lao tesol conference proceedings: selected papers (2013-2015)

Lao TESOL Conference Proceedings: Selected Papers (2013-2015)

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Table of Contents

Opening Addresses in Honour of Lao TESOL Conference Proceedings…. 3-5

1. Sisamone Sithirajvongsa ………………………………………… 6-9 The National Education System Reform Strategy: The Role of English 2. David Beckett …………………………………………..………..... 10-16 English for Lifelong Learning 3. Emily Clark ……………………………………………..…………. 17 Teaching Writing: Using Rubrics as Fair and Accurate Assessment Tools 4. Ladomchanh Khantry and Vongduane Osay …………………… 18-20 Improving Teacher-Student Interaction through the Introduction of the Rules for Asking Questions and the Use of Speaking Activities and Games in the EFL Classroom 5. Ted Rodgers ………….……………….…………………………….. 21-27 ‘Stories’ as the Content for Content Based Instruction 6. Alison Kitzman …………………..………………………………….. 28-36 “Couja say_it_again?”: Needed Skills for Understanding Natural Speech 7. Amanda Gillis-Furutaka ………………………..……….…………. 37-48 Activities for Active Reading in Class 8. Donna Fujimoto ……………………………..……….…………. 49-51 Everybody has a Story 9. Evelyn Naoumi .…………….…………………………..….….…… 52-59 Developing Presentation Skills 10. Martin R. Momoda ………………………………………..………… 60-67 Symbolic Gestures That Make Memories Last: Momosign 11. Steven Graham ………………………..……………….………….… 68-75 English for Communication in Multicultural Societies: An Example 12. Ted Rodgers …………………………………………………………… 76-80 Voice and Variety in ELT: Reflections on the Lao TESOL 2015 Plenary Presentations

Editorial Board for Lao TESOL Conference Proceedings…………………. 81


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Opening Addresses in Honour of Lao TESOL Conference Proceedings

General Comments of Support on the Importance of English for the Future Development of Laos Professor Dr. Soukkongseng Saignaleuth President of National University of Laos The 12th Annual Lao TESOL Conference in Vientiane Capital early last year was particularly successful in creating an intellectually encouraging atmosphere, and providing our participants with opportunities to present and discuss improvements, developments and concerns in TESOL. We are honoured to inform our readership and contributors that the Lao TESOL Conference Proceedings: Selected Papers (2013-2015) is now available online.

Under the conference theme of “Empowering the Regional and International Links through Improving English Language Education”, the Proceedings feature an interesting collection of twelve articles in which contributors share their insights from their teaching and research experiences from a variety of socio-cultural contexts. This gathering of articles offers our local and international communities of TESOL practitioners and researchers both pedagogical and theoretical visions on current movements in TESOL so as to keep them in touch with developments in the field. We therefore hope that our readership will find the articles both intellectually motivating and pedagogically useful in their research and teaching environment.

At this opportunity, we would like to express thankfulness to all of our conference participants, the Deputy Chief of Mission of the U.S. Embassy to Vientiane, the Lao PDR, the Regional English Language Officer of the U.S. Embassy to Bangkok, Thailand; Vientiane College Director and teachers, Kiettisack International School teachers, the Teachers-Helping-Teachers-Japan Team Members (THT-Japan), ThaiTESOL Committee Members, DKTODAY, numerous esteemed international and local partners, and dedicated conference organizing committee members for their support of the conference. Our heartfelt gratitude and acknowledgement also go to all authors, reviewers, and IT specialists for all their significant expertise, dynamic effort and commitment to bring the Proceedings to realisation. It has been our pleasure working with such professionals.

On a final note, we trust that Lao TESOL will enjoy the continued support of its wide and varied audience and that we will join hands in making the mastery of the English language a much more steadily achievable goal for English language learners. Consequently, we keep looking forward to welcoming you again to the upcoming annual conference under the theme of Creating Work Opportunities through English Language Education to be held on February 4-5, 2016 in Vientiane, the Lao PDR.


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Thank you Message from the Lao TESOL President Associate Professor Dr. Phetsamone Khounsavath Lao TESOL President

The 12th Annual Lao TESOL Conference under the theme “Empowering the Regional and International Links through Improving English Language Education” was successfully held on February 2-3, 2015 in Vientiane, the Lao PDR. First and foremost, on behalf of the Lao TESOL Conference Committee Members, I would sincerely like to express our deepest thanks for the main sponsors for the most generous donations, and several types of tokens from donors, as well as the conference participants who have actively taken part in our Annual Lao TESOL Conference 2015. In particular, our most important sponsors and donors, namely, the U.S. Embassy to the Lao PDR, the Regional English Language Officer from the U.S. Embassy to Thailand, Vientiane College, DKTODAY, Kiettisack International School, local business groups and companies, state enterprises, and private educational institutes, among others. Generous gifts from donors like these have offered the financial and educational support and other types of tokens such as bags, dictionaries, stationery, textbooks, T-shirts, and umbrellas needed to continue our missions. With their valuable contributions over the years, they have demonstrated their profound commitment to our work of the annual Lao TESOL conference events -- providing daily allowances, accommodation, and transportation costs for the provincial teachers enabling them to attend as active participants, conference facilities for the overall participants, among other necessary conference expenses.

Their generous support has repeatedly played a key role in our success in organizing our successful annual Lao TESOL conference events – bolstering English Language Teaching and Learning Development Programmes in both public and private schools throughout the country, promoting learners of all genders and ages to learn English for the ASEAN Economic Community, and creating jobs for young people, among other similar educational development plans.

