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or several years I have explored the creative pro-cesses of mask makers representing diverse cul-tures and value systems. I have also focused on

the cultural significance of their masks when used in theatricaland dance performances; tribal rites-of-passage and festivals(presented as performances); and carnival pageants.

Eventually my quest led to Africa where for millenniaMid-twentieth-century mask makers have contributed to the power of masked per-

Nigerian Epa mask. formance. African mask makers have also influenced modernartistic achievements. In his book, Great Masks, Bihalji-Merin

THEATRE DESIGN & TECHNOLOGYW I N T E R208 41

M1I-E'

quotes Picasso: "Men had made those masks and other objectsfor a sacred purpose, a magic purpose, as a kind of mediationbetween themselves and the unknown hostile forces that sur-rounded them, in order to overcome their fear and horror bygiving them form and an image. At that moment I realized thatthis was what painting was all about. Painting is not an aestheticoperation: it is a form of magic designed as a mediator betweenthis strange, hostile world and us, a way of seizing the power bygiving form to our terrors as well as our desires. When I cameto that realization, I knew I had found my way" (Bihalji-Merin1970, 179).

Later Bihalji-Merin refers to the "central regions impor-tant in the world of masks; those of the West African cultural

groupings, from Ghana to Angola"and to "African masked dancerswho take part in funeral, fertilityand initiation festivities, represent-ing punitive and regulating powers."Traditional African conceptualiza-tions used in creating masks for Af-rican performance have influencednumerous other twentieth-centuryWestern artists such as Modigliani,Paul Klee, Eduardo Paolozzi, and

0 -Henry Moore (Bihalji-Merin 1970,44-5). Plays currently producedin the United States such as AugustWilson's Gem of the Ocean and Ju-lie Taymor's Lion King incorporatesignificant aspects of African maskedperformance.

But just as Western culturehas been influenced by African art,African communities have been in-fluenced by the West in terms ofeducation and Western (as well as

Islamic) myths. Today, Nigerian citizens encounter Western aes-thetic and value systems more often than they did one hundredyears ago. How does this situation influence their traditionalmasked performance festivals? Ultimately, what challenges domask makers confront in the midst of such dramatic culturalchange and what insights into traditional African mask mak-ing can contemporary Nigerian mask makers teach us?

I first decided to visit and interview mask makers inNigeria after seeing Ojetunji Ojeyemi's magnificent Egun-gun masquerade at the 2005 International Mask Confer-ence at the University of Southern Illinois, Carbondale.My review of that event, published in the spring 2006 is-sue of TD&T, described him as a Nigerian performer who"held the audience spellbound with the rhythmic drum-ming, music, and masked dance of a typical Yoruba ances-tral (Egungun) masquerade. Ojetunji (or Tunji as he callshimself) paraded onto the university's stage to prophesy,pontificate, admonish, and inspire the surrounding village

people. Some were members of the audience who cameon stage to participate" (Bell 2006, 42-3). Apart from hisextensive experience as a masked performer, Tunji also de-signs and makes masks, though he focuses primarily onperformance. He is a professor at Obafemi Awolowo Uni-versity, where he teaches performance techniques, dance,and choreography. He is also artistic director of a profes-sional dance troupe, located in the city of Ile-Ife, the cradleof Yornba culture.

Masquerade in NigeriaWesterners tend to think of masquerade as a rather shallowevent, usually involving stately moving celebrities on paradefloats; or blandly waving cartoon characters at Disney World.Conversely, the Egungun masquerade, like the one Tanji pre-sented in Illinois, involves serious spiritual emphasis on therealm of the dead. Unlike Western presentational forms ofstaged expression, some African rituals (while not as pre-dominant as originally assumed) require the mask to take onthe spirit/character that it evokes during the performance rite(Pernet 1992, 117-35). At this point, the mask becomes "alive"not sýymbolically, but literally. The Egungun masks conjure an-cestral spirits and Egungun performers talk about the spirit ofthe dead literally inhabiting their bodies when masked. WhileEgunguns are rarely sinister, they carry such profound secretsthat audience members maintain respectful distances. Tradi-tionally, women are forbidden to either create or touch suchforms, either in the act of making the mask or in performance,although some women, if they belong to the appropriate cult,can attend ceremonial performances.

