kunene's shaka and the idea of the poet as teacher

8/3/2019 Kunene's Shaka and the Idea of the Poet as Teacher

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Kunene's Shaka and the Idea of thePoet as Teacher

J O H N H A Y N E S

I

I N A N E S S A Y P U B L I S H E D a year after th e E n g l i s h ve rs io n ofEmperor Shaka the Great, M a z i s i K u n e n e w r i t e s t h a t " C l a s s i c a lA f r i c a n l i t e ra tu re takes i t as i ts p r im ar y s tra tegy to b roa de n thebase of the characters t h r o u g h m y t h i f i c a t i o n a n d s y m b o l i s m "("Relevance" 2 0 0 ) . A s h e s ay s i n th e po e m i t se lf , " In d e e d ,art is ts embel l ish the ir past to inspire the ir ch i ldren" ( 16 6 ) . W h a tI w a n t to lo o k a t i s th e t re n d o f th i s m y th i f i c a t io n a n d e m be l l i s h m e n t . I n d o in g th i s I s h a l l n o t m a k e a n y c la im s a bo u t th ecapac i ty o f a poem to change people 's a t t i tudes or ac t ions , norw i l l I de a l w i t h th e w a y s i n w h i c h a po e m , as o ppo s e d to s om eo th e r g e n re , m ig h t a c h ie ve s u c h a g o a l . These are very vexedquest ions , ne i ther o f w h ic h has been tack l ed by A f r i c a n cr i t ics ,e ve n those w h o e m p h a s i z e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n artist 's role ofteacher. A l l I c a n c la im is th a t i f l i t e ra tu re c a n h a ve a n y be a r in gon po l i t i c a l o r s o c ia l c irc u m s ta n c e i t is l ike ly to be at t imes ofc r i s i s , s u c h a s w e s e e n o w in Ku n e n e ' s c o u n try , w h e n pe o ple c a nbe expected to re f lec t on the meaning of what they are doingan d s u f f e r in g . Y e t w e h a ve to re m e m be r th a t w h a t re ade rs ( o rhearers) take f r om a wo rk of ar t is a f fec ted by the a t t i tudes theyb r i n g to i t , and the social s tructures w i t h i n w h i c h i t i s e x p e r i enced the sch ool , the p ol i t ic a l party , ex i le , an d so on . I w i l lattempt , a t the end of th is account , to relate t h e i m p l i e d " t e a c h i n g " of Kunene 's poem to present events , but I cannot pretendto comment, s ince I do not have an yth ing l ike suf f ic ient k n o w l edge , no r ind eed suff icient experience . No netheless I hav e notbeen able to h id e a b ias towards the mo re ra d ica l ly soc ia l is t w i n gof the A N C .


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40 J O H N H A Y N E SI n wha t wa y s , t hen , i f a ny , m i g ht Emperor Shaka the Great

" i n s p i r e " its " c h i l d r e n , " m a n y o f w h o m l it e ra l ly " c h i l d r e n " a r e a l r ea d y p r a c t i ca l l y enm eshed i n p o l i t i ca l p r a x i s , hence i np o l i t i c a l ed uca t i on? K u n en e h i m se l f b e li ev es t ha t p oet r y sho ul dnot concern i t se l f w i t h i m m ed i a t e p r o t es t , b ut w i t h " l o n g - t e r mn a t i o n a l a n d s o c ia l g o a l s " ("Relevance" 191 ) . I t sh ou l d , i n o t herw o r d s , se t t he i m m ed i a t e i n a w i d e r p er sp ec ti v e , i n r e l a t i on t ot r a d i t i o n a l Z u l u , a n d A f r i c a n , v a l ues , a nd i n r e l a t i on t o t heancestors . One of these ancestors i s , o f course , Shaka himsel f .

I n l o o k i n g a t K u n e n e ' s i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f , m y t h i f i c a t i o n o f,S h a k a , I w i l l d i v i d e m y a ccount i n t o t wo p a r t s , a n a r t i f i c i a ldivis ion because t he t wo p a r t s ov er l a p a g ood d ea l . F i r s t I wa ntt o l ook a t S ha k a a s a n em b od i m ent o f a m od el Z u l u o r A f r i c a nl ea d er , the p ub l i c a n d p o l i t i c a l S h a k a ; t hen I wa nt t o sa y som et h i n g a b o u t K u n e n e ' s s t u d y o f S h a k a ' s m i n d , S h a k a t h e rejectedc h i l d , t he v u l ner a b l e m y st i c .

