PUBLICATIONS DE L'INSTITUT ORIENTALISTE DE LOUV AIN

36ETIENNE

LAMOTTE

HISTORYOF

INDIAN BUDDHISMFROM THE ORIGINS TO THE SAKA ERA

translated from the French bySara WEBB-8oIN

under the supervision of Jean OAN1lNNE

UN IVERS ITt CATHOtiQUE DE LOUVA IN

INSTJTUT ORIENTALISTELOUVAINLANEUVE

1988

Scientific Supervision Jean O .... NTINNE Contributors Jean-Marie VERPOORTEN Philippe C .... ES Edith GERS .... V-WOOD Collaborators Sophic J .... CQUES Carmen LoRENZO Claire GRUSLIN Original French Edition Histoire du Bouddhisme lndien, des origines !'ere Saka. Bibliotheque du Museon. Louvain. 1958 ; Reprint 1967; 2nd Reprint P.I .O.L. - Louvain-Ia-Neuve. 1976.

a

PEETERS PRESSLOUVAJNPARIS

10 Insli tul Orientalisle de rU ni versilc Catholique de Louva in CoJlCgc tr.sme,

Place BI.ise Pasc:al, IS.1J48 Louv.inJaNeuve(Cl Peeltn Press Louv.in PnhOrtkrJ sllollfd Ix HfIl to : Peelers Press, P.O.B. 4 1. s.JOOO Louv.in

D. 1988/060211ISSN (I(l76- 126S

ISBN 9O-683 1-loo.X

FOREWORDIt is unanimously agreed that Professor Etienne Lamotte's mastery of Buddhist Scriptures is displayed on every page of his impressive Hisloire du Bouddhisme lndien. Hence, it is not surprising that as soon as this epoch-making book was published, it quickly became so famous and renowned that introducing such a masterpiece seems to be pointless. His friends, colleagues and disciples, have spoken at length about the scholar and his work, and in much better terms than I would ever be able to do. Therefore, my task being easier, I feel that the best way of paying tribute to Professor E. Lamotte's .memory is to depict briefly the attitude that we have deliberately adopted, from the very moment we undertook the responsability of revising the English translation of one of the finest pieces of SCholarship among his huge scientific production. From the start , all the contributors were deeply convinced that their primary task was to preserve the essence of the original and try to render the flavour of Professor E. Lamotte's vivid and brilliant style, even if this sometimes meant clashing with the new trends that characterize present day Buddhist scholarship. From the beginning, the dilemma proved to be very crucial indeed, namely when we were confronted with the problem of translating accurately the Buddhist technical terms: it soon became obvious that the main difficulty was due to the majority of the basic terms being given different meanings throughout the book, in order to fit the context within which they were used. I was one of the happy few who had the privilege of knowing Professor E. lamotte, and I believe the only likely explanation is the assumption that the Histoire du Bouddhisme lndien is entirely the product of the phenomenal memory with which the famous scholar was endowed. To quote briefly even a few examples would be beyond the scope of this foreword, and would be bound to degenerate into a barren debate between specialists. The fonn of the index of technical terms illustrates clearly the kind of preoccupations we

VI

FOREWORD

had to cope with, and, at the same time, exemplifies the compromise we have finally decided to adopt. The broad outline of the project was initiated by Professor Suzanne Van Riet of the Universite catholique de Louvain, director of the Publications de l'Institut Orientaliste de Louvain (P.1.0.L.) in July 1985, and, for the main part, was carried out and achieved by Mrs Sarah Webb-Dein, whose English translations of Professor E. Lamotte's other works enjoy a very high reputation. Thanks to her outstanding ability as a translator, she produced, in a relatively short time, a high-standard, fluent English translation, very close to the French original. We are all glad to have the opportunity to express openly our deepest gratitude for her painstaking efforts, which have greatly contributed to the successful completion of the whole enterprise. In the course of the revision process, Mrs S. Webb-Boin constantly made many valuable suggestions that considerably facilitated the task of the revision team, while enabling us to concentrate on a close scrutiny of particularly controversial doctrinal matters. It is plain to everyone that Buddhist scholarship is becoming more and more prolific: new archaeological remains come to light, new inscriptions are discovered, texts in Buddhist Sanskrit or Prakrits, unearthed from ruined sti'ipas, are deciphered and published. All those elements open up new prospects to a deeper knowledge of certain aspects of Indian Buddhism, and contribute to a better approach to the history of Buddhist doctrine. Those factors have been taken into account for compiling a bibliographical supplement which lists the titles of the leading works and essential articles which can shed new light on specific topics. Far from being exhaustive, we have deliberately preferred to be selective by focusing on carefuUy selected fields of interest, such as : the personality and the religious policy of king Asoka, the newly discovered Asokan inscriptions, the irritating, unsolved problem of the origin of Mahayana. We decided not to mention the numerous Japanese works dealing with those subjects, bearing in mind that these publications, irrespective of their intrinsic value, are accessible only to a limited number of Buddhist scholars capable of mastering the Japanese language. The index has been thoroughly revised, completed and, in

FOREWORD

VII

some respects, improved . The transcriptions of the Chinese tenns have been converted into the WadeGiles system of transcription, which is more familiar to Englishspeaking readers and still widely used., though considerably rivalled by the pinyin system. As already mentioned, the Sanskrit technical tenns have been extracted from the (general) index, and have been regrouped into a separate index; according to the order of the devanagarf alpha bet. It should be pointed out that for some important tenns, the English renderings of the different meanings used by Professor E. Lamotte are followed, in brackets, by one or several English equivalents which we feel are better suited to the commonly accepted norms of contemporary Buddhist terminology. The table of contents has been amended accordingly . Concern ing geographical maps, the locations of all important sites have been carefully checked against those on bigger scale maps; while some new localities, where important new discoveries have taken place, have been added . Finally, as the French edition is the "roottext" to be consulted whenever doubts arise, reference has been made throughout to the pagination of this edition.

Needless to say a project of such amplitude could never have been successfully carried out without close cooperation between Mrs S. Webb-Boin and the members of the revision team who, in addition to their respective specialist contributions in their own spheres of responsability, gave me their full support at a high level. by making invaluable suggestions. All of us feel greatly indebted to Professor S. Van Riet for having provided the financial support at top level, with funds supplied by the P.I.O.L., and for having found adequate solu tions to intricate and apparently insolvable administrative pro blems to everybody's satisfaction. My warmest thanks go to my friend and collaborator Jean Marie Verpoorten (Ph.D.) for having efficiently prepared, coordi nated and put the finishing touches to the multiple activities of the revision team, composed of Miss Sophie Jacques, Miss Cannen

TABLE OF CONTENTSFOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . .V

TA.BlE OF CONTENTS LIST OF PLATES, ORA WINGS AND MAPS PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . .

XI XIXXXI

CHAPTER ONE

INDIA AT THE TIME OF THE BUDDHAI. -

HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DATA Vedic Antecedents, I. - The Sixteen Grcal Countries of the Siuh Century, 7. The Routes, 9. - The Republican Stales, ]0. - The Four Kinadoms. 10.

1

II. - THE DATE AND LIFE Of ruE BUDDHA SAKYAMUNI . The Dale of the Buddha, I) . - The life of SUyamuni, IS.III. - THE EARLY BUDDHIST DOCTRINE . . .. .

Il

23

The Dhanna and the Buddha, 23. - The DiscouDC: II Viri.,asi. 26. - The Tl'\llh of Suffering. 27. - The Truth of the Origin of Suffering. n. - The TMh of NirviQ.l. 40. - The Truth of the Path, 42. - Buddhist Mora lism. 47. - The Middle Way and the Intentional Teaching, 49.

IV. - TH E BUDDHIST COMMUNITY .

53 53

I. - The Monastic OrderThe Fourfold Commullily, n - The Dulies of a Monk, 54. - Disciplinary Acu. 55. - Leaving the World and Ordination, 55. - Equipment Ind Life: of tnc: Monks, 58. - The: Ideal of the Monk, 60. - The Absence of In Authority, 62.

2. - The Lay Fellowship .The Importa nce of tnc Laity. 65. - Institution of the Fe:lIoW$hip, 66. - Th' Ideal and VirtlK:$ of the lIity, 67. - The: Instruction of the lIity, 74. Respective Rig/liS of the Religio us and the lIity. 79. CHAPTER TWO

65

THE MAGADHAN PERIODGeneral Features of the Period, 85. I. HISTORICAL FACTS

. . . . . . . .

.

. .

.

. . .

81

XI!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. - Magadha, from 546 to 324 S.c. .Masadhan Dynasties, n . nine Nandas. 96.