There is no way to fully express our gratitude for their loyalty. We at the National University of Laos are continually inspired by the dedication and generosity of donors like these establishments, institutions and organizations who answer our calls over and over again. On the final note, we are enormously grateful to those organizations, local state enterprises, and educational institutes which have supported our annual conference this year. Without the support of these benevolent organizations and local companies, our conference would not be possible. Please accept our heartfelt thanks and best wishes.


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Message of the Proceedings’ Chair Associate Professor Dr. Bouasavanh Keovilay Proceedings Chair

Since the 8th Annual Lao TESOL Conference 2010 up until the 12th Annual Lao TESOL Conference 2015, the event has consistently progressed as an important resource for our participants, providing opportunities to present and discuss wide-ranging English teaching-learning approaches, techniques, innovations, trends and concerns in TESOL at the National University of Laos (Dong Dok Campus), Vientiane Capital, the Lao PDR.

Through the most professional dedication and responsibility of all the locally and internationally devoted conference organizing committee members, first of all, on behalf of the Proceedings Chair, I am delighted that all the assigned commitments on the preparation of the Proceedings of the 12th Lao TESOL Conference 2015 have principally been completed on time.

Under the 2015 conference theme of “Empowering the Regional and International Links through Improving English Language Education”, the Proceedings have revealed diverse perspectives on the profound awareness from the contributors’ teaching and research experiences as well as from a variety of social cultural backgrounds. These articles will be provided as authentically invaluable materials for our local and international communities of TESOL practitioners and researchers with both pedagogical and theoretical insights on current trends in TESOL. Therefore, I hope that our readership will find the articles both intellectually appealing and pedagogically worthwhile in their research and teaching environment.

Once again, as Chair of the Lao TESOL Conference, I highly value the significant and painstaking work of reviewing and editing of all the local and international Lao TESOL Committee Members for the vigorous perseverance, responsibility, and self-sacrifice they have performed. To reach this standard, it requires all of us to think creatively, critically, and innovatively, and I wish to thank everyone who has contributed to these Proceedings in striving to that endeavour as a whole, as well as for the continuing development of innovative and stimulating language education for our students as our future successors. On a final note, I am privileged to wish all the Lao TESOL Conference Organizing Committee Members the best of health, happiness, wealth, and success in their lives and professions.


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The National Education System Reform Strategy: The Role of English

Associate Professor Dr. Sisamone Sithirajvongsa Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education and Sports Lao TESOL, 29-30 Jan. 2013 Background information The idea behind the need for education system reform came from the Eighth Congress of the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party in March 2008 which re-emphasized its long-term national development goal of enabling the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) to graduate from the ranks of the least developed countries by 2020, and to build the basic human and physical infrastructure for the shift to industrialization and modernity. In order to achieve this goal, the Congress confirmed that during the period 2006 to 2010 and beyond, education is to be considered the main focus for human resource development. Reform of the national education system is urgently required for the improvement of educational quality and standards.

Over the last 20 years since the introduction of a market economy, the national education system has gradually improved in terms of quantity and quality. The current education system developed through an eclectic approach, which drew upon the best aspects from the education system of the colonial era, of the semi-royalist era, and the revolutionary era. The system has also introduced ideas pertaining to “new education”, drawing on lessons learned from experiences in other countries. However, the education system still has not achieved an appropriate balance between quantity and quality. In its development it has not directly followed a national education strategy and it does not complement the current goals for socio-economic development. In addition, the status of teachers and incentive systems for them are still not sufficiently advanced to allow teachers to devote themselves to effective teaching. It is therefore time to solve these problems by reforming the national education system.

Through the National Education System Reform Strategy 2006-2015, an overall goal for education has been set, directions and strategies have been established, and a plan for the implementation of the Strategy has been prepared. In this way the Strategy aims to gradually improve the national education system leading to better growth and quality and moving the education system towards international standards. Furthermore, the aims will also be to educate the Lao people to be good citizens, knowledgeable, creative and enthusiastic. Through education people will gain employment, will learn to protect their own health, and will behave with the integrity necessary to meet the demands of the socio-economic development of the country.

Why is English important for the Lao PDR’s education system? As the world changes very fast in all areas, there has been a switch in the form of economic competition and cooperation from the nationalised form to a globalised form in the 21st century, which has compelled all countries, big or small, and rich or poor, to be part of it. In this circumstance, English gradually increases its prevalent role not only as a


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language for international communication, but a language for economy, politics, science and technology, and more importantly for education. This new form of economic change will certainly shape the role and status of English to a more complex level – a level at which English is the language of the global technology and economy. As a result, the need for English is increasing to serve more purposes than ever before in different countries across the world. Some of the growth areas of the ELT market include countries in Central and Eastern Europe, the countries of the former Soviet Union, and Asia, where economic and political changes have been significant over the past decades.

In the context of Laos, English has been recognized as the most important foreign language for socio-economic development. It serves as a tool for international communication in the Lao civil service. It is widely used in both public and private economic sectors such as business, tourism and, trade. It is also regarded as a tool to access modern science and technology. The main factor for the Lao PDR to recognise English as the most important foreign language has been a result of the opening up of the country to a market economy, which switched the country’s economic system from a centrally planned and nature-based economy to a more market-oriented economy. This policy was introduced in response to the demand for the country’s socio-economic growth as well as in conformity with current changes in the world situation, which demanded new forms of international relations and economic cooperation amongst countries in the region and the world over.