I IF o l l o w i n g the pract i ce , as he sees i t , o f " c lass ica l A f r i c a n l i t e r a t ur e , " K unene p r esent s a sy s t em a t i ca l l y s l a nt ed v i ew o f h i s p r o t a g onis t . I t is a n " A fr i c a n i s t " i n t er p r e t a t i on , as S l a t er ha s for ce fu l ly not ed i n h i s attack on t he h i s t or i og r a p hi ca l out l ook o f t hep o e m . K u n e n e h i g h l i g h t s S h a k a ' s i n d i v i d u a l g eni us , a nd wher ev erhe can , he denies accusat ions of bru ta l i ty an d b loodthirs t inessm a d e b y ea r l i e r com m ent a t or s , o r he d e f l ec t s t hem t o m a k eS ha k a ' s r o l e less b l a m e w o r t h y t h a n h a s u s u a l ly b e e n a s su m e d .T h u s he d enies tha t S ha k a w a s i l l eg i t i m a t e , t ha t he ha d a nyh a n d i n t h e c a p t u r e a n d k i l l i n g o f h i s m e n t o r , D i n g i s w a y o , t h a the p ut unp r od uc t i v e o l d m en t o d ea t h , t ha t he wa s r esp ons ib l efor the death of his hal f -brother , or for the massacres t ha tf o l l o w e d t he d ea t h o f h i s m ot her .I w i l l g i v e t wo exa m p l es o f t h i s excu l p a t or y t r end . T he f i r s t i sover the a l leged k i l l i n g o f h i s h a l f - b r o t h e r , S i g u j a n a , w h o mSha ka 's fa the r , Sen z an ga kh on a, h a d insta l led as his successor , a tleast i n O m e r - C o o p e r ' s a n d o t h e r v e r s i o n s . O m e r - C o o p e r w r i t e s :

Dingiswayo, anxious to confirm his authori ty over the Z u l u byestabl ishing his nominee as their chief , lent Shaka a regiment and


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T H E P O E T AS T E A C H E R 41

w i t h this assistance he was able to overcome his half-brother,S igujana , and put him to death. (30)T h e c o m m o n e r f o r m o f t h e s t o r y , w h i c h O m e r - C o o p e r is f o l l o w i n g , ha s i t t ha t S en z a ng a k h ona , S ha k a ' s na t u r a l fa t her , wa sp a r t i c u l a r l y a nxi ous t o k eep h i m o f f t he Z u l u t h r o n e , a n d s o h a dm a d e S i g u j a na h i s he i r . K u n en e a lt er s t h i s. H e p resents S i g u j a n aas a usu rper w h o has not been able to consol idate his po si t iona g a i ns t o t her c l a i m a nt s ; c i v i l wa r i s r a g i ng a nd S ha k a com es t osave a degenerat ing s i tuat ion on behal f of the Z u l u p eop l e .S h a k a 's a d v a n c i n g a r m y s i m p l y c om e s u p o n t h e co rp s e o f S i g u j a n a , " s t a b b e d i n b e t ween t he shoul d er b l a d es" ( 7 8 ) . S ha k a i sa b so l v ed a nd h i s ha l f - b r o t her fur t her cond em ned b y t he i m p l i c a t i o n t ha t , h a v i ng b een s ta b b ed i n t he b a ck , he wa s a cow a r d a n dso d o ub l y un w or t h y t o r u l e . A s i m i l a r r eca s t ing o f the ev ents o fearl ier versions occurs over the mass ki l l ings t ha t fo l l o w h ism o t h e r N a n d i ' s d e a t h . O t h e rs th a n S h a k a a re b l a m e d .

Tho se w ho bore ancient grudges against each otherN o w seized the moment to vent their revenge,C l a i m i n g to act in the king's name. (337)

A l t h o u g h there are except ions to this exculpatory t rend, forexa m p l e t he f r a nk tr ea t m ent o f t he i nc i d en t i n w h i c h S h a k a h a sa w o m a n ' s c h i l d r e m o v e d f r o m t h e w o m b , K u n e n e c e r t a i n l y d o e st end t o p r esent a n " ent i r e l y fa v our a b l e i m a g e o f S ha k a h i m se l f , "as Slater puts i t ( 1 0 ) . S l a ter 's c r i t i ci sm s concent r a t e on K un en e ' si d e o l o g i c a l v i e w p o i n t a n d s er ve t o h i g h l i g h t t h e " A f r i c a n i s th i s t o r i o g r a p h y " K u n e n e em b r a ces . S l a t er p o i nt s out t ha t S ha k a ' s" g en i u s" a n d inn ov a t i ons sho ul d not b e t a k en a s t he sour ce o fe ve ry th in g t h a t h a p p e n e d i n t h e M f e c a n e ; a n d h e p o i n t s t o t h ei m p o r t a n ce o f p o p u l a t i o n p ressure i n i ncr ea s i ng t he wa r l ik enesso f S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n p eop l es a t t h i s t i m e . K unene m ent i ons t h i st h eo r y i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n ( x i i - x i v ) , b u t h e d o es n o t b r i n g i t i n t ot h e p o e m , p r e s u m a b l y because his a ims are not p r i m a r i l y to g ivea r e a l is t ic a c c o u n t . W e h a v e t o u n d e r s t a n d h i m as d r a w i n g ap o r t r a i t o f a n i d e a l A f r i c a n r u l e r. A n d th is w i l l ob v i ous l y for e g r o u n d p er sona l qua l i t i es . I t a l so d r a ws on t r a d i t i ona l Z u l uconcep t s o f k i n g sh i p .