87

The Haryailkas. 91. - The Siiunliga.s. 94. - The

2. -

Uuariipatha

100

Pukkusiti. Kin, orOandhira, 100. - Nonh-West India under lhe Athacmenids, 101. - The Indian States under Darius III Codam. n, lOS . - Alexander the Great in India, 109. - India under the Diadocl!i. Ill.

3. -

Ceylon from 486 to 250 R.C. .

11 8

SinhaleK Chronicles. 118. - Ancient Populations, 120. - The lint five Kinp of Ceylon, 123. - The Buddha's Visits 10 Ceylon, 121,

II . -

BUDD HIST LEGENDS AND TRADITIONS .

124 124

1. - The Councils of Rajagrha and Vaisafi .Oltes, 124. - NUT'llion or Events. 125. Tradilion. 128. - Conclusions, 140. An Asseumenl of the Conciliar

2. - The Formation of the Canon of Writings

140141

1st - The Seven Oassifications of the WritingsThe: Testimony of BuddhagbO$a, 141. - The Sinak Flavour, \42. - Ohanna and Vinl)'I, 142. - Inilial Wordl, etc. 14], - The Five Collections. 143. - The Nine Consti tuent Pans, 143. - The Twelve Constituent Parts, 145. - The Relatiolllhip between the Angas and the Tripi!akl, 147. - The 84.000 Dhann.askandhu, 148.

2nd - The Tripi!aka .a. Generalities : The relative Antiquity of the Tripi~ka, 149 . - Contents and Arrangement of the Tripi!aka, I SO. b. The Sijtflpi~ka : The lint Four Pili NikiylS, 152. - The Four A.pmas, I S3. - The Ousi6cation of the Apmas, I S4. - ComparUon bel"....ecn the Nikiyas and "'pmas, ISS. - The Pili Khuddakanikiya, 1S6. - Sanskrit !r4udralr.a, 1S9. - The Chanted Verses. 161. - The Canonicity of tnc Siitras, 163. t . The Vinayapi~ka : The Basn of the Vinaya, 165. - The Structure of the Vinaya, 166. - An Anal)'Ji5 of the si,; VinayaJ, 167. - Ancient Traditions concerning tnc Vina)'lls. 171. - Hypotheses on the FOmultion of the VinaylS, 176. d. The Abhidhamulpi~ka : Tradittons concerning the Compilation of the Abhidhannapi!aka, 180. - Schools without an Abhidhanna, 1&1. - An Analysis of the prcsoerved Abhidllarmas. 181. - Conclusions, 191 .

149

3. - The Disappearance 1st Dates

or the Good

Law

191 192

or the Disappearance

Year 500, 192. - Year 1,000, 194. - Year 1,500. 195. - Year 2,000, 195. Year 2,500, 195. - Year 3,000, 196. - Year 5,000 and 10,000, 196. - Year 11,500 or 12,000, 197.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XlIl

2nd -

Circumstances of the Disappearance

198 202

4. The Succession o f MastersThe: Vinaya Chie:fs, 203. - The Abhidhamma MUle:rs, 205. - The Masters of the: Law. 206. CHAPTER THREE

THE MAURYAN PERIODGenenll Features of the: Period, 213.

I. - HISTORICAL FACTS

216

1. - The Mauryan EmpirelsI - The Succession of Kings 2nd - Candragupta

216

216 218

Origin. 2]S. - Youth. 2[S. - Seizure of the ThroM. 2]9. - Conquest of India, 220. - The War with $elc:ocus ]. 220. - Foreign Embassies, 220. Death of candragupta, 221.

3rd 4th -

Bindusara ASoka

222 223

I . The EdiCH : Publication of the Edicts, 224. - The Extent of the Empire:, 225. - Noteworthy Dates of the Reign. 226. - The Dharma of Aioka, 227. ASoka's Buddhist lrucriptions, Hoi. b. The Aiokivldina, 23S. - The Girt of Earth and Birth of ASoka, 239. - The Avadina of Kin, Aioka, 243. - Avadana of Aiob's younger Brother. 244. - Avadina of KUlla]a , 246. - Avadana of the half Amalah. 248. Avadina of the Reward given by Aioka, 248. c. The SintLa]ese Ch ronicle on Aioka, 249. d. A Comparison betwccn the Edicts and the Buddhist Sources, 253. c. Aioka and Kaimir, 255. f. Aioka and Nepal, 256. , . Aioka and Kholan. 257.

5lh 2. -

The last MauryasOiodolus I, Kina: of Bactria, 262. -

259260

The Greek Kingdom of Bactria

BaClril from 325 10 250 B.C., 260. OiodolUl II, 263.

3. II. -

Ceylon from 250 to 200 B.C.Uniya, 271. BUDDHIST LEGENDS AND TRADITIONS

266

Dcv.nirppiyatissa, 266. -

271

XIV

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. 2. -

The Third Buddhist Council in Pi!aliputraAn Assessment of lhe TTldil;on. 273.

272274 274 275

Description of the Tradition, 272. -

The Heresy of Mahadeva . 1st - The Terms of the five Theses 2nd - Mahiideva, the Author of the five Theses

I. The Explanations by Vaswnilra, 215. - 2. The Account in the Vibha#. 217. - 3. The MahAyiinis! Authors inspired by the Vibhii~i . 278. - 4. The Sa~maliya Tradition, 281. _ S. Information supplied to Bhav)'. by his Teachers, 282.

3td - Persistence of the Heresy under Mahideva II 41h - The Mahadevas of the Pa:li Sources 5th - The Uncertainties of the Tradition

282

284285

3. - The MahasaI!lghika SchismSchism in the Year I the Nirvi~a. 286. - Schism in the Year ]00 after the Nirv.li~, 287. - Schism in the Year \J7 a.fter the Nirvil)-a, 288. - Scltism in the Yein 100 o r ] 16 after the Nil"Yi~, 288. Schism in the Year 160 after the Nirvi~l , 288. - Schism in the Year 216 after the Nirvil.'la, 288.

286

.net

4. -

Conclusions

290292 292

TIl . - THE GROWTH OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA .

I. -

The Sinhalese Chronicle

The Data in the Chronicle, 292. - An Asscs.smenl of !he Trtdilion : I. The Initiative of Mogpliputtatissl., 295. - 2. The Lands covered by the Missi on, 299. - 3. 'The Missionaries. 302. - 4. The Themes nf the Missionary Teaching, 305. - S. The Number of Recruits and Convenions, .,.. - 6. Mamnda in Avanti, 309. - 1. Conclusions, 310.

2. -

Archaeology

310

The Stiipa, Caitya and Vihira, 310. - ArchaC'Olo~J ExpJon.lion : I. The lands of the Middle Ganges, 31 S. - 2. KauSimbi. 322. - 3. Avanti and the West Coast, 324. - 4. Mathuni, 330. - S. North-West India, 332. - 6. Centn.! India or the Brahmanic MadhyadeSa, 331. - 1. The Eastern Coast and Andhn.deia, 340.CHAPTER FOUR

THE PERIOD OF THE SUNGAS AND Y AVANASGeneral Features of !he Pttiod, 351 .I . - HISTORICAL FACTS

353

TABLE OF CONTENTS

xv353

I. - The Sungas and Kal)vasThe S"o;:ession of Princes, 35l - Pu, yamitra, 3S4. - The Suocesson of P'ulyamilra, 357. - FeU6>

VEDIC ANTECEDENTS

5

considerably extended beyond the southern bank of the holy river. On the banks of the Yamuna, a tributary of the Ganges, the tribe of the Yidavas had colonized the land of the Slirasenas around Mathura ; further to the east, the Vatsas occupied the region of Kausambi. Following the course of the Chambal upstream, the Aryans had settled in Avanti and reached Nannada . According to the epic tradition, a branch of the Yadavas. under the leadership of Ko~a, is supposed to have gone to Kalhiawar and founded a new capital in Dviraka. Although the historical role of K~l)a does not correspond in any way to reality, there is no doubt about the Aryan cltpansion towards the south. IlS effect was to drive the Dravidians into Southern Deccan where they retained their language. but were not unaffected by the cultural influence of the alien invaders. When the Aryans settled in the Ganges basin, the religion was transfonned . Vedism became Brahmanism. a collection of religious and social concepts which were defined and directed by the bnihmins who constituted a priestly body. The work of the brahmins was threefold : to define the law (dharma) or Indian status which was applicable to the different classes of society; to assimilate the popular religions; finally, to establish the main features of religious beliefs. The dharma is that set of nonns which direct the Aryan's religious and social conduct. It applies with certain variations, to the different classes oflndian society: "To the brahmins", says Manu I. 88 sq.), "the Lord assigned the teaching and study of the Veda, the perfonning of sacrifices for oneself and for others, the giving and receiving of gifts ; the 6 l4a/riya (warriors) he ordered. to protect the people, to give. sacrifice and study; the vai.iya (cultivators), to raise cattle, give, sacrifice. study, trade. lend money, and cultivate the ground ; finally, the iUdra. to serve the other three classes". The Dharma directly concerned the Aryan groups. to whom it granted similar religious privileges and assigned separate occupations. It only indirectly affected the Siidras, the lower class into which were relegated. besides Aryans who had regressed, the mass of natives who were reduced to the rank of slaves and servants. It was the task of the brahmins to make a synthesis between the ancient Vedic tradition of which they were the upholders, and the "primitive" ideas of the native inhabitants. This task was far from easy. On the one hand. a wholly ritualistic religion in which sacrifice, raised to the level of a cosmic power, overshadowed the divinities to which it was offered ; on the other, a profusion of regional cults the roots of which were steeped in animism and magic. From among the mass of major and