The implementation of the new market economy allowed an opening up of trade between Laos, Asian, and Western countries, as well as more access to development assistance from aid agencies, most of whom operate in the English language. Thus, a strong demand for the English language began. Pressure came from all sectors to meet this demand. The joint efforts for economic cooperation amongst Asian-Pacific countries (APEC), and amongst South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) have resulted in the opening up of trade with international communities, and the need to establish a broader base of international relations, to which English is firmly bound. In order to meet these circumstances, the Ministry of Education (MOE) played a key role to promote English in the Lao education system.

The promotion of English in the country’s education system is in line with the educational development strategy issued by the Ministry of Education of Lao PDR in 2000, which states,

“Internationally and regionally, our country is moving towards the era of the borderless information and new scientific and technological research in which computers, English language and Internet have become necessary tools for communication and business. Resulting from this fast changing world in economic development over the past years, not only has human resource development been managed in equipping personnel with knowledge and skills but also in developing their capability to adapt themselves to the situation for existence, survival and development.”

The statement has reflected the real need for English in the Lao Education System Reform Strategy.


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ELT reform requirements The reform demands that English be promoted in the national education system, both public and private, starting from year three of primary education to university. In regard to English language teaching, the strategy calls upon all departments and stakeholders concerned to “pay attention to …… introducing the knowledge of IT into the lower secondary education level and the teaching of foreign languages (English) to the primary education level”.

As far as ELT is concerned, all departments and stakeholders concerned are supposed to do the following tasks:

• Explore and introduce foreign language teaching (English) at the primary education level. In the Education Sector Development Framework, which is regarded as the most important document to support the implementation of the reform strategy, the need for the introduction of ELT in the school curricula is indicated and required to start in 2011 at year 3 of primary education.

• Develop ELT curricula and syllabi • Revise teacher training curriculum: All teacher training institutes are required to

revise their training programs in support to all primary and secondary student teachers so that they are equipped with a certain background of English language proficiency and basic teaching methodology upon their graduation.

• Produce ELT textbooks based on the new syllabi • Provide in-service training on ELT to all primary teachers

Progress in ELT reform In response to the above-mentioned requirements, some progress has been made as follows:

• Primary education curricula revision in progress; • ELT syllabi developed in progress for both primary schools and teacher training

institutes; • Five student textbooks published: English for Lao Primary Schools (student’s

books 1-5)

Recommended steps In order to make the realization of the ELT reform successful it is recommended that an implementation plan be established consisting of the following activities:

• Orientation workshop on the new ELT curriculum at macro-level with involvement of all stakeholders concerned;

• Provide more training workshops to primary school teachers on the new curricula and syllabi;

• Provide a series of training on the use of ELT textbooks (student’s and teacher’s Books);

• Do piloting in selected schools;


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• Conduct monitoring and assessment work;

Challenges Although progresses have been made in the process of ELT curriculum reform, major challenges are still prevalent, which will inevitably hinder to some extent implementation of the reform such as:

• The implementation plan for changing educational management mechanisms, especially the improvement of management at the macro and micro levels, the improvement of school management mechanism, and the improvement of all pre-service and in-service programs is still with a particular emphasis on education quality improvement, which is a complex task to do;

• Exploring and changing attitudes, guidelines and assessment methodologies, undertake monitoring and evaluation, eliminate negativity, and improve teaching methodology;

• Training teachers to do the job is still a major challenge because almost all the current existing number of teachers in primary schools still have little or no English language background;

• Budget allocation for the implementation is still high and uncertain; • Technical assistance is required and the cost is expected to be high;


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English for Lifelong Learning Professor David Beckett Deputy Dean, Melbourne Graduate School of Education The University of Melbourne

Why is the LaoTESOL 2013 Conference theme Strengthening in Communication through ELT important? In my paper, I want to present some evidence and arguments for improving communication in all our work and across the lifespan. This is as important as breathing, or talking, or learning. This is, therefore, a bold paper that makes the following claims:

(a) communication is strengthened when opportunities for communication are created through good teaching

(b) this is ‘teaching for lifelong learning’

(c) opportunities for communication centre on practical judgements (what Aristotle called phronesis) – and I give several examples of pedagogical practices that allow these judgements to flourish.

By ‘lifelong learning’, I mean learning formally and informally (through experiences) across the life-span, including schooling. Whether you are a TESOL teacher in a primary, or secondary or tertiary setting, in Lao PDR, you will learn to be confident about your teaching, and maybe even feel you can loosen it up a bit, since the focus of this article is on lifelong learning, that is, for learners of any age.

First, I look at TESOL and focus on local practices, professionals and their decision-making (‘practical judgements’). Then I investigate communication using two workplace examples: paediatrics, and paramedicine–and what is learned from them. At the heart of this paper are three adult learning principles–the fundamentals of lifelong learning. National education policies are also important–and I give an example (Thailand), and link these briefly to the benefits and challenges of national competencies and skills. I conclude the paper by setting out what good teachers can do to promote English for lifelong learning, and I list some examples of pedagogies that give opportunities for practical judgements.