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42 J O H N H A Y N E ST h u s , w i t h i n the court c i rc le , Shaka i s shown as sensi t ive to

cr i t i c i s m, a n d d e m o c r a t ic , e x e m p l i f y i n g t h e p r o v e r b th a t " A ru l e ro nl y r u l e s t h r o u g h t h e p e o p l e " (163). T h e a c t u a l S h a k a seemst o ha v e a ch i ev ed such d om i na nce t hr oug h h i s cont r o l o f t he news t a n d i n g a r m y , h o w e v e r , t h a t p r o b a b l y h e r u l e d m u c h m o r e a u t o c ra t i c a l ly t h a n t h e p r o v e r b a l lo w s . K u n e n e m a k e s h i m p e r so n i fyth e v a lu e s d e sc rib e d b y G l u c k m a n , t h o u g h G l u c k m a n w a s c a r e f u lto note that these w er e i n t er n a l i ze d nor m s , no t necessa r il y a c t u a lp r a c t i c e . F o r K u n e n e t h e y a r e e x e m p l a r y a n d r e v e a l h o w t r a d i t i o n a l v a l ues a r e a lso " p r og r ess i v e" i n t he m od er n cont ext. T h ed em ocr a t i c S ha k a , fo r exa m p l e , i s r ev ea l ed i n t he passage w h e r eZ i h l a n d l o remonstrates w i t h h i m v er y f r a n k l y i n d e e d : " t h r o u g hhaste y o u v i o l a t e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e A s s e m b l y " (375). S h a k aaccepts th e p l a i n s p e a k in g as " p r o f o u n d t h o u g h t s " ( 3 7 6 ) a n da l t h o u g h he does not finally accept t he a d v i ce b e i ng o f fer edabo ut b at t le tact ics , he is sh ow n as ov er ru l in g Z i h l a n d l o on thebasis of greater w isd om an d af ter con side rat ion of a l ternat ives .T h i s i s an inte l lectual Shaka whose decis ions are presented asjus t i f ied b y c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d r e f l e c t i o n . K u n e n e m o v e s u s ag o o d wa y f r om t he i m p a t i ent t y r a nt o f t r a d er s ' a ccount s .

A n o t h e r " p r o g r e s s i v e " aspect of Sha ka 's ru le is his openness ton e w id e as a n d h i s d y n a m i c c o n c e p t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n . T o S e n z a n g a k ho na K u n e n e a t tr ib ut es t he e r roneous s ta t ic v i ew o f t r a d i t i o nby w h i c h " I t is on l y t he a ncest or s w h o k n ow ho w t o g u i d e u s"( 3 4 ) . N o , S h a k a sa ys , w e m u s t c o n t r o l o u r o w n fates a n d m a k eo u r o w n v a l u e s : " i n h u m a n a ff a ir s t h e re a r e n o e t e r n a l l a w s ;E a c h gen erat ion m akes a consensus of i ts o w n la w s" ( 55 ) . T h epresent i s a lw ays sovereign , to be gra sp ed ; t rad i t io n i s not thesame as custom.D esp i t e t h i s , a nd d esp i t e K unene ' s a p p a r ent l y i g nor i ng t hes t r i k i n g m o v e m e n t t o w a r d s m i l i t a r i s t i c v a lu e s i n Z u l u society atthe t ime, he assumes a basic Z u l u e t h i c , cont r a s t i ng Z u l u valuest h r o u g h S h a k a ' s w o r d s w i t h th os e o f t h e " W h i t e S t r a n g e r s " :" to them weal th far surpasses the bonds of k i n s h i p . / F r o m th isa l l thei r obsess ions or ig inate" ( 2 9 6 ) . T hi s a nd t he r e fer ence t orival ru lers i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a a s " b a n d i t s " b e t r a y s o m e Z u l uc h a u v i n i s m . But not r a c i sm . S ha k a i s a l so m a d e t o sa y o f K i n g ," I o f t en forg e t he is a for e i g ner or a w hi t e m a n " (407).


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T H E P O E T A S T E A C H E R 43A n o t h e r q u i t e m a r k e d m y t h i f i c a t i o n i s t h e i d e a that Sh a k a i s

a ve ry po pu la r l e a de r , e ve n th o u g h a l s o m u c h f e a re d . W i t h hisd e a t h , " T h e w h o l e Z u l u a r m y filled the reg ion w i t h t h e i r m o u r n in g s o n g s " (427), a l th o u g h m o s t o th e r accounts c l a i m thatthere was no very s trong reac t ion to Shaka's m u r d e r , i n p a r t i c u l a r n o t f r o m t h e a r m y w h i c h , r e t u r n i n g f r o m a f a i l e d m i s s i o n ,c o u l d expect the most severe p u n i s h m e n t ( O m e r - C o o p e r 4 2 ;Becker 7 2 ; T h o m p s o n 351 ) , though the logic of this is i m p l i c i t l yquest ioned in Plaatje's Mhudi (129). T h i s p o p u l a r i t y , a n dShaka's d e m o c r a c y w i t h i n the court c irc le , are to an extent c o n tradic ted by o ther passages, s u c h as " H e k n e w h e h a d f e w f r ie n dsw h o w o u l d speak w i t h o u t fear" ( 2 7 6 ) a n d " F o r those eager to bel o v e d n e ve r m a k e great r u l e r s " (251 ) , passages w h ic h , o f c o urse ,reflect w ha t must be a genuine co nf l ic t for a l l po pu l is t ru lers .