Ibnji and several other Nigerians I interviewed insistedthat this concept does not denigrate women. After all, Yorubawomen have their own masked spectacle in the form of theGOlWdd masquerades, which acknowledge their own impres-sive powers. (Albeit the masquerades are performed by malemasqueraders.) The Yoruba communities consider womenessentially separate but equal in terms of their own capabili-ties (Ojeyemi/ Oguaneyemi, 2006). Pernet in his book RitualAMasks describes the G6l1d6 Festival as "honoring [Yoruba]mothers. It publicly recognizes the power of women (oldwomen, ancestresses, or deified women), not only their cre-ative power but also their secret and destructive power whichexpresses itself in witchcraft. The participants aim then at con-ciliation between [Yoruba] mothers and the witches (Qje) sothat they will use their powers for good rather than the destruc-tion of the community' (Pernet 1992 Dead, 64). Beckwith andFisher describe this ritual more specifically as one where "theobjective is to identify and eliminate the negative aspects of fe-male power and replace them with the more benevolent themesof fecundity, maternity, and well-being" (Beckwith 1999, 119).

Furthermore, the annual Osun Festival in Osogbo cel-ebrates the feminine, fertile, and creative powers of Osun, animportant Yoruba biisa. The term, 6iisd, helps to explain theessential purpose and functions of Yoruba masks. Occasion-

THEATRE DESIGNl & TECHINOLOGYaW I N T E R 2008I

ally considered a god, an 6riise more specifically refers to aspiritual aid who serves to promote better understanding of theomniscient god, Olodumare. This is similar to the way spiritualaids such as the Virgin Mary or Jesus Christ help to reveal theChristian god (Ajani, 26 July 2006).

My excellent and resourceful Nigerian guide, Adigun Ajani(an authority on Yoruba myth, former museum curator, and es-teemed artist in the Osogbo community), underscored this ideaof an abiding Yoruba respect for female capacities with a leg-endary story. He explained that "Orunmila (6risit of divination)once reported to Olodumare (God) that several of the majormale bisdts, such as Sango (Mr?sa of thunder), Esu (trickster)ris,i of checks and balances), Obaluaye (brfsii responsible ofdisease), Oro (&Wrse of secrets) and especially Ogun (brisit ofiron and war), could not create wealth. Olodumare asked whythey did not bring along Osun (the female bris,4 of fertility andcreation). Olodumare, in his wisdom knew that unless she wasinvolved as a primary female force, they could never be suc-cessful" (Ajani, 4 August 2006).

Ojetunji (Tunji) OjeyemiMask Maker/Performer

Tunji participated extensively in Egungun masquerades as ayoung audience member and later as a mask maker and Egun-gun performer. The son of a Nigerian chief and born into thelineage of the Oje (traditional Yoruba cult of masquerades),Tanji was initiated into the guild of mask dancers and acrobaticperformers at the age of six. He has since been a pivotal pres-ence in annual Nigerian Egungun festivals.

Yet other mask makers I had interviewed in Osogbo ex-pressed anxiety regarding how they might continue to createsuch elaborately detailed and specifically relevant masks formasqueraders like Tbnji when Yornba values and style are in-creasingly diluted in the midst of encroaching Christian andMuslim influences. West African masks require specializedskill even as they demand significant understanding of ancientspiritual beliefs that have unified the Yoruba community duringcenturies of economic, social, and political challenges.

Ironically, cultural leaders throughout southwestern Nige-rian communities strive to maintain the sanctity of their spiri-tual rituals and masked performances associated with Yornbatraditions by also allowing tourism to help support their con-tinuation. This struggle continues anywhere in the world whereethnic tradition increasingly confront the invading, diluting ef-fects of th vast global information highway. Consequently, tra-ditional Yoruba masked performance tradition seems at risk,unless the Yoruba spiritual foundations are maintained andperpetuated. Currently these foundations confront a criticalshift in the history of Yoruba culture.

Tanji poignantly described his contemporary Nigerianyearning to maintain Yoruba myth and ritual as he introducedme to the world of Egungun masks and insisted that we cannottake masks for granted; they function only when people holdgreat spiritual beliefs, allowing the masks to harness significant

power (Ojeyemi, Ojetunji 2006.) "An Egungun in a traditionalperformance can project humorous admonishments whilealso teaching important wisdom from the ancestors," Thnji ex-plained. "Yet some masqueraders today are very old and fearful.We call this kind of masqueraderAlagbo who can also performmiraculous healing as a babalhiwo (an herbalist/diviner withpowers similar to those possessed by shamans or medicinemen). These performers are so powerful they sometimes havebees around them! Traditional Egungun masqueraders such asthese can use chanting and medicine to test each other in acompetitive way."

