UK.

http://www.sedb.com/etc/medialib/downloads/pdf_documents_for.Par.80014.File.dat/Press Release - Pharmaceutical & Biotech companies partner Singapore (04 May 2010).pdfhttp://www.sedb.com/etc/medialib/downloads/pdf_documents_for.Par.80014.File.dat/Press Release - Pharmaceutical & Biotech companies partner Singapore (04 May 2010).pdfhttp://www.sedb.com/etc/medialib/downloads/pdf_documents_for.Par.80014.File.dat/Press Release - Pharmaceutical & Biotech companies partner Singapore (04 May 2010).pdfhttp://www.sedb.com/etc/medialib/downloads/pdf_documents_for.Par.80014.File.dat/Press Release - Pharmaceutical & Biotech companies partner Singapore (04 May 2010).pdfhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5437.htmhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5437.htmhttp://www.qstp.org.qa/output/page559.asphttp://www.qstp.org.qa/output/page559.asphttp://www.masdar.ae/en/mediaCenter/newsDesc.aspx?News_ID=40&MenuID=0http://www.masdar.ae/en/mediaCenter/newsDesc.aspx?News_ID=40&MenuID=0http://www.masdar.ae/en/mediaCenter/newsDesc.aspx?News_ID=40&MenuID=0http://www.masdar.ae/en/mediaCenter/newsDesc.aspx?News_ID=40&MenuID=0http://www.masdarctf.com/pdf/FT_AbuDhabi.pdfhttp://www.masdarctf.com/pdf/FT_AbuDhabi.pdfhttp://www.ids.ac.uk/index.cfm?objectid=613D050A-5056-8171-7B07E743FBC59C41http://www.ids.ac.uk/index.cfm?objectid=613D050A-5056-8171-7B07E743FBC59C41http://www.ids.ac.uk/index.cfm?objectid=613D050A-5056-8171-7B07E743FBC59C41http://www.anewmanifesto.org/manifesto_2010/http://www.anewmanifesto.org/manifesto_2010/http://www.anewmanifesto.org/manifesto_2010/


PART1


Somegovernmentsanddevelopmentpartnersareembracingthefactthatscienceisnotaluxurywhichisthepreserveofdevelopedcountries.Theyrecognisethattechnologyandinnovationarekeytoachievinglong-termeconomicandsocialdevelopment,49andthatscienceandscientificadvicearevitalassetsingovernance.50PaulKagame,PresidentofRwanda,hasbeenastrongadvocateforsciencefordevelopment,saying‘WeinAfricamusteitherbegintobuildourscientificandtechnologicaltrainingcapabilitiesorremainanimpoverishedappendagetotheglobaleconomy.’51AfricanscienceministersresolvedinMarch2010that2011wouldbethestartofanAfricandecadeforscience,promisingincreasedresearchbudgetsandattemptstousescienceandtechnologytodrivedevelopment.52Althoughencouraging,politicalcommitmentstoinvestinsciencearegreetedcautiouslybymanyscientistsacrossAfricaandinotherpoorcountries.Itwasin1980thatAfricanpresidentsagreedtoincreaseresearchspendingto1%ofGDP,aspartoftheLagosPlanofAction,53butby2007Sub-SaharanAfricancountriesstillspentanaverageofjust0.5%oftheirGDPonscienceandtechnology.54Africanleadersreiteratedtheir1%target,thistimeagreeingtoreachitby2010,55butSouthAfricaistheonlysub-Saharancountrythatisclose,spending0.92%inthe2008to2009financialyear.56