T h e r u l i n g class pe rs pe c t ive f ro m w h ic h Ku n e n e w r i te s i ss h o w n most c lear ly in what he chooses to descr ibe natura l is t ica l lya n d w h a t h e does n o t . F o r e x a m ple , before Shaka's i n a u g u r a t i o nwe are g iven a pic turesque image of the preparat ions :

Beautiful women of the land sat in the shade, braiding their hair .They reaped and crushed the fragrance of young scented flowers.They gossiped about their future in the king's household.Great processions gathered from all directions.R e d feathers quivered as the heroes hurried to the royal c i ty .(78)

T h e scene i s com plete an d i d y l l i c . T h e re is n o close focus on thela bo u r re q u i re d to gather a l l these f lowers nor on the rea l prospects of these y o u n g w o m e n a s m e m b e r s o f Shaka's seraglio each to become one of hundreds o f c lose ly watched "s is ters" w i t hn o pro spe c t o f n o rm a l f a m i ly o r s e x u a l l i f e , n o r o f ( s u rv iv in g )c h i l d r e n . " T h e i r f u t u r e i n t h e k i n g ' s h o u s e h o l d " leaves all this invagueness . T h e in co m in g so ldiers , too , are trea ted a t th is co m m e n ta ry -bo x d is ta n c e .

B y c o n tra st , Ku n e n e expresses ve ry s u bt ly a n d e c o n o m ic a l lythe tensions and readjustments o f po s i t io n in vo lve d in Shaka'snew reg ime, as i t affects those close t o h i m , w i t h N a n d i n o wt a k i n g the place o f h is aun t , M k h a b a y i , as f irst lad y . T h e tens ionsneed not be spelt out because they are there in the s i tuat ion , int h e f a m i l y , a n d k n o w n t o K u n e n e ' s l ike ly a u die n c e .


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44 J O H N H A Y N E SPrincess M k h a b a y i si lent ly entered the arena,W a l k i n g high l ike a c loud over the mountains .A s she came before the king she peered deep into his eyes.T h e I z i C w e r eg im ents wa t ched i n t ent ly f r om t he i r sem i -c i rc l epositions.Princess M k h a b a y i bowed low an d shouted the royal s a l u t e . . .She opened her lips as if to speakBu t she on ly gestured to N om ch ob o, d i rec t ing her eyes to N a n d i .

(78-79)H e r e , at the leve l of cou rt pol i t i cs , w e ha ve the c lose focus ofeyes m eet i n g ey es , t he uns p o k en r ea d j us t m ent s i n p o w er r e l a ti ons ,w h i c h p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n K u n e n e . B u t t h e r e i s n o v i e w f r o m" b e l o w , " n o f a i n t g r in s f r o m t h e t o u g h I z i C w e s o ld i er s atM k h a b a y i ' s r e g a l d i s c o m f i t u r e , n o c o m m o n e r s n u d g i n g e a c hot her , a l e r t t o the s l ig ht es t b e t r a y a l o f M k h a b a y i ' s r ea l f eel ing s ,a h a l f s t um b l e , t he q u i ck en i n g o f t he ey ela shes.

C o n n e c t e d to this b ias in focus i s Kunene 's t reatment of bat t lescenes. F o r a m a r t i a l e p i c Emperor Shaka the Great i s r e m a r k a b l y d i s t a nt i n i t s t r ea t m ent o f b a t t l e v i o l ence , K unene nev er getsd o w n t o the hor r o r s a s M of l o d oes, w i t h H o m e r i c i m p a c t :

he smashed the skull of one of them and his l i t t l e bra in fe l l out ,a n d he died b e l ch i ng l ike som eone who ha d d r unk t oo m uchbeer. That st ick, as i t came up, spl i t someone's c h i n apart so thathis jaws were separated and his tongue dangled in space.( M o f l o 32)

M o f l o p r es en ts S h a k a a s r u th le ss a n d b a r b a r i c , a n d h a d K u n e n ee m p h a s i z e d t h e v i o l e n c e i n t h is w a y , h e m i g h t h a v e r i s k e d f a l l i n gi n w i t h t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . B u t h i s c o m m e n t a r y b o x vi e w ofbatt les is , in a sense, ev a s i v e . H e nev er a t t em p t s t o p o r t r a y t hetension b et ween S ha k a ' s c r ea t i v i t y a n d h is d es t r uc ti v eness .