He described a typical Egungun ceremony which occursbetween the third and seventh days before the actual burial."Several days after death, the Egungun as the spirit of the de-ceased will come to visit." (The Egungun masquerade does notallow any visible skin of the masquerader. Gloves and leggings

An Egungun from Adigun Ajani's childhood home in Ogbomosoin Oyo State. Note the figure of another mask on top of theEgungun mask that covers the Egungun performer's face.Frequently one can see additional totems such as animals, birds,or humans on top of African masks from numerous regions. Thesefigures often refer to the anthropomorphic power of animals(and also as ancestors to humans) though John Mason suggeststhat Catholic statues may also have been transformed into masks/costumes for the 6ris. (Mason 1994, 241)

THEATRE DESIGN8 & TECHN---OLOGYWEIN T E R 2008 ~--- - -- ~-~~ 43

complete a hugely proportioned masked figure.) "During thisgrieving period, the deceased's children will pray and ask theEgungun for blessings. Traditionally Egunguns speak incoher-ently but the elders understand what they say. After visiting, theEgungun will disappear, leaving the deceased's family membersand friends crving."

"My father would take me to these rituals and we wouldhear the voice of the deceased coming from a calabash after itwas hit three times. People would run and scatter. The clothused for burying the deceased would fly and disappear on thethird day. I saw this happen three times in my childhood," re-called Tunji. "On the seventh day the elders would preparesacrifices and feasts early in the morning and then would meet

the Egungun, who came dressedin fabric worn by the deceased aswell as other fabric pieces worn byclose relatives or fabrics speciallyimported because of their beauty.Afterwards the elders would tell thesmall children to go away, The elders

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a teacher. He often stated it to my family and directly to me. Hewas highly disciplined and during my training as a dancer hewould have me do tie same technique repeatedly to perfect itto the point that I would cry. My father was a great dancer andI inherited his skills and improved on them. He is dead since1999," Tunji said. "But when I want to talk with him I put onhis cap when I sleep and by 2 am I'm connected to him. If Iperform in his Egungun mask and costume and make somerituals, I talk to him and I hear his voice.

"My last performance with him was broadcast by the Lon-don BBC at the Egungun Festival in Gbongan. I involved my fa-ther in this event, and we went in front of the old palace. As wearrived, the weather changed into rain. My father stepped outand conjured the sun to return. During this particular part ofthe event, my masquerade had evolved into a tiger, and I went tothe top of the palace roof which was two stories high. I knew Ineeded to complete the performance by 'flying' down from thebuilding but I had lost courage. My father got up and raised hishand with the drummers. My ears were blocked and I couldn'thear the drums; I heard only my father's voice chanting that Iwould be light like cotton wool. I found myself suddenly safelyon the ground, and people were shouting in amazement. Onthat day, my wife exclaimed that she had married a spirit. But itwas my father's spirit that sustained me.

"You don't joke with this profession. Some of our mas-querades are fake, but when you encounter the power of yourancestors you seriously need to be prepared." He concludedwith the following affirmation: "I am an educated profes-sional in the modern world and I am a political activist likemy father. I lead a contemporary human rights organizationcalled Campaign for Democracy and Human Rights. Yet, I stillrespect and believe in our traditions. I still sacrifice to myfather. I know my father still loves me and is always be-hind me. Every year I kill the goat and commune with him.If I am confused or if someone is sick, I cover that per-son with the Egungun mask and the person will be healedquickly. No one can steal my most valued possessions inmy bedroom because I keep the Egungun mask high in mywardrobe closet. No thief dares to enter" (Ojeyemi, Oje-tunji 2006).

Michael Harris underscores Tunji's vivid description ofthe fundamental intersections of contemporary Yoruba cul-ture and its "moral imperatives" with artistic effort in his1991 interview with another professor, Moyosore Okediji,also at Obafemi Awolowo University. In this interview, Okedi-ji states that "I am trying to do exactly what the traditionalcarver is trying to do... . [T]he secularization of society hasshifted the role of the artist in one sense, likening it to thework of a psychiatrist ... and in another sense the artist hassome of the obligations of a priest, because if you considerany religion, the vehicle has always been art, whether poetry,or very good prose, or music, or visual art." Harris adds, "InYoruba culture, this would also include the drama of ritualperformance" (Harris 1994, 202-3).