1.1.2AssessingresearchqualityandimpactAsresearchoutputhasgrown,sohavethelevelsatwhichresearchersciteoneanother’swork.Citationsareoftenusedasameansofevaluatingthequalityofpublications—recognitionbyanauthor’speersindicatesthatthescientificcommunityvaluestheworkthathasbeenpublished.Theyare,however,alaggingindicator,aswellasasometimescrudeone.Lookingattheglobalpictureinrecentyears,we

canseethatcitationsareincreasingatagreaterrate

thanpublications—betweentheperiods1999to2003and2004to2008publicationsgrewby33%andcitationsby55%(seeFigure1.3).57However,whenexaminingcitationpatterns,themovementinnationalperformancehasnotbeenasdramaticaswithpublicationnumbers.SwitzerlandandAustraliafelldowntherankings,tobereplacedbyChinaandSpaininthelatterperiod,buttheperformanceofChina,forexample,doesnotmirrorthatnation’sgrowthininvestmentorpublicationoutput.Citationscontinuetobemuchmoreconcentratedthanthejournalarticlesthemselves.Itwilltakesometimefortheabsoluteoutputof

emergingnationstochallengetherateatwhichthisresearchisreferencedbytheinternationalscientificcommunity.Thereisalsodiversificationwithsomecountriesshowingleadershipinspecificfields,suchasChinainnanotechnology,58andBrazilinbiofuels,59butthescientificallyadvancednationscontinuetodominatethecitationcounts.Citationsare,however,onlyonemeansof

benchmarkingtheexcellenceofresearchoutput.WithoverUS$1,000billioneachyearbeingspentonR&D,itisunsurprisingthatfundersandgovernmentswanttoknowwhatvaluetheyaregettingfortheirmoney.IntheUK,theimpactandexcellenceagenda

hasdevelopedrapidlyinrecentyears.TheResearchAssessmentExercise,apeerreviewbasedbenchmarkingexercisewhichmeasuredtherelativeresearchstrengthsofuniversitydepartments,60isduetobereplacedwithanewResearchExcellenceFramework,whichwillbecompletedin2014.61TheUKResearchCouncilsnow(somewhatcontroversially)askallapplicantstodescribethepotentialeconomicandsocietalimpactsoftheirresearch.TheExcellenceinResearchforAustralia(ERA)initiativeassessesresearchqualitywithinAustralia’shighereducationinstitutionsusinga


combinationofindicatorsandexpertreviewbycommitteescomprisingexperienced,internationallyrecognisedexperts.Theimpactagendaisincreasinglyimportantfor

nationalandinternationalscience(inEurope,theCommissionerforResearch,InnovationandSciencehasspokenabouttheneedforaEurope-wide‘innovationindicator’).63Thechallengeofmeasuringthevalueofscienceinanumberofwaysfacesallofthescientificcommunity.Achievingthiswilloffernewinsightsintohowweappraisethequalityofscience,andtheimpactsofitsglobalisation.

ChinaSpainOther

Key

United States

Japan

United KingdomGermany

France

Australia

ItalyCanada

Netherlands

Switzerland

36%

9%8%7%

5%4%

3%3%2%

2%

21%

30%

8%

7%5%5%

4%

4%

3%

4%

3%

27%

Fig a Fig b

Figure1.3. Comparative proportion of global citations by country62The top ten cited countries in each period are shown. Fig a. 1999-2003. Fig b. 2004-2008

49 ConwayG&WaageJ(2010).Science and innovation for development.UKCollaborativeonDevelopmentSciences:London,UK.

50 RoyalSociety(2010).Science: an undervalued asset in governance for development.RoyalSociety:London,UK.

51 KagameP(2006).SpeechbyRwandanPresident,PaulKagame,attheRoyalSocietyon18September2006.

52 NordlingL(2010).African nations vow to support science.Nature465,994–995.

53 OrganizationofAfricanUnity(1980).Lagos plan of action for the economic development of Africa

1980–2000.TheOrganizationofAfricanUnitywasdisbandedin2002andreplacedbytheAfricanUnion.

54 DatafromUNESCOInstituteforStatistics,publishedinUNESCOScienceReport2010(p2,Table1).

55 AfricanUnion(2007).Assembly of the African Union, eighth ordinary session, 29–30 January 2007, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: decisions and declarations.Assembly/AU/Dec.161(VIII).AfricanUnion:AddisAbaba,Ethiopia.

56 DepartmentofScienceandTechnology,South Africa (2010). South Africa maintains steady growth in R and D expenditure.Pressrelease,9September2010.DepartmentofScienceand

Technology:CapeTown,SouthAfrica.