6

INDIA AT mE TIME OF mE BUDDHA

( 6-7)

minor deities there stand out the great figures of Vi~l:tu and Siva to whom their worshippers paid mystical and impassioned homage. Vi~r:tu is a benevolent deity, the "preserver" of the universe and master of human destiny. He is surrounded by a rich legend which retraces his Ql'Qliiro . that is, the descents of the god upon the earth, and his intervention in human affairs at different periods. Siva is even more complex in that his many manifestations make him appear sometimes under the aspect of the "destroyer" or Death, of "restorer" or divine ascetic, or as a procreator symbolized by the phallic emblem of the IUigo. The greatest step made by the brahmins was to identify these popular divinities with the (neutral) "supreme principle" of the Veda : Brahman, the sacred word elevated to the rank of creator. This introduced the indigenous culls into the Vedic tradition and granted them official investiture. However, the local cults represent only one aspect of the primitive mentality of the local inhabitants, a mentality completely imbued with animism and magic. The animist believes in reincarnations, in the gandharva. a desincamate being seeking a womb in the world of animals. mankind, spirits or gods in order to continue an existence which cannot, normally. be interrupted. He also believes in the efficiency of acts which condition that existence: rituals. solemnly expressed vows. 7 austerities, actions which are morally good or bad. The Indian sage, who identifies life with suffering, seeks to free himself of it. Without being pessimistic, but resolutely, he aims for deliverance which will enable him to reach an unconditioned way of being transcending the human condition. This deliverance is to be found in yoga, effort, technique of asceticism applied to the most varied goals. disinterested activity, the winning of knowledge, union with God, etc., but which all lead to the same results : areess to immortality. These ideas or rather these tendencies are practically alien to the Vedic tradition. The doctrine of re-death (punarnt{lyu) of non-deified men, which is found in the BriihmlllJa. does not contain even a suspicion of animistic belief in universal transmigration (smruiira) . The Vedic sacrifice. which is aimed at maintaining cosmic order, cannot be unparadoxically considered as some form of yoga. Nevertheless, the brahmins' prolonged contact with the local inhabitants made them accept and sanction views and practices which had originally been alien to them . They incorporated them into tbeir traditional concepts and expressed them in the ideology-nomenclature which was peculiar to the BriihmOlJO. The result of this was an extension of the religious horizon which is the very nature of Hinduism. The Upanilad

( 7-8)

VEDIC ANTECEDENTS - THE GREAT COUNTRIES

7

which are to be considered as the culminating point of the Veda point out the essential doctrines of Hindu Brahmanism : the belief in transmigration due to acts; the doctrine of non-duality (advaita) which identifies the brahman. the neutral and unknowable absolute, with the individual soul (iirman), the immediate assumption of consciousness; the aspiration for deliverance (moqa) conceived sometimes as absorption into the brahman. the isolation of the individual (pudgaJa) or union with a personal form of the divinity; finally, the legitimacy and efficacity of the practices of yoga in order to achieve that goal. This movement of ideas, a compromise between two civilizations, developed during the seventh-sixth centuries in the region of the Middle Ganges. Being situated more to the east, the lands which were to be the cradle of Buddhism escaped it for the most part. This explains why the preoccupations of early Buddhism are relatively remote from the speculations originated by the Hinduized brahmins. It can be said, as did L de La Vallee Poussin, that the "brahmanism from which Buddhism sprang is not the brahmanism of the Brahm~ and the Upan~atf', but represents, even better than the latter. the ancient Indian yoga. 8 THE SIXTEEN GREAT CoUNTRTES OF TIlE slXm CENTURY 1. - In the sixth century B.C- the Aryan domain in India extended from the Punjab to Bengal and overflowed into part of the Deccan. The Buddhist, Jaina and epic sources record the existence at the time of sixteen Great Countries ($otjaja mahOjanapada) which were subjected to the Aryan element but inhabited, particularly in the east, by populations of autochthonous origin, and still not completely brahmanized. Below is a list of them with an indication of the modem districts which these countries covered and an enumeration of the main towns :

BuddhistliSIJ of the Great Counuies Ire found in Dip, II. p. 200; Ch'U!J-l-lan, T I, ch. 5, p. 34b; Jm Mien dUDg, T 9. p. 21k; Chung I Ian. T 26, ch. 55, p. 772b; AilJultara,I, p. 213; IV, pp. 252, 256, 260; Mahivutu, I. p. 3-4 ; Yu p'o i to IhCchil ching. T sa, p. 912c; Pln;o po 10 m.i ching, T 245, ch. 2, p. 8lla; T 246, cb. 2, p. 844g ; P'"i p'o W , T 1545, ch. 124, p. 648b. - Jlina.lisb in W. KW'EL, Dk KosmDffl1plrk de! ItUkr. Bonn, 1920, pp. 225-6. - Mlh.ibhirata, VIII, 40.29; 45.14-16; 21, 34, 40. On Buddhist geography in general, !let, CtmNINGHAM, AN:~nt Gtograplry of Ind4I , new cd. by S.N. MAJ\.IMDAIt, Calcutta, 1924; N .t. DEY, GtorroplrictJl DictjOllQ1"Y , Calcutta, 1927; B.C. L\w. Gtog,opIry of torly Buddltism. London, 1932 ; 1nd4l1U desaibtd in torly TUb of Buddltism and Jilinism. London, 1941 ; Historical GtOf'aplly of An(~nt IN/ill, Paris, 1954.l

8

INDIA AT THE TIME OF THE BUDDHA

( 89>

JanapadaI . Anga

Modem districts

Towns

BengalSouthern Bihar

Campi (Bhagalpur)Bhaddiya Assapura

2. Magadba

3. KiSi 4. Kosala5. Vdi

Bana ras{V iriJ:lasi Oudh

or Girivraja (Rajgir) Pi~liputra (Palna) Virinasi (Banaras) Srivasli(Sihe~hMihe!h)

Rija~ha

Siketa (Ayodhyi)Northern BiharVaiSiIi (Besarh) of

6. Malia7. Ccc;Ii

G orakhpurBundclkhand

,

8. Vatsa 9. Kuru

10. Paiiciila

Allahibad D. ofThinesar, Delhi and Meerut Rohilkhand Central Doib

II. Mauya 12. Siirasena 13. ASmaka 14. Avanti) 5. Gandhara 16. Kamboja

Jaipur

MathuriNizam

Milwi and Nimir D. of Peshawar and Rawalpi~67

(Afte r J. FerguMOn) Cai tya or Kirli. C rosssection and plaD.

In fran( of the entrance, there once stood two (dion-pillars (sihathoMo) ;. the right-hand one has been replaced by a Hindu temple ; the left-hand one, a gift by the Mahara~hi Agimitral)aka, son of Go~b" (LODERS, 1088) is a fluted shaft without a base, but with a capital, supporting four lions back-ta-back. The entrance is flanked by a porch 18 metres high by 4 m. 50 in depth. Its external wall consists of two superimposed rows of octagonal .568 pillars, separated by a screen of living rock , once decorated with woodenpI. 21. - Reproduction of the lion pillar and lbe porch, ASI, I, pI. 5, fig. a ; C HI, I. pl. 25, fil. 67; HIEA, I, p. 144, fia. 69 ; MI, pI. 29, fil. a. - Detail ofthc porch, ASl, I, pI. S, fil b; GUK, pl. 10, fil_ 3S; IABH, pl. 23, fil. 2. - Cen tral doorway, ASI, I, pl. 6, fil. a ; HelP, II, pl. 10, fig. 20. - Interior of the caitya and digaba, CHI, I, pl. 2S, fil. 68; ASI. I, pl. 6, fil. b ; J. P. Voc;n, Buddhist A1t. pI. 2S; A.A.!. pI. 29, fil. b ; IABH, pl. 24, til I ; HelP, II, pl. 9, fil. II. _ Details of the ailk pillars, ASI, I, pI. 7; IABH , pl. 24, fil. 2; HelP, II, pl. 10, fil . 19.