TESOL and Everyday English

Lifelong learning is not just something that floats across the globe, and which some countries can grasp and develop, and some can leave behind. I am much encouraged by a new interest in TESOL (and all education) at the local, or ‘street’ or ‘classroom’ level. Prominent researchers in TESOL have recently stated:

Prior research in the area of language policy and planning…has been focussed primarily on macro decision-making and the impact of the national, local and institutional policies in educational settings. Only recently have scholars begun examining the everyday contexts in which


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policies are interpreted and negotiated in ways that reflect local constraints and possibilities (Ramanathan and Morgan, 2007, p. 447).

Ramanathan and Morgan go further into the street or classroom level of education when they pick up the importance of teachers’ daily lives–what some call ‘teacher initiatives’, or, what Ramanathan and Morgan call a “focus on the notion of agency and what might be learned and modelled after practitioners’ decision-making experiences” (p. 448). Teachers around the world draw upon their training, and their own experiences, so we can agree with Ramanathan and Morgan, when they also claim something important about what is acquired and what is internalised. What do they mean?

I believe TESOL practitioners in classrooms right across Lao PDR are professionals, so we expect them to have acquired the “dominant discourses” on language learning and their students’ learning capacities, and also to have internalised “through a whole range of life experiences and media exposure, common-sense beliefs…” (p. 449). But how do we know we have ‘common-sense beliefs’ in our daily professional work?

Communication in the Workplace

Commonsense in a hospital for children is often required as the doctors and nurses almost always have three ‘patients’ in one case: the child, and two parents; they have to ‘treat’ three at once! In this ‘case’, our hospital doctor is trying to improve a very poor communication situation. His notes of the situation are as follows (the ‘consultant’ is the senior doctor, and he is the problem):

• I am the Paediatric Registrar in a regional hospital • Busy ward round • 1 ½ yr old child with pneumonia • Parents very anxious and worried – met the consultant • Consultant indicated was in a hurry… bottom line only • Consultant provided information to patient in very brief, disrespectful manner,

poor information, did not listen to parents (and did not notice that mum had started crying on leaving room)

• Nurse not present – consultant didn’t ask to locate her • I gave feedback to consultant on poor communication • Consultant then went back in and spent 30 minutes with parents

From this experience, what did the paediatrician learn about communication? He listed the following points:

• The importance of adequate preparation–listen to your team • Respect your work colleagues and the information they provide • The importance of providing clear and accurate information • Not appear too rushed even when you are • Respect and listen to parental concerns • Providing feedback is very important–even when apprehensive


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In addition to his own professional learning (about communication) we can also find that he was agentive –he was determined to improve the situation that the consultant had unfortunately created, and that was causing so much distress with the parents.

He made a definite decision–a practical judgment–to do something. He relied on the acquired ethical discourses of medicine, and of the technical treatment of pneumonia, and he also backed his internalized commonsense. He acted on a ‘hunch’ that he could improve things. In other words, he made a wise judgment about better communication, and made sure he followed through.

Better communication–and how hard it was to achieve–is shown by an ex-nurse who is now an ambulance officer, or paramedic (Beckett and Hager, 2002, pp. 41-42). She reflects on a very intense clinical situation as follows:

So I suppose decisions that I made were things like–which equipment to use and when; how to help my partner through it, because he obviously wasn’t coping very well with it. He had little kiddies the same age, so apart from the conflict he and I had, I could see it was hard for him anyway. Then dealing with the family obviously was difficult. It is very difficult in the ambulance world because they actively encourage the family to stay around for resuscitation, whereas in nursing they are not as progressive in that way.

So it is very difficult doing resuscitation with the family watching, than it was in a hospital where you put them out the door and when it’s all over you bring them in again. So during the resuscitation, I had to decide when to speak to them–and when you know, when you’re pretty sure that you’re not going to get the little baby back–you give them a warning before you stop. And so you have to decide when to do that and how to phrase it.

This extract illustrates the paramedic’s professional agency (her ability to make a practical judgment) and its manifestation in decision-making, how she grapples with two acquired professional discourses (nursing, paramedic), and her internalisation of life experiences and her sheer grasp of commonsense.

Adult Learning Principles

Reflecting on these cases of communication, we can generalise and state that what they have in common are actually universal adult learning principles. These are well established in research and can be summarised as follows.

Adults learn best when:

• We have a sense of self-direction • We can bring all our experience to learning • We have an immediate need to know something

If a single concept marks out the learning of adults, from the learning of children, it is


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experience. The pursuit and accumulation of learning, and its refinement, by adults, is usually underpinned by some assumptions about the integrity and persistence of experience. If an individual has lived longer (that is, has passed through childhood), they are regarded, initially, as more adept at identifying what they have learned, in the past, and what they want to learn in the future. Moreover, adult individuals are also assumed to have insights into how they learn best now, and in the past, and how they expect to learn in the future.

Experience, closely connected to the life-span of individuals, is therefore a fruitful way in to a review of the main philosophical issues involved in adults’ learning. There are clearly, also, intimate conceptual links from this singular ‘life-span’ across into the parallel area of ‘lifelong learning’, which will emerge below. The immediate task is to set out how the fruitfulness of a single concept (‘experience’) should be distinguished from the singularity of its manifestation, that is, in individuals, who all experience ‘experience’ differently.