THEATRE DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY44 --- _-•-.... W I N T E R 2008

proceeded to hold a cock behindthe Egungun, close their eyes whenpresenting the gift, and the Egungunwould take it and disappear.

"Nigerian women understandthat when they hear the sound of anapproaching Egungun, they shouldlook downward at least until the

* -Egungun changes into a female char-acter," he said. "Once in 1993 whenI was performing the Egungun cer-emony with women in the audience,I felt very strange both physically andemotionally. Suddenly I rememberedthat before he died my father hadwarned me that one of the charms I

would inherit for the Egungun costume was especially potentand I should not use it in the presence of women. While I wasperforming in this Egungun disguise, I was linked to the ances-tral god and I realized that I had neglected to remove the charmwhich was placed inside the costume. Something very serioushappened to me, especially after I became a female versionof the ancestral god. In the presence of the dancing womenaround me I could not focus and became physically drained.I walked away briefly from the performance site to remove thecharm-and then I felt okay, but I am convinced I could havebeen seriously harmed if I had continued to wear it in front oftie women."

Tunji's close relationslhip with his father expresses muchof the underlying rationale for the Yoruba propensity to main-tain and champion the art and rituals associated with Egungunmasquerade. Ancestor worship runs deep in the undercurrentsof the religion and social structure. "Early on as a child, myfather foretold that I would make my career as a dancer and as

Agbede AdebisiBrass Egungun Masks

Another mask maker, Agbede Adebisi, specializes in the cre-ation of masks rather than in masked performance. Agbede'sbrass Egungun masks are renowned throughout the region. Hisgrandfather's masks have found their way into major Europeancollections.

Like many mask makers worldwide, Agbede learned hiscraft from his father, beginning at the age of twelve. He cre-ates his brass sculptures utilizing the traditional "lost wax"process with nineteenth century bellows and kilns. Special redclay from Benin called anzo pupe takes three days to hardenas a negative image covering the positive beeswax image of themask anderneath. After the clay dries, it is placed over a veryhot fire sustained with charcoal. The wax melts and he poursthe melted brass inside the clay mold. When it cools, Agbedebreaks the clay to retrieve the brass form. It can take as long asthree weeks to create an Egungun mask using brass features.His family usually helps to build the accompanying costumecreated out of strips of cloth worn by the deceased and his an-cestors or other deceased family members.

Agbede's masks are in high demand. "Occasionally," helaments, "they are stolen to sell to Europeans or other foreign-ers," though the need to make replacements keeps him active

and financially solvent. (I was surprised to learn that Egungunmasks actually could be stolen, in spite of Thnji's belief thatEgungun masks served as protection for all other valuablesnearby.)

His own family Egungun mask incorporates strips of hislate father's wearing apparel as well as metallic cloth previouslyworn by his late mother. In accordance with tradition, his Egun-gun mask is reverently stored in the attic of his home or residesin the highest place within the highest room in his home. Hisgreatest challenge comes Nvhen attempting to acquire appropri-ate materials. The brass is very expensive and sometimes hemust compromise by mixing lead with it. Only the clay fromBenin works best to create the molds (Adebisi 2006).

Kolawale AdeolaMasks for Epa Masquerade

The gregarious and quick-witted Kolawole Adeola, who callshimself Kola, specializes in Epa masks for the Yam festivals, Owimasks that appear at night during funerals, and G&Whdd maskshonoring women in G61Wdd celebrations, as well as Egungunmasks. He belongs to the 6gb6ni Secret Society, which paysspecial homage to Obegi, the spirits representing twins, whoare believed to have the power to create good fortune andhealth. Often the masks for this secret society are metal andnot necessarily worn on the head. They can serve as a heraldicdevice, carried or worn in front of the torso. Participants canbang on them (like a gong). Masks used by this secret societyfeature arms folded across the chest with fists aligned.

The Obegi twvin figures frequently adorn the Epa masks foruse during masquerades at the Yam festivals. The Epa maskshelp to promote the male/female MrisA spirit for agriculture,ensuring a good harvest and commercial success. The masksoften combine male/female components, such as a high maskof a woman with a male face, and they are frequently worn over

/Ayue.u I /AUINI VVUdItIly Ill In,ic-III Ilyb ryUIt1UII

mask and costume.

THEATRE DESIGN & TECHNOLOGYW I N T E R 2008 F . .. 45

Kola Adeola's (gb6ni Secret Society "iron mask" worn bychains at the torso. The mask makes noise when poundedupon like a drum.