514

THE PERIOD OF THE SAKAPAHLAVAS

( 568 569)

sculptures. The internal wall is breached by three doors respectively communicating with the central nave and the side naves. The middle door is surmounted by a vast horseshoe-shaped bay through which air and light penetrate. The caitya proper has the form of a Gothic basilica : it is 37 m. 50 in length, IJ m. 50 in width and 13 m. SO in height. from the floor to the top of the vault. It has 37 columns. The seven columns which border the apse are octagonal shafts without capitals or bases, as in the ancient constructions. Conversely. the two rows of fifteen columns which separate the central nave from the side-aisles are provided with jar-shaped bases and fluted bell-shaped capitals supporting kneeling elephants. horses or tigers, accompanied by t.heir drivers. The central nave is 7 m. 50 wide, while the side-aisles are only 3 m. While the rest of the monument is hidden in shadow. the dagaba which occupies the centre of the apse attracts all the light from the outside. Remarkable in its simplicity, this dagaba is of the traditional shape : two superimposed circular drums marked on their upper rims with the balustrade design. a hemispherical dome free of any sculpture. a cube-shaped box (hormikii) with an overhanging stepped cornice, and finally the pole supporting a parasol. KANHERt. - On Salsette Island, 2S kilometres north of Bombay and 10 kilometres north-west of Thana, are the caves of Kiinheri, rormerly Kanhasala or K"l)aSaila (LOoERS, 1013, 1024). Numbering one hundred and nine, they appear to have been excavated and adopted from the second to the ninth centuries A.D., for various Buddhist sects : Bhik~u sal1lgha (LOoERS, 1021), CaturdiSasatllgha (10., 1006, 1016, 1024), Bhadrayar:,tiyas (987, 1018) and Aparaiailas (1020). The devotees who financed the works came, not only from the immediate neighbourhood such as Nisika (LOoERS, 985) or Surpiraka (995, 1005), but also from distant regions such as Kalyal)a in Kif"l)a~ (986, 998, 1000, 1001 , 1013, 1014. 1024. 1032) or Dhinyaka!aka (Dhenuki!aka) in Andhra country (corrected 1020). Among the kings or princes who took part in the S69 donations, we note the names of Visi~~hiputra Pulomii, 130-159 A.D. (LOoERS, 994), Yajiiasri Sitakarr:,ti, 174-203 A.D. (10., 987.1024) and a certain MiiQhariputa Sakasc:na (10.,1001,1002) known rrom some coins discovered at Tarhala. Even later, the Cu!ukulinanda of inscription 1021. whose name, or that of a homonym, also appears in Vanavasi (LOnERS, 1186) and Ma!avalli (1195). Inscription 998 constitutes a veritable PWJyopustaJco. merit book in which Buddhists noted the list of their meritorious deeds : An en-

( 569 510)

KANHERI

515

dowment was presented to the monks (pal'oyita); approximately three objects were made in Soparakihira (8 district in SUrp.1raka); a sanctuary (celioghora), a reception-hall (upathiiIJasalii) and cells (oyoraka) were constructed at the Abalikiivihira (Ambilikavihira) in Kalia~a (Kalya~a); a sanctuary and thirteen cells were constructed and endowed at some vihara in PatiJhina (Pratighana); a temple (b!l) and a hall (kat!hl) were excavated at the Rijatalika Pai~ha1}apatha (Prati~~hana patha) ; an endowed monastery (saghariima) was built at the Sadasevajiivihara~) .

Cave No. 3 is a cailya of considerable size : 26 metres long by 12 wide by II high II". It was excavated. in the reign of Yajilasri Sataka~i (174203 A.D.). by two merchants. the brothers Gajasena and Gajamita, for the benefit of the Buddhist sect of the Bhadrayaniyas. Six architects (naYakarmika), five of whom were monks and one a layman, supervised the works which were carried out by various bodies of crafismen, under the direction of the Bhadanta Bodhika (LOnERS, 987). The thirty-four pillars of the interior colonnade are surmounted by capitals covered with a mass of sculptures employing the most varied of motifs: stiipas, trees and sacred footprints, elephants, etc. II S At the two extremities of the porch, stand two statues of the Buddha, one of which was a gift from the Sikyabhjk~u Buddhaghosa, Tripi!-3ka master charged with the guardianship of the great temple (mahagandhaku!fYlirika) (LOoERS, 989). Images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas are frequently found at Kanheri, but those which decorate the oldest monuments are clearly later additions, due to Mahayanist initiative. S70 It is appropriate to stop here the description devoted to the beginnings of rock-cut architecture. This type of architecture was to reach its apogee during the Gupta and post-Gupta period, with the caves at Bagh, Aja~~ (second manner), Ellora and Aurangabad. to mention only the most famous.

" . Cailyl No. J II Kinheri : description, HIEA, J, pp, 162-4; MIU~Qy 'J HtJNibook , p. 31; IABH. p. 32. - Plln. IABH, pl. 21. " . Reproduction or one: orthese pillan. HIEA.. I. p. 164, til. 8S.

(S 71-S72 )

'"I. -

CHAPTER SIX

THE BUDDHIST SECTSORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SECTS

S72

ORIGIN AND NATIJRE Of THE SECTS 1_ - One of the Buddha's concerns was to ensure the harmony of the community he had founded . In facl , however. centrifugal forces soon appeared and threatened the unity of the Sal'flgha. The absence of a hierarchy and leadership made it difficult to protC1:t Buddhism from disjunctive lendencies and actions. During the Buddha's own lifetime. two schisms occurred : that of Kausambi which was quickly reabsorbed. that of Devadatta which culminated in the creation of a dissident order. traces of which still survived in the seventh century at the time of Hsuan tsang. In the age or, On the Buddhist !iCIC1S, see S. JUUE.... LUtts di~rs~s dtu N}fPU lks dixhllit snl~J uhislnalU(wJ ifIIi sont swlits dt4 boutidhismt , JA. Vth series, XIV, 18S9, p. 326 sq.: V. VASSIUEV, Der BllddhismlU, Berlin. 1860, pp. 224 sq.; A . Scmt:fNDl. TtiFaniitha"s Gtschich" ats BwddhismlU in Indit". SI. Petenburg. 1869, pp. 270-4 ; T .W. RHyS DAV IDS, TIlt &cfJ of 1M Bwddhists, JRAS, 1891 , pp. 409 sq.; SclwolJ of Bwddhisl Jkfit[. JRAS, 1892, pp. 1 sq.; Buddhist Stw. ERE. XI, 1920, pp. 307-9 : I.P. MINAYEff, RnMuhtJ SJU It bcuddlrismt . Paris, 1894, pp. 187 sq.; H. KDN, Hisloirt du BouddhiRM dons I'lndt. n. Paris, 1903. pp. 481 98 ; w .W . ROCUtILL, Lift of 1M Buddha. London, 1907, pp. 182 sq.; W . GEKiEII. Tht MaMvtJl!Ull Irtl1UWlt d, London, 1934, pp. 276-87; N . Durr, Lufy History of 1M Sprt ad of Buddhism and lilt Buddhisl SchoolJ. Clilculla. 1925; early MOI1tulic

&ddhism. II, C.kulta, 1945, pp. 47206 (work containing reprinl5 of nany articles on the sects which appea~ in IHQ) ; R. KurukA, In lroducliOl1 10 fM Hislory of Emly Buddhisl Schools , Calcutta, 1925 ; J. MASUDA, Origin and Dlxfrinu of tuly Indion Buddltist Schools. Asia Major, II , 1925, pp. 1-78 ; J. PJ.ZYLUUJ , u Candle at RdjagrM , Paris, 1926, pp. 307]1 ; $m4lriilltika ~I DtiFf!iiIIlika. RO, VIII, 1932, pp. 14-24 : DtiFfliiIIliko . $m4lriillfika and SarYlUfiWiin, IHQ. XVI, 1940, pp. 246-54 : M. WAJ J f'!f~ Dil ~ktm IUJ aJltn BlliklllislPllU. Hetdelb;erg. 1927; P. DDl1tvlLU. L 'origiM tkJ UCf~J /xJuddAiqueJ d 'oprrs Param4nha. MCB, I, 193t 2, pp. 1s-64; E. O8D.WIL.LEII. Hisfory of Buddltism by ~Jfon. II, Heidelberg. 1932, pp. 97-100; E.J. THoMAs, Tht History of BwddItut T1wwghl . London, 1933, pp. 28892 ; TEIlAMOTO and HDAMATSl/, Samaya/JMdoporacanacukra. etc., Kyoto, 1935; M.J . OIDHlT, A lin" Buddhist Stet in KanMri, IHQ, XVIII, 1942, pp. 66-J ; J. N. BANELIEA. Schools of BwddJlism in Early /ndiatllllJfriptiofu . tHQ, 1948, pp. 251 -8; A. BAJ,tAu, us JUf~J boutJdhU(wJ dt4 Ptlil Ythiodt tf ItllrJ Abhid/tanruJpiraJr.o , BEFEO, XLIV, 1951 . pp. 1 11 ; UJ !efltJ bowddIJiqwJ du Pt lil Ythicu1~. Saigon. 19S5; Trois Irailt s.flU" kJ secf~J bovddhiqwJ alffibuhJ d Y/UWltilra. Bho~ya ~f Yin ff.ukva, JA, CCXLII, 1954, pp. 229-66; CCXLlV, 1956. pp. 167200.-