What is so special about adults’ experiences, as adults? Malcolm Knowles (1970) famously distinguished between children’s and adults’ learning. Knowles was not a philosopher, but gave significant shape to the field of practice called ‘adult education’, at least in North America. His andragogy theorised adults’ learning through the explicit utilisation of experience. Adults learn best, according to Knowles, when they “learn how to take responsibility for their own learning through self-directed inquiry, how to learn collaboratively with the help of colleagues rather than compete with them, and, especially, how to learn by analyzing one’s own experience…” (1970: 45). By contrast, Knowles’ pedagogy marked out children’s learning, in which instruction continued to be central, due to the limited and naïve nature of youthful experience. Later, Knowles modified this crisp distinction in favour of more experientially inclusive learning for individuals of any age. In this age of lifelong learning we are pleased that there is no longer a need to maintain the distinction between children’s learning and adults’ learning, except that adults have more life experiences to draw upon (Beckett, 2010).

From Practices to Policies: An Example

Learners of any age learn when their context helps them. In Lao PDR, it will be important for the nation to develop policies which encourage lifelong learning. In Thailand, for example, some work has already been done on what good learning outcomes should be, for the entire nation:

Students at all levels of education in Thailand should be provided with these basic skills: English, information technology, team-work, knowledge application, knowledge development, and problem-solving. They should be of good character, diligent, and have good attitudes towards a working life in the knowledge-based economy (Wongboonsin and Wongboonsin, 2009, p. 201).

This is an example of a common national policy position. There are benefits and


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challenges for a nation and its educators, in adopting this position, which is based on skills and competencies. These are three-fold:

• Can ‘de-mystify’ work and learning, for any age learners–making clear what is expected

• Can provide standards which are significant for organisations, nations, professions

• Can be teachable/trainable via curricula & assessments

But there are problems with lists of skills and competencies. Again, there are, perhaps, three:

• Can reduce experience to ‘tick-boxes’ and checklists of behaviours • Can overlook the ‘tacit’–(‘touch’) the ‘hard to articulate’ knowledge • Can ignore everyday judgements and decisions that generate learning

What Good Teachers Can Do

So far, I have shown and claimed that good teachers are those who are confident in their ability to make decisions, or practical judgements, in the workplace (such as a classroom, or a hospital, or an office). This shows, in the case of TESOL research, agency as a teacher, and, more widely, as a professional, in particular, by building on your (acquired) discipline-specific discourses (in how to teach TESOL). But also teachers should build on their (internalised) intuition and common sense drawn from life experience.

Overall, I claim that better teaching will arise from pedagogy and assessments as much around practical judgements as around competencies and skills schemes. Good teachers:

• Have an ‘adult learning’ toolbox for any age learners: an inclusive style with the learners/class – use of names, questioning, group work e.g. projects, agreed outcomes (they are SKILLED);

• Contextualise the immediate situation and local and individuals’ experiences (‘need to know’) via curriculum (they are INTUITIVE/COMMONSENSICAL);

• Provide lots of opportunities for educational conversations (they are DISCOURSE-SENSITIVE in their discipline e.g. TESOL);

• Are accountable (as professionals); • Collectively build on/learn from workplace (e.g. school) experiences and

meetings; • Seek feedback via surveys about the quality of their teaching.

How can we teach using practical judgements in English pedagogy? Drawing upon Beckett (2012) there are many pedagogical practices which give opportunities for practical judgements, in many workplaces, including school classrooms for learners of any age:

• problem solving/workshopping e.g. ‘How will I/we get this fixed…’


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• learning-to-learn/double-loop (Mobius strip) questioning e.g. ‘Why did you/we..’ • critical thinking/evaluation exercises e.g. ‘What reasons are there for…’ • deliberately designed group work (e.g. around a project), and any of the above • literacy & numeracy through real-life excursions/reporting • case studies/ informal presentations • simulations/role playing with briefing and de-briefing • reflections/journaling • work placements–real on-the-job learning–with accountabilities for outcomes • expert instruction/guidance ('coaching' and ‘mentoring’), including ‘Was/Is there

a better way to….’ • peer group leadership, including reflections e.g. ‘How would I do that

differently..’ • audio-visual/ICT focussed presentations and blended group work in ‘real time’.

Lao PDR Education Challenges

“In Lao PDR, one in 10 villages are without a primary school within a reasonable commute” (UNESCO National Education Support Strategy, Lao PDR, 2008–2012). No one doubts that Lao PDR faces massive challenges in education. UNESCO details substantial financial, planning and teacher quality issues in Lao education, but I have simply argued for better teaching for lifelong learning. Overall, I urge Lao PDR teachers of TESOL, and of anything else, to any groups of learners, of any age, to include, alongside competencies and skills development, attention to learners’ practical judgements, or opportunities to make decisions, through pedagogies which are embedded in adult learning principles.

References

Beckett, D. (2009). Holistic competence: Putting judgements first. In K. Illeris (Ed.), International perspectives on competence development: Developing skills and capabilities (pp. 69-82). UK: Routledge.

Beckett, D. (2010). Adult learning: Philosophical issues. In P. Peterson, E. Baker, & B. McGaw (Eds.), International encyclopaedia of education, Vol. 6. (pp. 114-120). Oxford: Elsevier.

Beckett, D. (2012). Of Maestros and muscles: Expertise and practices at work. In D. Aspin (Ed.), International handbook of lifelong learning (2nd Ed), (pp. 113-127) Netherlands: Springer.

Knowles, M. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. New York: New Association Press.

Ramanathan, V. and Morgan, B. (2007). TESOL and policy enactments: Perspectives


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from practice. TESOL Quarterly, 41(3), 447-463.