58 RoyalSociety(2010).The scientific century: securing our future prosperity.RoyalSociety:London,UK.

59 BoundK(2008).Brazil, the natural knowledge economy.Demos:London,UK.

60 Seehttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htm.

61 Seehttp://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/,accessed7January2011.

62 DatafromElsevier’sScopus.Thesechartsshowthetoptencountriesbynumberofcitations,withallothercountriesincludedinthe‘other’segment.Thepiechartsarescaledtorepresenttheincreasedvolumeofpublicationsinthetwotimeperiods.In1999–2003therewere23,639,885citationsglobally,andin2004–2008therewere36,562,135.

63 FinneganG(2010).Geoghegan-Quinn: we must communicate our R&D.Euractiv.com(EuropeanUnionInformationWebsite),5May2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702.

http://www.ukcds.org.uk/publication-Science_and_Innovation_for_Development-172.htmlhttp://www.ukcds.org.uk/publication-Science_and_Innovation_for_Development-172.htmlhttp://royalsociety.org/science-governance/http://royalsociety.org/science-governance/http://royalsociety.org/science-governance/http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100623/full/465994a.htmlhttp://www.nature.com/news/2010/100623/full/465994a.htmlhttp://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDFhttp://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDFhttp://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/docs/lagos_plan.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_ EIGHTH _ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_ EIGHTH _ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_ EIGHTH _ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_ EIGHTH _ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.au.int/files/SUMMIT_EN_29_30_JANUARY_2007_BCP_ASSEMBLY_OF_THE_AFRICAN_UNION_ EIGHTH _ORDINARY_SESSION.PDFhttp://www.sudafrica.it/documenti/SOUTH AFRICA MAINTAINS STEADY GROWTH IN R AND D EXPENDITURE.dochttp://www.sudafrica.it/documenti/SOUTH AFRICA MAINTAINS STEADY GROWTH IN R AND D EXPENDITURE.dochttp://www.sudafrica.it/documenti/SOUTH AFRICA MAINTAINS STEADY GROWTH IN R AND D EXPENDITURE.dochttp://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://royalsociety.org/the-scientific-century/http://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/brazilhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.delni.gov.uk/index/further-and-higher-education/higher-education/role-structure-he-division/he-research-policy/research-assessment-exercise.htmhttp://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/http://www.hefce.ac.uk/research/ref/http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702http://www.euractiv.com/en/innovation/geoghegan-quinn-we-must-communicate-our-rd-interview-493702


PART1


1.1.3GlobalscientistsRecentdecadeshaveseensignificantincreasesintheglobalcompetitionfortalent,withtheworkforceinplaceslikeSiliconValleyhighlightingtherolethatskilledmigrantscanplayininnovationandwealthcreation.CountriesliketheUK,Australia,CanadaandtheUSAhavegrappledwithcontentiouspolicydecisions,aimingtostriketherightbalancebetweenencouragingthehighlyskilledontheonehand,anddiscouraging‘unskilled’potentialmigrantsontheother.Withinaccuratedataandinconsistentdefinitions

of‘highlyskilled’acrosstheworld,itisdifficulttomeasurehighlyskilledmigration,particularlyamongscientists.Thereisnointernationallyagreeddefinitionof‘highlyskilledworkers’,althoughtheOECD’sCanberraManualprovidesoneusefulbasisforthemeasurementof‘humanresourcesinscienceandtechnology’(HRST).Theirdefinitionincludesthosewhohave‘completededucationatthethirdlevelinaS&Tfieldofstudyand/orthosenotformallyqualifiedbutemployedinaS&Toccupationwheresuchqualificationswouldnormallyberequired’.64AccordingtoOECDanalysistheUSA,Canada,AustraliaandtheUKattractedthelargestnumbersofhighlyskilledexpatriatesfromOECDcountriesin2001,followedbyFranceandGermany.65OftheUK’s4.5millionforeign-bornadultpopulation,34.8%hadauniversity-leveleducation.Approximately19.5%ofthesemigrantshadascientificbackground,manyofwhomhailedfromemergingeconomiessuchasChinaandIndia.66However,wearefarfromunderstandingwhatfactorsinfluencetheseindividuals’choiceoflocation.Howlongdotheyintendtostay?Andhowdotheyconnectbacktotheirresearchnetworksfromtheirnewhome?ThecareerpathsofrecentNobelprizewinners

demonstratetheinternationaloutlookofmanyoftheworld’smostsuccessfulscientists.Professor