518

THE BUDDHIST SECfS

( 572-573)

ASoka, the progress made by the order was counteracted by dissensions amongst the religious, and the emperor was compelled, in his edicts at Kosam, Sinci and Simath. to threaten the instigators of the schism with excommunication . It was however in his reign that the great Mahasarpghika schism was accomplished, resulting in the scission of the original Sal11gha into two main branches : that of the Sthaviras, the traditionalists. and that of the Mahiisarraghikas. the dissident majority and supporters of the five points of Mahiideva. Ceylon itself was not without dissension and, in the reign of DughagamaT:li, some monks at

the Mahivihara separated from their colleagues and founded at theAbhayagiri a rival community which broke off all relations with the original community started by Mahinda. The Buddhists had a very clear conception of dissidence (slI/!1ghariijl) and schism (slI/!1ghabheda). According to the Pali Vinaya (II. p. 2(4), there is a schism when a group of at least nine bhik~us , possessed of all the religious privileges, belonging to the same persuasion and living in the same district, knowingly and willingly profess a proposition contrary to the Law and discipline and. who after a properly established vote. separate from their colleagues in order to perform the ceremonies of uposatha. praviirCIIJii and other official functions of the community on their own . If the number of dissenters is less than nine. there is no schism, but only dissidence. It was subsequent to a properly established vote that. in the Mauryan period, the Mahisitpghikas separated from the Sthaviras. The completion of the schism did not interrupt the process of disintegration and, following further divergences, the two sections were in tum subdivided into a series of nikiiya. The term Nikaya, which is usually translated as sect, designates a grouping. a school. which professes particular opinions on certain points of the doctrine and discipline. Nikayas do not necessarily originate as the result of a schism. The majority of them developed spontaneously at the heart of the CommuS73 nity of the four quarters (caturdUasll/!1gha) widespread throughout the whole of India. They show up the stages of doctrinal evolution undergone by the message of Sakyamuni during its extension in time and space. The Nikayas could be compared to the religious orders which developed in the bosom of Christianity, or even better. to the Reformed Churches which live side by side without antagonism : a Calvinist does not quite share the opinions and practices of a Lutheran, but nevertheless participates in the same movement. Generally, there was no violent opposition between the adepts of the various Buddhist sects. They all considered one another as disciples of

(513-574)

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE SECTS

5J9

the Sakya, enjoying the same rights and prerogatives. They all professed the reality of SaJ!]sara and Nirva!)a and as one man adhered to the law of the dependent origination of phenomena. They only differed over secondary points of the doctrine and discipline, either because they rejected certain propositions advanced -by their neighbours. or because they avoided expressing an opinion on problems which they considered of little urgency or interest. Relations were cordial and easy between members of the different sects l : a bhik~u on his travels had the right to stay at Buddhist establishments he encountered on his.journey; he was certain to be welcomed as a guest a~d treated according to the rules of monastic courtesy, and no one would ask him for his personal opinions l . This protocol always remained effective, and the Chinese pilgrims who had occasion to visit India from the fourth to the seventh centuries frequently encountered in one and the same monastery bhil:~us of different sects apparently living in perfect hannony. The fonnation of the sects was due mainly to the geographical extension of the community over the entire Indian territory. In the region which it occupied in its own right. each Saq1gha was confronted by particular problems. The presence in its ranks of a famous scholar inevitably led it to be interested in one matter rather than another. The religious of a particular monastery tended to specialize in a specific branch of learning : the memorization of the Slitras, the Vinaya or the 574 oral instruction; the teaching of the doctrine; the recitation of a particular body of writings; the practice of meditation or textualleaming. At the heart of a given monastery, certain practical customs inevitably developed ; usages were not the same everywhere : some communities were especially strict in the application of the ruJes, others tended towards laxity. Relations with lay f,,;rcles gave each community its particular atmosphere : one could count on the benevolence and protection of a prince, another had to defend itself against his hostility; one opened its doors wide to the outside world. another enclosed itself in isolation. The Saq1gha was marked by the infinite variety of territories which it occupied: Aryan India in the Gangetic Basin, Dravidian in the south, Graeco-Scythian in the north and west. The environment deter mined the use of language and dialect, the type of clothing and food. Certain particularly rich regions, such as Magadha, Avanti and Gan dhara, could give shelter to numerous monasteries ; the jungle could feed Pili Vina)'lll, II, pp. 20712, 219; Mahisisab Vin., T 1421, clI. 27, pp. 178c S-179a 26; M.hbirp.ghika Vin., T 1425, ch. 19, p. l81a 18-c 24 ; Ohannagupta Vin., T 1428, ch. 49, pp. 930c 7-931c 28; SarvistividiD Vin., T 14)5, ch. 1, p. 300a II-b 15, c 719.

520

THE BUDDHIST SECTS

(574-57S)

only a few religious. The great number of ordinands. as at the ASoki rarna in pa~liputra. compelled several monasteries to migrate, sometimes to a great distance, and it was natural for the new foundations to preserve the mentality and habits of the mother house. The majority of the Hinayanist schools developed during the second and third centuries after the Nirval).a. that is, in the short chronology, during the last two centuries of the pre-Christian era. However, the sources which infonn us of their history arc of a much later date. These are, on the one hand. certain inscriptions in Kharoghi or Brahmi from the K~l).a period which indicate the presence of this or that school in various places ; on the other, disputations compiled in the first centuries of the Christian era in which are fonnulated and sometimes refuted series or doctrinal propositions pertaining to various sects. Among these disputations, we can point out the Pili Kathavauhu. the Samayabhedoparacanacakra by Vasumitra (second century?)l, the Nikayabhedavfb. hanga by Bhavya (fourth century) and the SamayabhedoparacanacakranikayabhedopadarianasfU!lgraha by Vinitadeva (eight century). 575 As we will see further on, these disputations were to some extent preoccupied with describing the stale of the Saf!lgha during the very period in which they were compiled. Notwithstanding, they are widely dependent on the pseudo-historical tradition concerning the formation of the sects. In them we find indications, mostly ranciful, of the origin o r the names or the sects. These take their titles from four different origins: a. A professed doctrine : Sthaviravadin professing the doctrine of the Elders; Lokottarawidin stating the supramundane dhannas; Ekavyavahdrika maintaining that Saf!lsara and Nirvil)a are nothing but fictitious denominations; Praj;;aptivddin separating the real teaching from the fictitious denomination) ; Vibhajyavddin making distinctions; Sl1J'!fkrimtivddin-Sautrimtika professing the passage of the five skandha through ex.istences and acknowledging no authority except the Sutras). b. The composition or an assembly : MahdstiJrtghika school o r the Great Assembly; Bahwrutiya school of those who have heard much ; Dharmottariya school of the elevation of the LaW; Bhadrayaniya school of the Vehicle of the Sages)). c. The localization of the sect : Haimavata dwelling in the Snowy Mountains; $llIJfJagarika dwelling in the Six TownS). or again. $llIJI No less tun five Vuumitns are known (cf. W. T"Eu. I, pp. 2734: J. M4SUDA, I.e. U p. 7). The author of the disputation is generaUy identified with the Vasu.mitra who lived 400 yeirth. The Bodhisattva immediately stood upright and took seven steps towards the four cardinal points, proclaiming that he was the eldest in the world and that this birth would be his last. Two miraculous jets of water Howed over .the mother and p child. The gods manifested their joy (Digha . II, po . 12-IS). The Bodhisattva was then presented to his father, who had him examined by seers; the latter discovered the thirty-two "Marks oJ a Great Man" on him and declared that later the child wOlild either become a powerful cakravartin king or a perfectly enlightened Buddha (Digha. II, pp. 16-19). The child, whose upbringing was entrusted to nurses, was quick to display extraordinary" qualities: his comeliness, the brilliance of his look. the gentleness of his voice and his talents attracted gcneral sympathy. His youth was speot in luxury and pleasure: three palaces, one for each season. were placed at his disposal (D'gha , II. pp. 19-21).II

Refercnccs above, p. 154. note.