The new chief wears this style of mask during the coronationceremony when he takes on his new responsibilities in thecommunity. The ceremony celebrates the wisdom of thedeparting chief while also celebrating the potential of thenew chief. This unfinished mask would eventually have indigoblue hair highlights and scarring, white teeth and cheekscarring, and deep red lips and skin (created by scrapingpowder from red rock in Benin, mixing it with glue, andapplying the mixture).

46THEATRE DESIGN & TECHNOLOGYIwiN-rER20

the head, or on top of the head over a cloth roll. "When I cre-ate an Epa mask, I usually follow the instructions of my clientswhile striving to achieve a sense of Yoruba style," Kola says."My masks have both spiritual and commercial dimensions,and my non-commissioned masks sell very quickly. It is dif-ficult to maintain a supply of new masks for sale."

Kola believes that his great-grandfather inspired him in histraining, even though his father actually taught him how to carve."Early on, I had no job, and poverty encouraged me to seriouslytrain for this profession. But my great-grandfather's masks werebeautiful and famous. Often people would ask me to replacethem after termites had destroyed them. So I learned at an earlyage how to appreciate the act of copying fine work to the best ofmy ability, and this training provided a solid foundation for ex-cellence as I developed my own abilities to create more originalwork that comes from my heart. Now I rarely work for money. Ican afford to work for God because my successful masks createsufficient income to care for my family. But if I need inspiration,I don't go to books or pictures. I have all the inspiration I needwhen I remember the masks of my father, my grandfather, andgreat-grandfather. Then I go directly to the wood to be carved,and I see my head [mask] in the bush [forest]."

Kola described important considerations for his masks,such as the necessity to use appropriately aged wood: hardenough but not dead. The wood must cure for three monthsor the mask may eventually crack. He always guarantees hiswork by using appropriate wood. Kola also prefers symmetryin his masks and spends time standing above them and lookingat them upside down to help achieve that symmetry. Nigerianmasks can occasionally have a double series of four "beads"on the forehead area (although the number of beads and thepattern of them vary significantly as an in-depth exploration ofthese masks reveals). He explained that his beads signify powerat the head (mask), with the fourth row signifying a "fourthdimension" which aims for balance in the midst of power. Ifound myself wondering why the world's military uniforms orgovernment and corporate business regalia have not yet ad-opted versions of this symbol.

Kola thinks that he does his best work in the early morn-ing hours. "I need to get up early and drive far away into thebush, away from noisy cars and away from my children de-manding biscuits!" he laughs. "For me, 8 to 10 a.m. is the idealtime to carve the head. My brain is cold and fresh and I canfully concentrate. I also prefer to do important finishing workat this time."

The challenges he faces as a mask maker seem daunting."Too often we are forgotten in the bush," he says. "Too oftenour ancestors are forgotten. There is very little patronage now-adays. I make a decent living but many do not. Nigeria does notgenerally promote the carver as an artist and is not inclined topromote African heritage to the extent that it needs promoting.Prominent mask makers from the past are in museums, but the

world seems to show little interest in the current generation,which seems less likely to stand on accomplishments of ourancestors. Our children don't see the value of carving withoutproper promotion. Also we mask makers generally lack ap-propriate documentation. We generally lack good cameras toprotect and record what we are doing" (Adeola 2006).

Behalji-Merin reminds us that earlier cultures worldwidesupported the mask maker with dignity and privileges. "...[T]he creator of the masks belonged to an elite [group] anddid not have to go to war or to the hunt. Thus gods protectedthose who gave them form. The mask maker worked in secret,in the tranquility of the forest. He was given much time in orderto create in deep concentration figures of ancestors, fetishes,and masks. His work served the good ofthe community" (Behalji-Merin 1970,47). Today most people view the contem-porary traditional mask maker's workwith a curious sense of ambivalence, notonly in Kola's West African region but alsoin most regions of the world.

Agebike OguneyemiIron Masks

Agebike Oguneyemi, a blacksmith inthe community, has specialized in metalmasks, though not as frequently as he usedto. He has created metal masks from verythick concentrations of iron as well as fromlight weights of iron. "I have my health (ablacksmith needs strength), appropriate

The name of this Epa mask is Ejio from the area known as Aree Afao Ekiti in the Ekiti Kingdom. The originalwas carved by Kola's grandfather about 90 years ago, when his father worked alongside prominent carvers likeObembe Ologunde from Ilesa, Agbonbiofe from Efon Alaye, and Oyemolatiran Olayanju from Owo in Ondo State.The original had been eaten up by ants. The king of Aree Afao Ekiti asked Kola to repair it. He has copied severalmasks like this one for important royal members of the Yoruba community.