AndreGeimFRS,alongwithKonstantinNovoselov,wasawardedtheNobelprizeforPhysicsin2010.ProfessorGeimobtainedhisPhDattheRussianAcademyofSciencesinChernogolovka,movedtotheUKforpostdoctoralpositionsatNottinghamandBath,beforethenmovingontoCopenhagenandNijmegen,andreturningtotheUKin2001totheUniversityofManchester.NowaRoyalSocietyResearchProfessor,ProfessorGeimmaintainslinkswithcolleaguesinRussia,andisstillaprofessorintheNetherlands.The2009winnerforPhysics,SirCharlesKaoFRS,wasborninChina.HeobtainedhisPhDfromtheUniversityofLondon,workedattheStandardTelecommunicationsLaboratoryintheUK,andinboththeUSAandGermany.AdaYonath(thefirstwomanfromIsraeltowinaNobelPrize,andcurrentlybasedattheWeitzmannInstituteinRehovot)heldpostdoctoralpositionsintheUSAandworkedinGermanybeforeshewonthe2009Chemistryprize.Herco-winnerVenkatramanRamakrishnanFRSwasborninTamilNadu,India,undertookgraduatedegreesintheUSA,andnowworksinCambridge,England.

1.1.4Braingain,drainandcirculationTheNobelPrizeexamplesshowtheattractiveforceofthestrongscientificnations,inparticulartheUSAandWesternEurope.Todayissuesof‘braindrain’areusuallyassociatedwithdevelopingcountries,buttheoriginalphrasewascoinedbytheRoyalSocietyin1963.Atthetime,theUKwasstrugglingtostemtheexodusofitstopbrainstotheUSA.TheSocietyfounditselfatthecentreofafiercedebateastohowtocounterthisphenomenon,67withthethenMinisterofScience,LordHailsham,lamentingthe‘parasitisingofBritishbrains’.68

Today,thefocusofdiscussionhasmovedfrompreventing‘braindrain’tomakingthemostof‘braincirculation’.Ithasbeenarguedthatoldpatternsof


one-wayflowsoftechnologyandcapitalfromthecoretotheperipheryareslowlybreakingdown,creatingfarmorecomplexanddecentralisedtwo-wayflowsofskills,capitalandtechnology,withscientistsfollowingthebestscienceandthebestresources.69Somegovernmentsappreciatethevalueof‘braincirculation’andallocateresourcesforattractingnationaltalentbackhometostartanewbusinessortakeupaseniorpositioninacademia,whilemaintainingusefullinksbacktotheUSAorEurope.Ofthe1.06millionChinesewhostudiedabroad

between1978and2006,over70%didnotreturn.70IthasbeenapolicypriorityfortheChineseGovernmenttoattractthisdiasporaback.TheThousandTalentsProgram,establishedin2008,hasbroughtmorethan600overseasChineseandforeignacademicsbacktoChina.LaunchingfurthermeasuresinMay2010,PremierWenJiabaoannouncedthat,‘Wewillincreasespendingontalentprojectsandlaunchaseriesofinitiativestooffertalent-favourablepoliciesinhouseholds,medicalcareandtheeducationofchildren.’71Arangeoffacilities,bothpersonalandprofessional,isessentialtoensurethatreturninghomeisanattractiveoption.India,meanwhile,hascreatedaspecific

governmentministry—theMinistryofOverseas

Indians—toorganisepolicyrelatingtoremittancesandinvestmentflows,aswellasrelaxingpreviouslystringentcitizenshiprequirementstomakeiteasierforpotentialreturnees.OtherinitiativestoconnectIndiawithitsdiasporahavealsoprovenfruitful.TheIndusEntrepreneurs(TiE),forexample,wasoriginallyfoundedbyIndianentrepreneursbasedinSiliconValleyanditnowhasaglobalmembershipof12,000peoplewithin11countries,andhasassistedinthecreationofbusinessesworthoverUS$200billioninIndia.72Elsewhere,Malaysiarecentlyestablisheda