I l lK u n e n e ' s A f r i c a n i s t p e r s p e ct iv e m a y b e l o o k e d a t, f r o m o n e p o i n tof v i e w , as an at tempt to present his subject a s S h a k a h i m s e l fm a y h a v e p e r c e i v e d i t . W e a r e a s k e d t o enter i m a g i n a t i v e l y in t ohis m o r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l w o r l d as , to Sh ak a, i t ac tu al ly seemed tobe. In this sense K u n e n e is n a t u r a l i s t ic , a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e c o n sciousness of S h ak a a n d his peers . I t is no t su rp r is in g , therefore ,


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T H E P O E T A S T E A C H E R 45that K u n e n e s h o w s a p a r t i c u l a r interest i n , a n d s y m p a t h y f o r ,Sh a k a th e i n d i v i d u a l . W e c a n lo o k at h is ps y c h o lo gy f ro m tw opoints of v i e w . F i r s t there is the process of h is soc ia l iza t ion , thenthere i s Kunene 's presenta t ion o f h is deeper thoughts in h ismaturi ty , the vulnerable and a f fec t ive s ides o f h is nature w h i c hhave not been presented before in s u c h de ta i l , n o r s o c o m pe l -l i n g l y . W e h a v e seen h o w Ku n e n e te n ds to c le a r Sh a k a o f a l l e g a tions of cruelty and the perpetration of atrocit ies . Sometimes heretells the story, and at others he takes a n " u n d e r s t a n d i n g " v i e w ,see ing a part icu lar event i n ps y c h o lo g ic a l ra th e r th a n m o r a lterms. This i s part icu lar ly c lear in h is treatment of the inc identi n w h i c h Shaka has a foetus c u t f r o m t h e m o t h e r ' s w o m b . S h a k apresents th i s a s a pu n is h m e n t f o r th e w o m a n ' s i n f i d e l i t y , w h i c ht r a d i t i o n a l l y c a rr ie d th e de a th pe n a l ty . Sh a k a argues that sexualin f ide l i ty threatens the stabil i t y of the na tio n. H e dismisses theprotestation of the prosecutor that " th e n a t io n m a y be re pu ls e dat such an outrageous ac t" ( 194 ) o n th e g ro u n ds that s q u e a m -ishness i s a form of weakness and supers t i t ion : " I t i s throughs u c h fears people f a i l to execute j u s t ic e . " W h e n t h e m u t i l a t i o n isdo n e Ku n e n e tu rn s o u r a t te n t io n a t once from bo th th e a c tu a ldeta ils (not d escr ibed) an d the m or a l quest ion to th e m o m e n t o fmyst ica l ins ight i t a f fords Shaka :

M a n y looked in horror at the spectacle before themBut none dared show their feelings of terror . . .O n l y Shaka fo l lowed w i t h his eyes every detai l .F i n a l l y he said : " A t last I have seenH o w an infant l ies in i ts mother's womb."H e turned away and fel l into deep thought.H e wandered off, as if obsessed by some mysterious memory.

(194-95)S h a k a , t h e n , goes " b e y o n d g o o d a n d e v i l " i n a k i n d of ruthlessquest not rea l ly for justice bu t f o r a n in s ig h t in to th e f u n da m e n t a l s o f h u m a n existence a n d o r i g i n s . T h e passage reveals anin te l l e c tu a l k i n d of ruthlessness , but a lso a vulnerabi l i ty . Omer-C oo pe r makes the in s igh tfu l suggest ion that Shaka's a l leged k i l l in g of h is own c h i l d ( w h i c h h a d b e e n h i d d e n f r o m h i m b yN a n d i ) might have a psychologica l bas is , beyond the obviouspra c t i c a l c o n s ide ra t io n of e l im in a t in g f u tu re r iv a l s : "S h a k a a ls o


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46 J O H N H A Y N E Sm a y h a ve re g a rde d a c h i l d of h is as a reminder o f h is ownm o r t a l i t y " ( 3 5 ) . T h e " m y s t e r i o u s m e m o r y " a l m o s t c e r t a i n l yrefers to some such awareness . Kunene sees Shaka 's psychologyi n re la t io n to th e po le s of b i r th a n d de a th a n d connects thedeepest o f Sh a k a ' s e m o t io n s to h i s e a r ly t ra u m a t ic c h i ldh o o d.Sh a k a s a ys , " Y o u s h a l l n e ve r k n o w h o w de e p a re th e fears of ag r o w i n g b o y " ( 7 6 ).