UNESCO: Lao PDR: see www.unescobkk.org/education/resources/country-profiles/lao-pdr/sector-wide-challenges/

Wongboonsin, P. & Wongboonsin, K. (2009). Toward enhanced competence of the Thai workforce. In K. Illeris (Ed.), International perspectives on competence development: Developing skills and capabilities (pp. 189-201). UK: Routledge.


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Teaching Writing: Using Rubrics as Fair and Accurate Assessment Tools

Emily Clark English Language Fellow Department of English, Faculty of Letters National University of Laos

In this presentation, I discussed how to create a standard grading scale or “rubric” for students and how one would use a rubric for student assessment. During the presentation, the presenter discussed the benefits of using a rubric, such as providing a way to standardize and fairly and accurately assess student ability while doing so in a timesaving manner. Participants reviewed a sample writing rubric while partaking in a norming session. All participants scored two student writing samples and the reasons for choosing scores were discussed. Participants left with a handout of online resources for additional information about rubrics and online rubric generators.

Due to time constraints, using rubrics as peer-assessment was not discussed. However, training students to understand rubrics and what to look for in others’ writing, along with their own writing contributes to a better understanding of teacher feedback and ability to self and peer edit. The following are a list of resources for rubrics. If one would like to do additional reading about the subject of rubrics, the resources listed are a good start, though certainly not all-inclusive.

Resources

http://rubistar.4teachers.org http://www.uwstout.edu/soe/profdev/rubrics.cfm http://www.teach-nology.com/web_tools/rubrics/ http://www.rcampus.com/rubricshellc.cfm?sms=publicrub https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/designteach/teach/rubrics.html http://www.fcps.edu/is/worldlanguages/pals/index.shtml http://www.carla.umn.edu/assessment/vac/evaluation/p_4.html

References

Goodrich Andrade, H. (n.d.). Understanding rubrics. Retrieved from: http://learnweb.harvard.edu/alps/thinking/docs/rubricar.htm

Spandel, V. (2006). In defense of rubrics. English Journal, 96(1), 19-22.

Wilson, M. (2007). Why I won’t be using rubrics to respond to students’ writing. English Journal, 62-66.


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Improving Teacher-Student Interaction through the Introduction of the Rules for Asking Questions and the Use of Speaking Activities and Games in the EFL Classroom Ladomchanh Khantry Director of Lao-India Centre for English Language Training Vongduane Osay Associate Professor Head of Post Graduate Division National University of Laos Students will act in various ways in EFL classrooms in different cultures. In some classroom cultures, students are expected to listen most of the time and the teacher will do the most of the talking. In addition, it is accepted to show no response to the teacher’s questions. For example, in many English classes at the National University of Lao (NUOL), students are unresponsive and avoid interaction with the teacher, especially in a teacher-class dialog, where the teacher asks questions to the class as a whole, expecting at least one student to respond. The situation is similar to what Snell (1999) mentioned in her report, both teacher and students can be frustrated in the situation when there are no responses in the classroom, it is believed that students do not answer even if they understand the question, know the answer, and are able to give the answer but they just ignore responding to the questions raised by the teacher in the classroom. However, in the English class, it is beneficial and important to respond to the teacher’s questions actively and to raise your hand to ask questions about unclear issues and to show active participation. So students must be aware of the rules for asking questions in the English class and interact with the teacher appropriately to get a high level of participation. Helgesen and Brown (1994) suggested that the teacher must tell the students from the beginning of the English class that they are allowed to ask questions while the teacher is talking or lecturing, and they must be aware that they need to show responses to the teacher’s questions, verbally and non-verbally, by nodding or shaking their heads to show their interest in the question, or that they are paying attention to the lesson. It is the students’ job to ask questions when they don’t understand. They do not study English just for linguistic competence. They also need to develop sociolinguistic competence for communicating in different situations in English speaking countries, and this includes the classroom. In addition to creating more interaction in the classroom, speaking activities and games should be used to create a more relaxed and fun classroom environment. They are a great way for students to use English in a semi–controlled environment. These activities are meant to help them feel more comfortable with asking questions, answering questions and speaking in general, and to help build student confidence. Here are some suggested activities, which have been used successfully in the classroom. Activity 1: New Identity

Aim: To create a new identity from prompts and introduce themselves to the class.


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Level: Elementary Structure: Present simple Theme: Icebreakers Time: 20 minutes

Procedure: � Ask the students to get a piece of paper and write down numbers 1 -5 � Students listen to the prompts and write their answers on their paper

What is your favorite word in English? What is your favorite number? What is your favorite place? Have you ever been to a foreign country? Yes or no. How many countries have you visited? Write a number.

� Explain to the students that they have created a new identity. Give the meaning of their answers.

New name Their age Their hometown Whether they are married or not The number of children they have

• Role Play Set the Scene to give a reason for students to talk “At a Welcome Party”. Ask the students to stand up and introduce themselves to 5 people in their group. They have to use their new information which is the answers to questions 1–5.

Activity 2: Who Am I? Level: Any Structure: Y/N question Theme: Celebrities Time: 15 minutes Preparation: Blank stickers (one for each student)

Procedure: 1. Give one sticker to each student. Ask the students to write the name of a famous person on the sticker. 2. Collect and shuffle the stickers. 3. Put one sticker on each student’s back. 4. Students stand up and find a partner. Their task is to ask “yes” or “no” questions


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to discover their identity. Students can only answer with yes or no. Examples: - Am I a male (female)? - Am I a real person? 5. Students can change partners as much as they like. 6. The winner is the first student to discover his or her identity. After students discover their identity, they can take the sticker off their back and continue answering questions.