new‘TalentCorporation’whichwillbechargedwithconnectingwithdiasporacommunities.Ecuador’sPresidentalsoannouncedaUS$1.7million‘PrometheusOldWiseman’plantoattractseniorscientistswhoseeEcuadoras‘theretirementdestinationofbrilliantminds’.73Yetattractingbackthediasporaisonlyone

partoftheequation.Findingnewwaystoconnectwithdiasporaandothercommunities,andtheirassociatedglobalnetworks,isalsocritical.Nomadicscientistsareoftenkeentomaintainscientificandinformallinkswiththeirhomecountries.Manyareeagertocontributebutareunsurewheretostart.Insupportinginternationalcollaboration,thesediasporacommunitiesareanuntappedresource.

64 OECD(1995).The measurement of scientific and technological activities: manual on the measurement of human resources devoted to S&T: ‘Canberra manual’.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.

65 OECD(2002).The global competition for talent: mobility of the highly skilled.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.

66 OECD(2008).A profile of immigrant populations in the 21st century: data from OECD countries.OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment:Paris,France.

67 RoyalSociety(1963).The emigration of scientists.TheRoyalSociety:London,UK.

68 BalmerB,GodwinM&GregoryJ(2009).The Royal Society and the ‘brain drain’: natural scientists meet

social science. Notes&RecordsoftheRoyalSociety63,4,339–353.

69 SaxenianA(2006).The new Argonauts: regional advantage in a global economy.HarvardUniversityPress:Cambridge,MA,USA.

70 Source:http://www.gov.cn(ChineseGovernment’sofficialwebportal).Seehttp://www.gov.cn/english/2010-06/07/content_1622015.htm,accessed13October2010.

71 ChenJ(2010).Nation aims to increase talent pool.ChinaDaily,6June2010.

72 BoundK(2007).India: the uneven innovator.Demos:London,UK.

73 HirschfeldD(2010).Ecuador opens its doors to senior scientists.SciDev.Net,16August2010.Availableonlineathttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/ecuador-opens-its-doors-to-senior-scientists.html.

http://www.oecd.org/document/21/0,3343,en_2649_34269_41361685_1_1_1_37417,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/21/0,3343,en_2649_34269_41361685_1_1_1_37417,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/21/0,3343,en_2649_34269_41361685_1_1_1_37417,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/27/0,3343,en_2649_33931_40110299_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/27/0,3343,en_2649_33931_40110299_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://www.oecd.org/document/27/0,3343,en_2649_33931_40110299_1_1_1_1,00.htmlhttp://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/63/4/339.abstracthttp://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/63/4/339.abstracthttp://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/63/4/339.abstracthttp://rsnr.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/63/4/339.abstracthttp://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=djgO_Thn6dUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=saxenian+new+argonauts&ots=duh9iQRgl6&sig=p_uRFd2g5P_6HA7MP-mDwMNrJwQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=djgO_Thn6dUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=saxenian+new+argonauts&ots=duh9iQRgl6&sig=p_uRFd2g5P_6HA7MP-mDwMNrJwQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=djgO_Thn6dUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=saxenian+new+argonauts&ots=duh9iQRgl6&sig=p_uRFd2g5P_6HA7MP-mDwMNrJwQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://www.gov.cnhttp://www.gov.cn/english/2010-06/07/content_1622015.htmhttp://www.gov.cn/english/2010-06/07/content_1622015.htmhttp://www.gov.cn/english/2010-06/07/content_1622015.htmhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-06/07/content_9940774.htmhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-06/07/content_9940774.htmhttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.demos.co.uk/publications/atlasindiahttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/ecuador-opens-its-doors-to-senior-scientists.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/ecuador-opens-its-doors-to-senior-scientists.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/ecuador-opens-its-doors-to-senior-scientists.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/ecuador-opens-its-doors-to-senior-scientists.htmlhttp://www.scidev.net/en/news/ecuador-opens-its-doors-to-senior-scientists.html


PART1


Inrealit

knowledge, networks and nations - royal society · founded in 1660, the royal society is the...

Documents