652

THE BUDDH IST RELIGION

a d 'apris Its sourcts tit Sirilult . RHR. CXXXII. 1946. pp. 61-92. ". A . FOlJCI(D.. A" 8rico-bouddJIiqut dv GlJIIdJWra. II. lip. 418"'22.

(7&6-787)

MAITREYA. THE 8UDDHIST MESSIAH

709

particularly widespread on the borders of India and Iran, especially on Ihe site of Bamyan 1u . As evidenced by the Siiriputraparip(cchii (above, pp. 389-391). Maitreya took part in the persecution of ~yamitra in order to save the Buddhist texts from total destruction : he transported them to the Tusita heaven and, once the danger was over, had them brought back among mankind. Ceylon did not remain behind in the cult paid to Maitreya. The holy Mahi-Sangharakkhita did not practise vipassanii and delayed his accession to holiness in the hope of seeing him before he died (Visuddhimagga. ed. WARREN, p. 38). The last thought of King Dunhagama~i (104-80 B.C.) was for the T~ita heaven where the bodhisattva Maitreya is enthroned, and it was in that heaven that he was reborn (Mhv . XXXII, 71-5). King Dhatusena (513-522 A.D.) embellished an image of Maitreya with royal ornaments and placed a guard round it within a radius of seven yojana (Cu!avwrua , XXXVIII, 68). Statues of Maitreya were erected by Dappula I, Parakkamabahu I and Kittisiririjasiha. In Anuradhapura. Fa hsien (T 2085, p. 865c) heard a monk who had come from India reciting from the top of a pulpit a prophecy concerning Sakyamuni's alms-bowl . Fonnerly in VaiSiIi. the palra is now in GandhiTa. It would pass from country to country and finally reach the Tu~ita heaven where Maitreya would receive it. The parra would disappear and the Law of the Buddha would deteriorate. Human life-span would be reduced to five years. However. men would be penitent, and life would gradually be prolonged until it lasted for 80,000 years. At that time. the Buddha Maitreya would appear on earth, set turning the Wheel of the Law and convert the three assemblies. Fa hsien wanted to note down that prophecy. but the speaker explained to him that it was not a sutra, but merely a recitation he' had learned by heart. 187 According to the evidence of Hsuan tsang. recorded by his pupils Tao shih (in T 2123, ch. I, p. 6c-7a) and K ' uei chi (in T 1772, ch . I, p. 277c ; T 1964, p. 1000), the wish to be reborn in the Tu~ita heaven, Maitreya's paradise. was common to the two Vehicles, while only Ihe Mahayanists believed in the Sukhavati, Amitibha's paradise. The Tu~ita heaven is located in the World of Desire a nd is relatively easily reached; the Sukhiivati is a Pure Land and very difficult to accede to. Maitreyism was developed further in the Mahayana, but to speak of it here would be a digression from the subject we have assigned ourselves. Maitreya appears in it as a god of light 119. a consoler receiving the.1' O. 8lttJML, UJ ,;'u nltJ /ouillu ttl A/,hattiJlatt, RAA . VlIl, pp. 116- 19. U. See C. SoPD., AJ~clS 0/ UgIIl Symbolum itt GattdlWrQl/ &uipturt. An. As . XII. 1949, pp. 25283 : 314-30; XIII. 1950. pp. 6) 83.

710

THE BUDDHIST RELIGION

(787-788)

188

"confession of sins" 1)0. and a guide of spirits after death I) I . Above all, he is an inspirer, the support of masters of the Law in their doubts and crises of discouragement: entering into absorption, the scholars can ascend to the Tu~ita heaven to see Maitreya and receive his clarifications; if necessary, Maitreya himself descends to earth, there to recite texts. Aware too of what they owe him, it was not unusual for certain scholars to attribute the paternity of their own works to the "Master Maitreya" (Maitreyanatha). It goes without saying that this master was in no way a historical person Ill. Great minds, such as the Chinese master Hsiian tsang. lived in perpetual communion of mind and heart with Maitreya. We will conclude with an adventure which happened to Hsuan tsang during his travels in India, and which is narrated in his biography (T 2053, ch. 3, p. 2340), and summarized as follows by P. Demieville III : Hsuan tsang was dccending the Ganges when he was attacked by brigands, who decided to sacrifice him to Ourga; they prepared a tn4IJrfala where they intended to cut his throat, and were already brandishing their knftes. Hsuan tsang asked them for a moment in which to meditate and "pass away in joy". The master of the Law concentrated his mind on the palace of the Tu~itas . He thought of the bodhisattva Maitreya and made the aspiration to be reborn near him in order to worship him and receive the YogiiciirabhiimiSdstra from him .. . Then it seemed to him in his imagination that he ascended Mount Sumeru then, having passed beyond the first, second and third heaven, that he could see the palace of the Tu~itas, with the bodhisattva Maitreya on his sublime terrace of jewels, surrounded by his assembly of dtva. At that moment, his heart was filled with joy; the m01)rfala and the brigands were all forgotten ... A storm saved him, but Maitreya always remained an object of particular veneration for him. What else is there in common between this Maitreyan mysticism and the cold reality of the sage of Kapilavastu? That sage who declared :

All accumulations tnd in ruin; All elevations end in downfall ; Unions end in separation; Lift ends in death.

\30 On these: fonnulu of confession. sec W. B.ur.UCH. op. cil . pp. 7S-6. I .U O . M . LALOV, UJ CMmilu tAl morl daIU ~J croyanctJ tk Hault A.J~ . RHR, Jan. Mar. 1949. pp. 428. III All these malleTS have been dealt with in detail by P. DDotvlLLE, in BEFEO, XLIV, 19S4 : Maitftjd l'ilupirtl/tIl' (pp. 37{..87), lA paradis tk Mtli lrtya (pp. 1879Sj. lU Ibid., p. 188.

( 789790)

'"

ADDENDA

790

New edicts of Asoka and the bilingual inscription of Kandahiir . Three new edicts of ASoka have been discovered in recent times: I. The inscription at Gujarra, in the district of Datia in Vindhaya Pradesh. Discovered in 1953 by Lai Chand Sarma, it was identified as an Aiokan edict by Dr. B. Ch. Chabra and published with a facsimile by D.C. SIRCAR, Guja"ii Inscription of Asoka. Epigraphia Indica, XXXI, 1956, pp. 204-10. It is the first of the Minor Inscriptions on rock. various recensions of which have been noted above (p. 225). It begins with the words Deviiniifrlpiyasa Piyatiasino A.sokariijasa, and is therefore the second recension known until now in which the name of Aioka is given. the first being the Maski recension (cf. BLOCH, p. 145). From the grammatical point of view, we nole the verb smi (Skt. asml) instead of sumi attested to at Sahasrim, Riipnath, Maski and Gavima~h. The other peculiarities conform to the linguistic habits of the Aiokan administration : the termination in -e in the nominative masculine singular, and in the nominative and accusative neuter singular; the ending in -mino of the middle present participle and the old infinitive endings in piipotave and iiriidhayitave. 2. The inscription at Rajula-Ma~"agiri in the taluk of Pattiko,,"a in the district of Kumool. Discovered in 1946, this inscription was published by D.C. SmcAR, Riijula-MWJtjagiri Inscription oj Asoica. Epigraphia Indica, XXXI. 1956, pp. 211-18. It consists of fifteen very mutilated lines, derived from the first two Minor Inscriptions on rock. This new recension is practically identical to that of Yerragu4i. discovered in the same district in 1929 (sec BLOCH, pp. 145-51). 3. The bilingual Gracco-Aramaic inscription of Kandahar in Afghanistan. This sensational discovery dates from the early months of 1958 and has already been the subject of two Italian publications : U. ScERRATO. An Inscription oj Asoka discovered in Afghanistan : the bilingual Greek-A.ramaic of Kandahiir , East and West, IX. 1958. pp. 4-6; Un editto bifingue greco-aramaico di Asota (Ia prima iscrizione groca scoperta in Afghanistan). Testo . traduzione e note a cura di G. PuGLIESE CARRATELLI e di G. LEVI DELLA VIDA con preJazione di G. TucCI e introduzione di U. SCERRATO (Serie Orientale Roma. XXI), Rome. 1958 . Greek script was known in Iran from the end of the fourth century R.C. until the time of the Sassanids; however. under the Achaemenids it consisted as yet of only unimportant scribbiings. The oldest text is an