Activity 3: Tic Tac Toe Goal: To review vocabulary words using the game Tic Tac Toe. Level: Elementary Structure: Any Theme: Warmer Time: 15 minutes Preparation: Vocabulary words to review and number the words 1-9

Procedure: 1. Draw a Tic Tac Toe game board with numbers in the squares 1–9 2. Divide the students into two teams. Designate one team as X and the other as O 3. Ask the O team to choose a square by saying the number in the square. 4. Say the vocabulary word that corresponds with the chosen number, and ask the team to make a sentence using the word. Give a 30 second time limit. 5. If the O team is correct, then mark an O in the square. If they are incorrect, then the turn goes to the X team. The X team can make the sentence or choose another square. 6. Continue the game until a team completes Tic Tac Toe. Tic Tac Toe Game Variations: Teacher says the present tense verb, students say the past tense verb Teacher says the word, students spell it

References

Helgesen, M., & Brown, S. (1994). Active listening: Building skills for understanding. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.

Snell, J. (1999). Improving Teacher-Student Interaction in the EFL Classroom: An Action Research Report. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. V, No. 4, April 1999. Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Snell-Interaction.html


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‘Stories’ as the Content for Content Based Instruction Ted Rodgers Professor Emeritus University of Hawaii CBI and CLIL in Language Teaching Methodology Perhaps the most currently headlined approach to second language teaching is titled Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and/or Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). CBI is the more popular title for this approach in North America and CLIL, the more popular in Europe (‘CLIL’ is certainly an unlikely syllable type for speakers of English. English, and it appears most languages, discourage syllables of the CxCyVCy where the consonants on either side of the vowel are the same, e.g. *spop, *smam, *pror, *flol, *CLIL, etc.). Krahnke offers the following definition which will do both for CBI and CLIL:

[CBI/CLIL] is the teaching of content or information in the language being learned with little or no direct or effort to teach the language itself separately from the content being taught (Krahnke, 1987).

CBI/CLIL is offered in sharp contrast to methods such as the Audio-lingual Method or the Oral Approach which are/were directed toward developing classroom procedures suited to teaching basic grammatical patterns through an oral approach and are/were, by design, content free or content irrelevant. In contemporary terms, these latter approaches would be considered those which devote primary or exclusive attention in language teaching to Focus on Form (FOF). At the other reach, is the approach CBI/CLIL (really one approach) which has a central focus on “Content” or more broadly on “Meaning” i.e. Focus on Meaning (FOM). In this piece I am suggesting the possibility of collaborative and simultaneous attention to Form and Meaning (FOMF?) via exploitation of STORIES for this purpose. (The astute reader may claim that like *CLIL, the syllable *FOMF also represents an unattested syllable form in English. Even more astute readers may claim that since they have just pronounced *CLIL and *FOMF, in their silent or loud readings, that both syllables are, indeed, now attested in English. Enough of this bickering. On to “Stories.) What Subject Content Best Supports 2nd Language Development? In discussions of the implementation of CBI/CLIL in institutional settings, there occur recommendations of particular school subject-area content as having desirable characteristics for content-based (i.e. FOM) language pedagogy. Some of the arguments for particular school subject areas in this regard are as follows:

Mathematics specialists argue that mathematics study provides the best support for language development since it is the most structured and cognitively cumulative of the school subjects. As importantly, the “system” of language is buttressed in mathematics by the universal “second signal” system of numeracy.

Science specialists claim primacy for science as the preferred content area for CBI/CLIL.


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Paralleling the arguments of Total Physical Response and Natural Approach methodologists, they point out that science is the most enactive (lab work) and demonstrative (experimental demonstration) of the mainline school subjects and, thus, most likely to promote language comprehension and language development.

Social studies specialists argue that language can only be taught and learned in a social and cultural context and that the social studies are, uniquely, the study of culture and society. One of the social studies, Geography, is highly visual, spatial and contextual; it lends itself to the use of maps, charts, and realia, and the language tends to be descriptive in nature with use of the “to be,” cognates and proper names. Ergo, the social studies provide ideal subject matter support for language learning.

Language arts specialists claim that information about language cannot help but improve language sensitivity and that study of literature provides for learners the most and best exposure to language in use. Therefore, language arts lays claim to providing optimal support for language development.

Music It is claimed that students have inherently positive responses to upbeat, melodic music which support an optimally receptive/productive learning environment. It is also argued that nothing imprints linguistic patterns better than words wedded to beat and memorable melody. Therefore, second language studies can profitably be linked to music study.