The multiple mask is fixed on the head of the masquerader, who can see from the hole of the mouth of the frontview. This front mask depicts the &rWsi Orunmila while the back mask depicts the 6ris6 Obatala, who serves as theprotection from the rear in case of any attack. The carved out portion of the masks has the head shape of themasquerader who must eventually carry it when dancing.

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tools, and an abundance of iron, but my greatest challenge isaccepting the need to stop working when the sun goes down.I lack electricity, you see, so everything must stop. I have been

• • •:•:i::::i:!.•iI! •ia blacksmith for over fifty years. My forefathers were all black-

smiths. I've created many iron masks as a blacksmith. Yet noneof my children seems interested in pursuing a career in myprofession. They seem too impatient to tolerate the heat fr-omthe fire and the physical endurance required for a fine finishedproduct."

Agebike uses the nineteeth century bellows to maintainhigh heat for his fires and always pounds the metal in the man-ner of talking-drum praises (orfk) for Ogun (brisei of iron"and war) when lie works. "That way, Ogun will come down and

.... support the job." he says. "I take a lot of time to get it exactlyright. But I never chant negatively or curse. When I'm finished Icall another person to see it. If the person can say exactlywhichMsa the mask signifies, I know that it is successful. For me,that is the ultimate test." He considers himself an Ogun devo-tee, and he reminded me that during a crisis, Ogun devoteesmeditate on the machete symbol in order to discover the truth."If the mask is wrong, it needs to be destroyed and re-created,"he concludes (Oguneyemi 2006).

Kasali Akangbe OgunMask Carvings

I met Kasali Akangbe Ogun (not an Ogun devotee though hislate father was a committed Ogun worshiper) at his studionear the Osun grove. Of all the mask makers I interviewedin Osogbo, lie probably has the most extensive internationalreputation. He has exhibited his masks and other wood carv-ings in London and the Edinburgh Festival; Hamburg andBayreuth, Germany; the National Black Theatre in Harlem;the University of Iowa: institutions in Austria and France;

Adigun Ajani's sculpture ofOgun with horns as machetes,as described by Agebike.

Agebike's metal masks have beenused in commercial masqueradecelebrations. He uses nineteeth-

century blacksmith tools shown hereat his studio. He pounds the metal

to the beat of talking drum praises. 5__ _.___ __ __

THEATRE DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY48 W I N T E R 200) 8

An example of the roof that Kasalihas created at various shrines inNigeria. This one is at the Osun grovenear the banks of the river where theannual Osun Festival takes place.

Kasali's completedmask. The mask with

colorful background isOsun (6risA of fertility :

and prosperity)M

and numerous sites in Lagos and Osogbo. He also repre-sented Africa at an international symposium in Germanywith other renowned wood carvers from New Zealand, Indo-nesia, Canada, and Italy (Akangbe Ogun 2006).

Kasali acknowledged that he first received strong encour-agement from the European Suzanne Wenger, who came toOsogbo in the early 1950s. She has been a cultural advocatefor Yoruba art and artists since her arrival and has attractedinternational interest in the sacred Osun grove by encourag-ing a wide range of talented blacksmiths, stone cutters, andwood carvers in the Osogbo area to create numerous impres-sive shrines dedicated to the brisits, particularly Osun. Theseshrines and sculptures evoke exceptional archaic power andfeeling. Kasali thinks that perhaps some of the international at-tention his mask work has received evolved from the attentionbrought from abroad in response to Wenger's artistic revitaliza-

M Kasali at work at his open air studio.

tion of traditional arts at the Osun grove. No doubt Kasali's ironwork there-particularly his stunning roofs and pillars- re-ceived recognition. He created similar architectural pieces inother areas of Nigeria

Kasali's wood carving emphasizes ancestral symbols orfigures of Yoruba brisds. He allowed me to spend a Sundaymorning at his studio, watching him begin a huge mask, start-ing with a very old tree trunk. The photo above, showing him atwork, reveals the physical prowess necessary to achieve workon such a grand scale.