712

ADDENDA

( 79(). 791 >

epitaph of a Greek, Nicocles of Sinopc:, possibly prior to Alexander's conquest I . The bilingual inscription at Kandahar is the o nly Asokan edict compiled in Greek as well as the first Greek inscription found in Afghanistan. On the other hand, the importance of Aramaic, both as a language and a script, during the first six centuries of the pre-Christian era and the first centuries of the new era, has long been recognized 1. Under the Achaemenids. alongside the Old Persian noted in cuneiform characters, Aramaic, used by specialized scribes. served as the universal language in the Near and Middle East. Aramaic texts have been discovered in Egypt J , lydia, Iran' and Transcaucasia 6 Even in India, the influence of Aramaic was shown by the invention of the KharoHhi alphabet and the presence of some inscriptions in Aramaic language and script. 791 The Kharo~ ~hi alphabet', a derivative of the Aramaic script, was used in North-West India, from the third century B.C. to the seventh century A.D . for writing down hadian texts in Prakrit and Sanskrit. It served to note down the edicts of ASoka promulgated in Sh3bazgarhT (District of Peshawar) and Mansehra (District of Hazara) in the third century B.C. It then appeared on the inscriptions B and coins of Yavana, SakaPahlava and KU~1).a dynasts who succeeded one another in West lndia. It was again used in manuscripts II and archival documents 10 in Central, See F. CuWONT, /1U(TiptiOlU gucqurJ th /'IrM. Memoirt$ de la Delegatio n archwlogi. que en Persc, XX. 1928, pp. 77 sq.; C . H UUT and L. I>Eu.roaTE, L"lran An,iqw t/ /11Civilisation irM~nM. Paris. 1943, p. 24. I G . 8 0NtD-, ItldisclK PaJ~og,tlph~. Strasbourg, 1896, pp. 20-1. l E. SA.CHAU, Aram. Pap . u. OSlrakll . 1911; A. E. COWLEY, Aram. Pap . of 1M FiflJr Crn/IIT), 8 .C" 1923; H . H . ScH.. mF..lt, Iran. /kiIrQgr. 1930. Aramaeo-lydian bilingual; F. Sowwu. and P. KAHLE. KlrmtlJMr. Fond .. 1927, pp. 1886. I Aramaic inscription on the tom b or Darius (E. HEJ.U"ELD. Alrptnucht 11I$d"ifren. Berlin, 1938, p. 12); papyrus or Avroman in Anllmaic script (E. H . MINNS, Journ of Hellenic Stud., XXXV, 191' ; H.S. NYlD.o, Mondt O'~n/aJ. XVII, pp. 182 sq.). Inscription of Mukhela, ncar Tillis (G. TSEUllIEU, A bilingual lfUcriptiOfl from Armazi. 1941 ; M.N. Too, Jo urn. of Roman Stud., 1944. pp. 82 sq. ; H .W . 8AlLEY, JRAS, I94J, pp. 1 sq. ; H.S. NY8D.G, Eranos, XLIV, 1946, pp. 228 sq.). , See lbc notice devoted by 1. FU.LlOZAT to the Aramaeo-Indian script in C. F~y, NOlictJ JUr Itl caroe/iUI rtrangtrs C11IC~1U t l madtrMs. no uy. cd. Imprimerie Nationale, Paris, 1948, pp. 23542. H. W. 8AJLEY, A Problrm of tlst X/rllrof{Jrf ScrjP/ . Clrnbr. Or. StriC3, II, 1950, pp. I J . I C f. S. KONOW, KharoUhi /tucripliOfU. (Corpus inscriptionum Indicarum, II , part I), Calcutta, 1929. Dutrcuil de Rhins manU$CTipt, above, p. 568, n. 46. 10 The NiYI documenl.t, sec above, p. 569, n. 48.

cr.

( 791 -792)

THE BILINGUAL INSCRIPTION OF KANDAHAR

713

Asia during the firsl centuries of the Christian era. Finally, the most recent fragments in Kharo~!hi script have been found in the region of KuC3, mixed with documents from the seventh century . However, North-West India has not only given us Indian texts in writing derived from Aramaic. but has also supplied some inscriptions in the Aramaic language and script. The first is a mutilated inscription found in 1915 at Taxila-Sirkap by Sir John Marshall l l . It consists of a dozen lines and was composed in honour of a high official named Romed6te, who owed his advancement to the patronage of the viceroy or governor Priyadarii. In all likelihood, Ihis was Asoka. who was governor of Taxila before his accession to the throne (see above. pp. 223. 239). A second .Aramaic inscription. of eight mutilated lines. was discovered in Lampaka (Laghman), at Piil-i-Darunteh, near Nagarahara (present192 day Jelaiabad) 11 . This is an edict of Devanaqtpriya (Asoka), in Aramaic script and language, with a few tenns borrowed from Middle Indian and which are found again in particular on the 5th, 9th and 13th rock Edicts, as well as the 3r* and 5th pillar Edicts. The third inscription in Aramaic language and script is the bilingual edict of Kandahar, in Afghanistan. According to the traditional interpretation, Kandahar represents Alexandria of Arachosia 13. It is true that, on the basis of the evaluations of the ancient bematists, Droysen and Tam 14 located the metropolis of Arachosia in Ghazni and identified Kandahar with the Alexandropolis near Sakastene recorded by Isodorus of Charax in the Sta/jones Parthicae. 18 and 19. However, E. Barin-Foucher 1 s. on geographical grounds. protested at that "fantastic" L.D. B.umTT, Alf Aramaic IlfSCriplion from Taxi/u. JRAS, 1915, pp. J40.2 ; A. E. Cowuv. TM Firsl Arumuic lrucripliutl /rum I"",". JRAS. 191 5, pp. 3427; Sir JOHN MAUHALL.. A GuUk IfJ Taxi/a. Calculla, 1918, pp. 75-6 (2nd cd., Delhi, 1936. p. 90); E. HEltZFnD, A Mil' AIOIVI lrucriplion fram Taxi/a . EI, XIX, 1928, pp. 251-3; F.C. ANDiUAS, rIr/4nlllg tkr aramQUcMIf lrucllrift I'0Il Taxi/u, NGWG, phil. hist. KJ. 1932. pp. 6-17 ; Si r JOHN M.usHALL., Taxi/a, I, Cambridge. 195 1, pp. 15. 164-5. II H. BIJ.KELAND, Ein~ aramQiscMIf lIuc"'ift alU AfghlVlist(JII, Acta Or . XVI, 1938, pp. 222 33; F. ALTlIEI", WtilgtJcllicllu AJ~1fJ im g,i.uhischt" ai/a/ur. I, Halle I . S., 1947, pp. 125-42 ; W. B. HE.~NINQ, TIlt Aramaic IlfJcriplialf of AJo/ca found in Lamp6ko. BSOAS, XIII, 1949, pp. 8().S. U J . KAUST , GtJcllichlt dllS H~II~lflsmllS, 3rd. cd., Leipzig. 1927, p. 430, n. 3; H. KlErnT. AI/aJ AllliquUJ, Berlin, tab. II DII. ; G. Glotz, Histairt Grtcqw, IV, Pari" 1938, pp. 123, 162, 245. ,. J.G . DJ.OVSEN, GtJchichlt., Htlltni.rmlU , III, 2, Gotha, 1878, pp. 217 sq. ; W.W. T ....."', 1M Grttlcs ill /Joctria and lNiia. 2nd. ed., Cambridge, 1951 , pp. 62, 93, 320, 471).1 ; AlutJfIMr I~ GrtOI . II, Cambridge, 1948, pp. 2)4, 249. IS JA , Jul.Sept., 1938, p. 514.

714

ADDENDA

( 192-793 >

error" and A. Foucher i6 , after a new scrutiny of the matter, saw mediaeval Kandahar as a successor to Alexandria of Arachosia. The discovery of the bilingual edict at Shar-i-Kuna proves the existence of a Greek. settlement near Kandahar. We have already given an outline of the history of Arachosia . Organized as a satrapy by Alexander the Great, it was governed successively by Menon from 330 to 325 (p. 111), and by Sibyrtius. host and friend of the historian Megasthenes. from 325 to 316. Sibyrtius succeeded in retaining his post during the three successive partitions of the satrapies, by Perdiccas in 323 (p. 113), Antipater in 321 (p. 113) and Antigunus in 316 (p_ 116). In 311, Arachosia and the other higher satrapies passed into the hands of Seleucus I Nicator (pp. 116) but the latter, after his unsuccessful attack. against Candragupta, had to surren der it, at least in part, to his adversary (pp. 116--118). For more than a 793 century, from approximately 304 to 200, Arachosia lived within the orbit of the Indian empire of the Mauryans. The two Aramaic inscrip-tions of ASoka, that of lWJi Darunteh in Lampaka and that of Kanda har in Arachosia, probably marked the western limit of the Mauryan empire. In about the year 200, shortly before the collapse of that empire. Arachosia fell into the hands of the Greek king of Bactria, Euthydemus of Magnesia (p. 372). The bilingual edict of Kandahar is dated in the tenth elapsed year after the consecration of Asoka, i.e. according to the calculation adopt ed here, the year 228 after the Nirvana ""' 258 B.C. It would therefore be the oldest ASokan edict known until now and would antedate by two years the first two inscriptions at Barabar, in 256 B.C., and by four years that of the fourteen great rock Edicts of 254 B.C. (see above, pp. 225 226). It was in the tenth year of his reign that Asoka, inspired with extreme zeal, set out for the Enlightenment, initiated the Dharma tour (dharmayiitra) with audiences. preachings and the distribution of gold to the religious and the old : 256 nights passed in that tour (see above, pp. 226-227). We reproduce here the Greek text of the bilingual edict, as read and translated by G . Pugliese Carratelli :