I n i ts m a in o u t l in e K u n e n e ' s b io g ra ph y f o l lo w s th e re c eive dn a r r a t i v e a n d e x p l a n a t i o n , s h o w i n g S h a k a as a m a n c o m p e n s at i n g for ear ly insecuri ty and lack o f ident i ty . V i l a k a z i , i n m a n yways K u ne ne 's poet ic forebear , pin po ints the centra l obsess ion ofSh a k a h is re la t io n to h i s m o th e r . H e pu ts th i s in w h a t n o ws ee m q u i te F r e u d ia n term s :

For was your mother not a marvelW hose beauty o f mi nd and body were unriva l led ? H e r hair a lone cast on m en a spell :Thus many concubines had hair l ike hers . (36)A n d Sh a k a ' s de ve lo pm e n t do e s c o n f o rm in a n u m be r o f w a y s toO e d i p u s ' s . L i k e O ed ip us he survives h is fa ther ' s a t tem pt todispose of him as a c h i l d , a n d i s bro u g h t u p a s a re la t ive c o m m o n e r i n e x i l e . H e s y m bo l i c a l ly m u rde rs h is f a th e r w h e n h eu s u rps th e th ro n e Se n z a n g a k h o n a h a d do n e h i s best to keep f romh i m ; h e comes to Z u l u l a n d as an outs ider br in gi ng s tabi l i ty , asO e d i p u s had to Thebes , and he ins t is h is mother as "mother o fth e n a t io n , " a po s i t io n n o t u n l ik e Jocasta's; th e s y m bo l i c a l lyincestuous re la t io n hin ted a t i n V i l a ka z i ' s l ines is suggestedby Shak a 's unw il l ingness to take a wife and h is fear o f h a v i n gc h i l d r e n . B u t , t h o u g h so m e o f th i s is i m p l i c i t i n K u n e n e ' s p o e m ,he is by no means a Fr eu d ia n . Y et he does stress Shaka's c loseness to his m oth er , a n d to his s ister. W e m ay see, p erh aps , hisc o n de m n a t io n o f s e x u a l i r re g u la r i ty , together w i t h his severecurtai lment of the sexual l i fe of men of f ighting age, as a react i o n to th e ci rcu m s ta n ce s o f h i s o w n c o n c e p t io n . I n c o n de m n in gt h e w o m a n w h o s e c h i l d i s to be cut out o f her , he says, " W h o ever succum bs to the body 's s im ple inv i ta t ion s / V io l a te s theh u m a n l a w s a n d becomes n o m o r e t h a n a beast" (194). B u t w ec a n n o t bu t re m e m be r a f u r th e r aspect o f Sh a k a ' s o w n "m y s t er io u s m e m o r y " th e ve ry pa s sion a te a n d i r re g u la r u n io n w h i c h


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T H E P O E T A S T E A C H E R 47led to h is own existence. O f Se n z a n g a k h o n a a n d N a n d i ' s l ov e -m a k i n g , K u n e n e w r i t e s , " T h e y f e l l together be h in d th e g ro w th o fbushes. I T h e y lo ve d a s th o u g h to celebrate their final day one a r t h " ( 7 ) . T h e de s c r ip t io n i s a g o o d de a l m o re a n im a te d hereth a n in th e passage i n w h i c h t h e c h i l d is r e m o v e d , b u t a g a i nK u n e n e l in k s c o n c e p t io n a n d d e a t h . A n d t h is s u c c u m b i n g t o" th e bo dy ' s s im ple in v i ta t io n s " c e r ta in ly does threaten soc ia ls tabi l i ty : i t pro du c e s Sh a k a .

T h e degree to which Shaka depends on h is mother is revea ledi n the s tructure o f the na rra t ive . W h il e she is a l ive he devoteshimself to action, to l i v i n g o u t h e r a s p i ra tio n s f o r h i m ; bu t w i t hh e r d e a t h th e m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i t i c a l pace of the narrative s lowsd o w n , a n d th e po e m becomes m u c h m o re c o n te m pla t ive . I t i sn o w that we see the vulnerable s ide o f Shaka and, re la ted to i t ,h i s c a pa c i ty f o r de e p f r i e n ds h ip a n d m y s t i c a l awareness w h i c hi n t h e f o r m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h h is ancestors is a lso a form ofh i s t o r ic a l a w ar en es s. W h i l e T h o m p s o n s u m m a r i l y declares that"success g ra du a l ly w e n t to h i s h e a d a n d e ve n tu a l ly u n de rm in e dhis sense o f re a l i ty " (350), K u n e n e s h o w s h i m a s c o n c e r n e d w i t ha d i f ferent dim ens ion of rea l i ty , the rea l i ty , to h im , o f h is deadrelatives and the ancestors. T h e massacres that fo l lo w the deathof N a n d i are e x p l a i n e d i n terms of a k i n d of loss of contact w i t hreali ty , but this is seen as dis tra c t ion by gr ie f, not mad ness . Sh akat e m p o r a r i l y loses h is g r ip o n po l i t i c a l a f fa i r s a n d in dis c ip l in e inthe state f o l l o w s . K u n e n e a g a i n takes t h e " u n d e r s t a n d i n g " l i n e :

If the death of N a n d i has turned his mindThen it is a weakness that still attests to his greatness.For , t ru ly , there is no lover who is without fault . (342)N o t e , in pass ing , the ambiguous " lover . " I t i s only now, in i tsm y s t i c a l f o r m , that d e a t h unsettles S h a k a :

I a m obsessed w i t h the voices of the dead.They who were once close to me come back.I tremble as though death had not been w i t h me a l l my l i fe .(379)A s in th e passage wh ere he has the ch i ld exc ised, here to o , Sh a k a

is brought face to face w i t h th e ide a o f h i s o w n m o rta l i ty .Kunene now pays a good dea l o f a t tent ion to h is dreams :