During Kasali's demonstration, he pointed to three cuttrunks of trees near his studio and said, "I use "omo" wood(similar to mahogany) and prefer to have the trunks cure forseven years. I then take away the bad bark and work with woodthat may have lived for several centuries under the right condi-tions." He cut the trunk vertically in half. He began his carv-

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Like so many Nigerian mask carvers, Abesu Rabiuprepares to work by first paying homage to those whohave done the work before him. "I then produce thework in my imagination. When I see the wood before me,something tells me how to continue. The more I do thework, the more imagination and inspiration come." Whilehe has not created masks recently, the faces on the drumsin this photograph carved by Abesu reflect his style.

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ing by paying homage to his ancestors and other divinities. Thecompleted carving (which I did not see in such a brief timeperiod) would eventually take an oil polish that darkens thecolor and makes it termite-proof. "I look forward to the futurewhen my masks will inspire one of my children to do the kindof work I leave behind. I dislike selling my work and only do itto feed my children," he said.

"A successful mask must show strength, and the elementswithin and around the mask must tell stories," he continued."The work needs integrity combined with beauty suitable forshowing its odu or ideal spirit. The mask must be frank andyet dynamic. I'm not talking necessarily about scale, but it musthave a strong, dynamic face. The carving must be led by Olodu-mare just as one's life is led by Olodumare" (Akangbe Ogun2006). (Robert Pirsig offers similar advice for achieving highquality artistic effort in Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Main-tenance: "You've got to live right too. It's the way you live thatpredisposes you to avoid the traps and see the right facts. Youwant to know how to paint a perfect painting? It's easy. Makeyourself perfect and then just paint naturally" (Pirsig 1974,293).

Gabriel Akanbi Dada in his studio (below)and two of his masks (right).

THEATRE DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY•50 I N T E R 2008

Yoruba InspirationMasks from Nature and the brisas

My guide Adigun Ajani explained that the 6rlsiis demand wor-ship since they aid mankind in understanding the ultimate di-vinity in all aspects of life on earth. To worship them is to worshipthe heads (iboii) in ritual. "To worship the heads" is the same asworshiping 6isis. The heads are often symbolized by "masks"that represent each brfsat, who then inhabits the head/mask andmakes it come to life. "frist wants his devotees to visit him buthe can't be seen, so he prefers to put on the masks to relate bet-ter to each other," he said. "Each brfis touches the hem of thegarment of eternity" (Ajani 4 August 2006).

Adigun introduced me to a revered babaliwo (herbal-ist/shaman) named Sangodare Gbadegesin Ajala who addedthat because of his extensive training during his childhood hecan identify two hundred-fifty-six faces that appear in nature intrees, rivers, mountains, etc. He suggested that these naturalstates of being (as well as 6rfs&s) become the inspiration forthe Yoruba masks (Ajala 2006).

All masks are sacred, but perhaps the most sacred arethe otonporo masks used to protect Osun in her grove by theriver. Adigun explained that the masks are very old, created bythe ancestors, and annually washed with spiritual leaves andherbs in preparation for the Osun Festival. "You can't make a

The inspiration for Yoruba masks isevident in this "mask-like" sculptureby Adigun Ajani. It evokes the Obatala6risi, responsible for intelligence anddestiny.

Osun priestess,Dyabo Osun Yemi.

A virgin Osundevotee slowly

carries a coveredcalabash of sacred

otonporo masksfrom the center oftown down to theriver bank for the

2006 Osun Festival.

Mask carvers Olurotimi Taiwo and Olowolafe Ruffus, who have worked as partners forseveral years specializing in Epa masks, stated, "Successful masks must have good de-sign and came from imagination with purpose. The bad ones cause sadness and mustbe thrown away." They are shown with work for on Epa Festival.

THEATRE DESIGN & TECHNOLOGYW I N T E R 200 8 1 .. ......... . .. -. . . . . . .. 51

Celebrants at the Osun Festival rituals on thebanks of the river.

god without shedding blood [that is, one cannot experience theconcept of eternal divinity without the experience of loss anddeath], so during the annual purification process, the masksare also cleansed with the blood of animal sacrifices," Adigunadded. "These masks are so sacred, only an intimate circle ofpriests ever sees them" (Ajani 4 August 2006).

Adigun introduced me to an Osun priestess, Oyabo OsunYemi, who annually helps to prepare the Osun shrines for theFestival. She acknowledged that only priests can cleanse theotonporo masks. "I don't mind that I'm not allowed to see themasks," she said. "Women must not see God. I have natural,intuitive feelings toward my obligations as a priestess of Osun,and that is sufficient for me. Osun reveals herself to me when Idivine truths as I carry out my rituals" (Yemi 2006).