M:lCa tniw 'ltA.llPll [... Jwv Pat[A.:\f:lx; nlOOaoO'le; OOpl:la{v f5)[t)l;tv .oie; Qv 9pd'ao::a difficilc. 69S (21) __ hard to attain. 69S

dur,a/i, apdyaDauY.ise destine.:. 34 (13). 69S (I). 697 (10) __ unhappy destiny, 34. 69S. 697

mujaytl < b/riimi>dil6cilc' conquerir. 69S (25) ..... hard to conque:r. 695

diita

mc:ssap. 250 (29) -- enyoy, 250~,Ir~yavoitdm~ytJ

-- tee dtJrJallohtytJ

drnyupddllna

"'..

lltachanml aux vucs rausses. 41 ( 19) .... arupiD, rabc views, 41dieu, 34 (13), 179 (14). 697 (13) -- aod. )4, 179, 697

824/kYQla

INDEX OF TEC HN ICAL TERMS

divinik, 7) (3)) -- deity. 1)

tkwltitkradicu lu-dessUS des dicuI, 692 (Jl dicu superieur lUll dieull , 114 (I S)

__ ,ocI above ,ods, 692 Bod su~rior to the goos, 714 del/ova/tira[)es,omlt des dicux , ]72 (2 1) -- I>eKent of the Gods, 312

do,.luIine. 660 (27) __ haired, 660(_ al50 I .V. d~,)

d4uJ#iliyaimmoraLiIC:. 91 ( 18) --. immorality. 91

dral/yatillite rCcllc, 66S (2), 677 (IJ) unite, 666 (26) IUItUil:, 667 (S,2S) enlilt, 676 ( 12) __ real entity. 66S, 677 unit. 666

subilance. 667trllily. 616(substantial en tity)drQv)'QIW

en rait, 66i ( 14) commc cntilt, 61 1 (26), 675 (I I) - . substantiaUy, 668 u an entity. 671 , 675

dvangulaks dew: doi,u, U8 (22) --. the I WO finJCfl. 138

dWIQhainc, 38 (23), 682 (29)

-

hal~ . )8,

682

~ayutta

lltache i \a Loi, 794 (30) ..... attached to tbe Law, 794

DhanrmDpaliyo),oSermon sur la Loi, 256 (21) ...... DiKOu.ne on the Law, 256

INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMSdhammtutur'gahocompila tio n de la Loi, 61S (14) riCdition eomplete de La Loi, 153 (6) __ compkte rc-edition or the Law, IS) compilation of the Law,6 IS

825

dlIammf kalhii

upose de I, Loi, 8) (20)__ religious discou rse , 8)

dharmaLoi, passim objet de pmsCe, )2 (ll doctrine. I SS (10), 156 (27), 21l (4) rClk, 211 ( 12) chose, 218 (3 1), 65) (10), 666 (14), 677 (18) c1Cment de ]'uistenoe, 658 ( 18), fR9 (17) Ioj de caractere religieul. 194 (24) __ Law, passim

object of thought . )2doctrine. ISS-56, 211 rule,2 1l thin" 218, 653. 666, 677 element or existence_ 658, 699 reliaious law, 794

dharmaJea(hika ilI ustrc dills la pRdicatio n, 164 (I) predicateur de pro ression , 111 (l l)ptidicateur, 403 (19) ricitateur de II Loi , 4SS (29) -- ramed u instructor. 164

prorwional instructor, )11inlUuctor, 403 instrllClor of the Law, 4SS

dlwrmDkiiya corps de la Loi, 372 (18), 689 (8) -- body o f the Law. 372. 689(dodo""l body)dJuumag~

--

vertu de II Loi , 254 (9) vinue of tbe Law, 254

ditarmacarinscctateur de la Loi , 218 (17), 549 (n. 23) -- practitio ner of tbe Law , 218, 549

dJuJrmajil6NJ,,"voir. 681 ( 18) -- knowkdae, 681 (ltnowkd&e o f tbe th ings)

dlwrmalanature des choses, 27 (lIJ, 181 (2). 222 ( ].C)

826

INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS

-- essential nature of things, 27, 181. 222

dltarmadanodon de la Loi, 73 (10) __ girt of tbe Law, n

dJwrnuukiandmseignement de I, Lai, Sol ( 24). 211 (37) ..... teaching of the law, 84, 213

(nposilion of)

dJtarmod/wradogma licic:n, 353 (29)__ dogmatist, ]5)(keeping the Dharma in his memory)

dharmopravactVIQ expose de la Loi, 160 (2) __ definition of the Law, 160 dJtarmapravicayadisctrnemcnl des choses, 67 (II) __ discernment of things. 61

dl!o'mabhiillax.amissionairt bouddhiquc, ]29 (22) -. Buddhist missi onary . )29

(preacher of the Dharma)

DharmomaJigalaCbimonie de Ia Loi, 253 (2) __ Ceremony of the Dharma, 2B

dhorntlJJ1Wgha nuge de ta Loi, 696 (17)-0

cloud of the Law, 696

dJUJrmayiitrdtoumCe de 1a 1.oi. 248 (l), 2SO (23), 79) ( IS) __ Dharma lou r, 248, lSO, 79)

dJtarmariijaroi de Ia justice, 5)3 (15)-- riJhteous kinl. 53)

DharrMlaJqa1J4bhidharmaAbhidharma des caracteristjqun de 1a 1..oi. 209 ( Il) -- Abhidhanna of the features of the law, 209

Dharmov;vardJtanoAocroissemenl de Ia Loi, 269 (30) ..... Increase of the law, 269 dJuumiUkandlwarticle de Ia Loi, ISS (16). 162 (18 ) -- Irti Illumination. 17 (lS) ..... EnliJhlcnmenl. 17

lxxJhigharamaison pour I"ubrc Nitre. 295 (I) temple de I'.rbn: de Ia Sodbi, 704 (26)

__ house for the holy tree, 295 l.empk of the Bodhi tree, 704

bodhicaJcaporte-roue, 4SS ( 19) - . wheel-bearer, 45S

bodhicillQpcnsee de !'Illumination, 89 (30), 693 (l7) __ thouahl of ElIlilhtenment, 89, 693

Bodhisattvabhiimi Terres du bodhisauVI, 696 (ll) ..... Stages of the Bodhisattva, 696

brahmacaryavic purt, 73 (14)

vie rcligicusc, 708 (ll) __ pure li(e, 7l religious life, 708

bhaktiadoration. 81 (5) devotion, 86 (21), 476 ( I) devotion totlle, 4)4 ( 10) pure devotion. 78S (14) __ devotion. II, 16, 476 lotal devotion , 04 pure devotion, 185

8Nuirayaniyaecole du Vthiculc des sages. 575 ( 19) __ IiChool of the VcrucJc of the Sages. S7S

bhovaexistence, 4' (25) __ existence, 41

bhavwigasul)conscience, 66 1 (I)

...... subconsciousness, 661

bhawmgasotocourant de Ia IUbc:onJcleno:, 662 (5)

...... stream of lhe subconscious, 662

bNmuaJcrQcercle de l'U.iltmce, 42 (33) ..... tircle of UiSleDOll, 42

INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS

843

bhavalrfnQsoif d'elliltence, 38 (14) ..... thint for existence, 38

bhavadufivue fauS$C de I'exiltente, 54 (28) vue d'existencc, 55 (2) ..... f.lse view of eQllen

(Phot. Auboyet.)

XIV. -

Saiki. G reat Stiipa. Nothern gateway.

(Pbot. Foucbn.)

xv. -

Amariivati. Conception and birth of the Buddha.

(Phot. MuKoe Guimet.)

XVI. -

Amanivati. The Great Departure.

(Phot. India Office.)

(Pbot. Royal Academy or Arts, Londres.)

XVII . -

Bharhot.

Yak~ .

Bharhut.

YIl~iI)I.

I

(Jndian Muxum, Calcuua.)

XIX. -

Bhii rhul. Rurujataka.

.

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