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48 J O H N H A Y N E SH e dreamt he saw M b i y a and his mother, N a n d i .Th ey w ere absorbed in deep conversation.Constantly they whispered to each other,Bu t w hen he came closer, they were suddenly silent.Th ey turned to him , s tar ing h im in the eye. (422)

T h e w r i t i n g here i s v er y e f f ec t i v e , a nd w her e K u nene i s v er b a l l ys t r i k i n g i t is of ten over face-to-face enco unters , or expressions ofth e face. F o r e x a m p l e , Shaka's unease at gett ing a messagep u r p o r t e d l y f r o m t h e ancestors i s expressed as fo l lo w s : "S h a k ad i d no t co m m ent . H e o n l y s ta r ed a t the g r o u nd . / H i s eyes w e r el ike those o f a d r u n k e n m a n f o l l o w i n g a n a n t " (257). H e r e ,na t u r a l i s t i ca l l y , he focuses o n S h a k a a s l e a d e r a n d m a n , a n d o nhi s r e l a t i o n t o t he s u p er na t u r a l , co s mo l o g i ca l , forces w h i c hK u nene b e l i ev es t he poet s h o u l d concentrate on. It is this areathat interests h i m m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y , here that his language i soften at i ts most v i t a l a nd r es o na nt l y p a r t i cu l a r .

I VI have t r ied to indicate that t he t r en d o f K u n en e ' s em b el l is hme ntof Shaka i s towards the exculpat ion of the publ ic f igure , andt o w a r d s t h e " u n d e r s t a n d i n g " o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . T h e poet writesf r o m the perspective of the r u l i n g family, s tress ing Z u l u a n db y e x t e n s i o n , A f r i c a n - v a l u e s a n d c o n t i n u i t i e s , a n d , a s r u l i n gf a mi l i es a r e a p t t o d o , emp ha s i z es na t i o na l i s m. T he p ed a g o g i ca li m p l i c a t i o n o f t he p o em, l o o k ed a t i n K u nene ' s t e r ms , i s that i tm a y b r o a d e n a n d d e e pe n t he u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e " c h i l d r e n " i tis addressed to. It does n o t a i m a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y s i m p l i s t ic c o m -prehens ib i l i ty such as C h i n w e i z u a d v o ca t es , no r p r o l e t a r i a ni m m e d i a c y s u c h a s w e find i n N g u g i ' s recent w o r k . Y e t events i nS o u t h A f r i c a as I wri te do render th e themes of Emperor Shakathe Great re levant to the immediate exper ience of i t s readers ,es p ec ia l ly t he a c t u a l c h i l d r en w ho a re s t o n i ng the p o l i ce a n db e i n g shot i n t he t o w ns hi p s . T h e p o em is i n Z u l u ( o r i g i n a l l y )and deals w i t h a Z u l u her o , b u t S ha k a ca n no l o ng er b e seen asonly Z u l u since to a large extent he i s now an A f r i c a n f igure whotranscends ethnic boundar ies , and Z u l u i s a l a n g u a g e m a n y n o n -Z u l u s s p ea k . T he p o em ha s a n o b v i o u s r e l a t i o n t o t he mo d er nquest f o r b l a ck u n i t y i n S o u t h A f r i c a , f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d


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T H E P O E T AS T E A C H E R 49m a r t i a l courage a t a t ime w he n the con f l ic t i s be com ing m orev i o l ent , w h e n a n t i - a p a r t h e i d p a r t i e s a r e s t i l l n o t u n i t e d , a n dw h e n a s ig n i f i c a n t n u m be r o f b la c k s m a n th e a rm e d forces a n dth e po l i c e .

K u n e n e h i m s el f h a s be en a n a c ti v e w o r k e r i n t he A N C a n dalso , paradoxica l ly as i t now begins to seem, an admirer o fG a t s h a B u t h e l e z i , t h e Z u l u leader who has so o f ten a t tacked theA N C f o r it s L e n in i s t ty pe of u n d e rg ro u n d o pe ra tio n s a n d c on se q u e n t la c k o f ra ppo r t w i t h e v e r y d a y b l a c k l i f e ( D h l o m o 5 2 ) .T h e p o e m i s d e d i c a t e d t o B u t h e l e z i ; a n d i n d e e d B u t h e l e z ires em bles Sh a k a i n be in g a po p u la r ro y a l l e a de r w i t h greatc h a r i s m a . Ku n e n e ' s Sh a k a do e s n o t , o f c o u rs e , a dvo c a te n o n v io le n c e a s B u th e le z i h a s do n e , th o u g h i t m a y be a rg u e d th a tB u th e le z i ' s po s i t io n here is ta c t i c a l ly pr a g m a t ic . W h a te ve r thec o n tra d ic t io n s w e m ig h t d i s c e rn i n K u n e n e ' s a dh e re n ce to bo thth e A N C and to Buthelez i , i t does seem that the ideologica l t rendof Emperor Shaka the Great is t o w a r d s b r i n g i n g t he i m m e d i a t es truggles aga inst ap ar th e id un de r the wid er sway of the Z u l ur u l i n g f a m i l y , o r , b y ex t en s io n , so m e f o r m of " t o p - d o w n " p o p u l i sm u n d e r a c h a r i s m a t i c great l e ad e r , a f u r t h e r " e m b e l l i s h m e n t "a n d " m y t h i f i c a t i o n , " n o d o u b t . A n d th is w o u l d be a " lo n g - te rmn a t i o n a l a n d s o c i a l g o a l . "