On the final day of the Osun Festival a virgin carries theotonporo masks to the river bank inside a covered calabash toprotect Osun and her creative spirit. The covered calabash ofsacred unseen masks rests on the river bank during the culmina-tion of the Festival while a variety of non-sacred, commercially-based masqueraders celebrate the benefits of Osun's constantrestorative powers in a more raucous, carnivalesque way.

Adigun explained that Osun's feminine powers are univer-sal and magnificent. "Osun is alvays accompanied by water,and water can overcome fire. The fiery, angry spirits are sub-dued by Osun. She is sensitive and is always ready to marryany other brisý. She has many husbands, including potentiallythreatening brisWts such as Sango (thunder and lighting), Obat-ala (intelligence and destiny), and Ogun (iron and war). Thisexplains why many other bristý carvings surround her in hergrove and why she often serves to balance the other bristis'deep-seated urges to control. Consequently anyone wishing tounderstand Yoruba myth and masks should come to the Osungrove first" (Ajani 4 August 2006).

Contemporary Yoruba theatrical ritual celebrations in-volving the ancestors, women, commerce, or rebirth continuenot only in Nigeria, but also in areas of Brazil, Cuba, and Haitiwhere Yoruba slaves were brought in earlier centuries. Evenafter an extensive passage of time, the masks and celebrationsbeyond Nigeria uncannily resemble those of the motherland.And Yoruba mask makers in Osogbo and Ile-Ife, Nigeria (atleast a select minority) still beckon and cajole the Egungun,Gl66d, Epa, Osun, and other brist! spirits to life. Only Olodu-mare knows how long future mask makers will continue in theYoruba tradition when confronted by so many contemporarydaily distractions from abroad as well as from within. ÷

Deborah Bell isprofessor of costume design atUniversity ofVorth Carolina at Greensboro. Last year shevisited several mask makers at the Samba Schools in Riodejaneiro as well as mask makers in Malawi and Nigeriawith support from a 2006 USHT grant. Her previous TD&Tarticle, "The fask Maker's Magic," received the 2006Herbert D. GreggsAAwardfor excellence in writing.

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Works CitedAdebisi, Agbede. 2006. Interview by author. 29

July.Adeola, Kolvale. 2006. Interview by author. 29

July.Ajala, Sangodare Gbadegesin. 2006. Interview

by author. 28 July.Ajani, Adigun. 2006. Interview by author. 26

July.Ajani, Adigun. 2006. Interview by author. 4

August.Akangbe Ogun, Kasali. 2006. Interview by the

author. 30 July.Beckwith, Carol and Angela Fisher. 1999. "Yo-

ruba Masquerade."African Ceremonies,Vol IL New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.

Bell, Deborah. 2006. "Masks of Transforma-tion." Theatre Design & Technology 42no. 2.

Bihalji-Merin. 1970. Great Masks. New York:Harry N. Abrams, Inc.

Dada, Gabriel Akanbi. 2006. Interview by au-thor. 3 August.

Harris, Michael. 1994. "Beyond Aesthetics:Visual Activism in Ile-Ife." The YorubaArtist. Washington D.C.: SmithsonianInstitution.

Mason,John. 1994. "Yoruba-American Art:New Rivers to Explore." The YorubaArt-ist. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institu-tion.

Oguneyemi, Agebike. 2006. Interview by au-thor. 31 July.

Ojeyemi, Ajani and Adeola Ogunneyemi. 2006.Interviews by author. 26July--2 August.

Ojeyemi, Ojetunji. 2006. Interview by author.2 August

Pernet, Henry. 1992. "From the Dead to Cos-mos." Ritual Masks, Deceptions andRevelations. Columbia: University ofSouth Carolina Press.

Pernet, Henry. 1992. "The Ritual Mask andIts Wearer." Ritual Masks, DeceptionsandRevelations. Columbia: University ofSouth Carolina Press.

Pirsig, Robert. 1974. Zen and theArt of-Mo-torcycleAMaintenance. New York. BantamBooks.

Rabiu, Abesu. 2006. Interview by author. 31July:

Taiwo, Olurotimi and Olowolafe Ruffus. Inter-view by author. 31 July.

Yemi, Oyabo Osun. 2006. Interview by author.4 August.

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TITLE: Mask Makers in Nigeria: Inspired by Yoruba TraditionsSOURCE: TD&T 44 no1 Wint 2008

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