I m u s t a dm it to m y m is g iv in g s a bo u t th i s s c e n a rio , w h i c hs u r e l y i s n o t u n f a m i l i a r t o A f r i c a n s . B u t I w i l l leave those w i t h am o r e secure k n o w l e d g e o f S o u t h A f r i c a n po l i t i c s to dra w th e i ro w n better in f o rm e d c o n c lu s io n s . Le t m e s a y , h o w e ve r , th a t th eve ry fact that i t has been possible to find so much of such interes ti n th i s po e m c o u n ts a g a in s t K u n e n e ' s v ie w a t least in th ef o r m i n w h i c h h e expresses i t that the A f r i c a n poet in somew a y acts as a po l i t i c a l pe da g o g u e . W e le a rn f ro m th i s po e m tos e e Sh a k a f ro m a pa r t i c u la r po in t o f v i e w , one possibly very c loseto h i s o w n v ie w o f h im s e l f ; bu t w e do n o t pa s s ive ly " s w a l lo w "th is , a s Ku n e n e th e pro pa g a n dis t w o u l d pe rh a ps w i s h . K u n e n eth e poet goes de e per a n d is m o re c o m pe l l in g . H e do es affect hisreaders , but how th is relates to th e i r eve ry da y po l i t i c a l a n d p e r s o n a l l ive s re m a in s ve ry o bs c u re . T h e a n c ie n t q u e s t io n ( w h i c hw e find a lso in Shakespeare , whose ideolog y is not so far f ro mKu n e n e ' s ) a bo u t th e d i f f e re n c e be tw e e n po e t i c a n d o th e r k in ds


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50 J O H N H A Y N E So f c o m m u n i c a t i o n c om e s b a c k to u s a g a i n . A s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d ,a l t h o u g h A f r i c a n poets, a n d other l i terary ar t i s t s , a n d cr i t i cs ,h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h e p e d a g o g i c a l r o l e of t h e w r i t e r t h e y h a v e n o tyet sor ted ou t w ha t this ro le consis ts in , w h at k i n d s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n are possib le , what l i terary discourses are l ike a n d h o wt hey m esh w i t h ed uc a t i on a l sy s tem s , p o l i t i c a l m o v e m e n t s , a n d soo n . T h e r e is a l w a y s a d i ff e re n c e b e tw e e n w h a t y o u m a y w i s h tot ea ch me a n d w h a t I m a y w i s h to l e a r n f r o m y o u r t r y i n g to d ot h a t .

W O R K S C I T E DB e c k e r , Peter. The Rule of Fear. H a r m o n d s w o r t h : P e n g u i n , 1964.D h l o m o , O s c a r . " T h e Strategy of I n k a t h a a n d Its C r i t i c s . " Journal of Asian

a n d African Studies 18.1-2 (1983): 49-59.G l u c k m a n , M. " T h e K i n g d o m of the Z u l u of S o u t h A f r i c a . " African Politi-

ca l Systems. E d . M. Fortes a n d E. E. E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d . L o n d o n : O x f o r dU P , 1940. 23-55.K u n e n e , M a z i s i . Emperor Shaka t h e Great . L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1979.

. " T h e Relevance of A f r i c a n C o s m o l o g i c a l Systems to A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e T o d a y . " African Literature Today, No. 11: Myth and History.E d . E l d r e d D. Jones. L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1980. 190-205.M o f l o , T h o m a s . Chaka. L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1981.

O m e r - C o o p e r , J. D. Zulu Aftermath. L o n d o n : L o n g m a n , 1966.Plaatje, S o l . Mhudi. J o h a n n e s b u r g : Q u a g g a P, 1975.Slater, H e n r y . "Shaka Z u l u , A p a r t h e i d , an d the P o l i t i c s of the L i b e r a t i o nof H i s t o r i o g r a p h y of S o u t h A f r i c a . " F i f t h SAUSSC C o n f e r e n c e , 1982.T h o m p s o n , L e o n a r d . " C o - o p e r a t i o n and C o n f l i c t : The Z u l u K i n g d o m andN a t a l . " The Oxford History of South Africa. Ed. M o n i c a W i l s o n andL e o n a r d T h o m p s o n . V o l . 1. O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1969. 334-90. 2 vols .

1969-71.V i l a k a z i , B. W. Zulu Ho r i z o n s . J o h a n n e s b u r g: W it w a te r s r an d U P , 1973.

kunene's shaka and the idea of the poet as teacher

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