Physical education settings can be particularly supportive of second language learners because they offer conditions similar to those that underlie first language:

• Direct connections between language and concrete activities • The use of multiple modalities (e.g., speech, manipulation, modeling) to present

information • Opportunities to demonstrate language comprehension through physical expression • A setting where success does not depend on language alone • A low-stress environment for language performance • Opportunities to interact with others

Finding: There has been relatively little direct support for the use of STORIES in CBI/CLIL proposals for second language pedagogy. This statement is particularly true of language teaching for adults. My plenary presentation at LaoTESOL 2014 was a demonstration of various ways in which ‘Stories’ can be utilized to provide a collaborative approach to CBI/CLIL implementation in second language pedagogy by providing simultaneous attention to both FOF and FOM = FOMF. As well, I hoped to demonstrate that ‘Stories’ have the motivating capacity to engage and enlighten. Focus on Form (FOF) vs. Focus on Meaning (FOM) There is continuing discussion in both the research literature and methodological descriptions contrasting support for primary focus in language teaching for a pedagogical Focus on Form vs. Focus on Meaning. For a meta-analysis of the research on this issue, the long review by Norris and Ortega (2000) is a fairly accessible source. It is relevant to note here, that the FOF vs. FOM argument is one that continues to


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dominate discussions of mother tongue as well as second language teaching. This is particularly true in respect to the teaching of primary reading in English. The FOF argument in primary reading is often called the “Phonics Approach”. The FOM position is often (recently) called a “Whole Language” approach. In the 1960’s, the FOF approach to primary reading was dominated by a series of primary readers labelled “Linguistic Readers”. The form basis of linguistic readers was on simple sentence patterns and, most conspicuously, on vocabulary restricted to words with a pronounceably simple CVC syllable structure. The following is an example of a page from a Linguistic Reader (except for the last sentence which I added to be mischievous). Model ‘Linguistic Reader’ circa A: Dan can fan Nan. B: Can Nan fan Dan? (Oh, Man! Can Nan fan Dan!) A “Whole Language Approach” to primary reading would be lavish in illustration, would have few words per page and would probably center on one character or animal. The text from two pages from an early reader, Shoe Fly Guy, display these characteristics. Shoe Fly Guy p.10 p. 11 Fly Guy flew until he saw something to eat. It wasn’t oozy, lumpy or smelly. But it was brown. Close enough! The central character is a big-eyed fly. The words may be polysyllabic, of reasonably low frequency and of irregular spelling. Formally, there are two sentences and two sentence fragments. The tone is conversational. What I would now define as that beginning reader design, seeking to incorporate both FOF and FOM, is the beginning reader series identified with the pen name of Dr. Suess. The Cat in the Hat was the first book in this series. The Cat in the Hat and following books in the series (e.g. Green Eggs and Ham, etc.) focused on high frequency vocabulary items (the publisher claims 250 words readily accessible to young children) of typically regular spelling, high repetition of both vocabulary and sentences, anthropomorphic and mischievous animal central characters and fanciful illustrations and preposterous story lines. This series continues to be hugely successful sixty years after first printing. A look at The Cat in the Hat (Page 58, Text) will perhaps exemplify the above characteristics:

Then we saw him pick up,

All the things that were down. He picked up the cake,

And the rake, and the gown, And the milk, and the strings,

And the books, and the dish, And the fan, and the cup,


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And the ship, and the fish, And he put them away.

Then he said, “That is that,” And then he was gone

With a tip of his hat. Stories Incorporating FOF + FOM Useful in ELT: A Demonstration In my own interpretation a story recounts a sequence of events, often fictional, with a defined beginning, middle and ending and often crafted to entertain rather than educate. Your own definition welcomed. There are not only a number of ways to define ‘stories’, but there are a number of story types within any broader definition. In my presentation at LaoTESOL 2014, I demonstrated ELT uses of several different story types. I labeled the story types demonstrated as follows:

• Parallel stories • Learner-made stories • Short, short stories • Headline stories • History stories • Dialogue stories • Song stories

The format of a printed paper limits the space and range to exemplify each of these story types. I have chosen three of the types to exemplify, hoping to suggest, in general, how stories can provide contexts to support both a focus on form and a focus on meaning in ELT. (FOF + FOM = FOMF). 4a. Dialogic stories The introduction and practice of second languages through the use of dialogs dates back many centuries. What I emphasized in the demonstration was the creation and use of dialogs that were built on rhyme, rhythm, meter, some socially useful language and what, I hope, were some engaging mini-story lines. Hello, Goodbye Rap Jean Herb Hello. How are you? How’s the folks? What’s new? I’m great. That’s good. Ha! Ha! Knock wood. Well, well, What say? How you been? Nice day. Gotta run. Oh, my.


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So long. Bye, bye.

Invitation to the Dance He: Hi, there. Great to see you. She: Hello. He: There’s a dance at college this Friday. She: I know. He: Well, it would be fun to be there. She: All right. Go. He: I’ve got my brother’s car for the night. She: So. He: I thought it would be great for a date. She: Drive slow. He: Come on. Won’t you come with me to the dance? She: No. He: Why not? How come? She: Joe He: Oh. I call these examples ‘stories’ in that they are fictional, have defined beginnings, middle and ends, and have implied social relationships larger than the data provide. The examples also have reasonably clear ESL foci. In both cases, these are built on social formulae. In these particular cases, the dialogs are supported by rhythm and rhyme to support fluency and recall. The texts help to demonstrate that not all formal interrogatives have a functional focus as questions and that some formally declarative sentences may function as questions. 4b. Short, short stories Sometimes the reader/listener is asked to “fill in” unstated “middle” parts of the story or to complete the implied end of the story. A couple of examples of short, short stories with these characteristics:

“For sale, baby shoes, never worn.” [Hemingway] (Implied Story: We had a baby. We bought baby shoes for when he was old enough to wear them. But, alas, he died or was kidnapped so now we have the new baby shoes but no baby. We might as well try to sell the shoes.)

“Failed SAT. Lost scholarship. Invented rocket.” [Shatner] (Note ESLers: verb+object predicates only). (X failed college entrance examination and thus did not qualify for a scholarship. However, ultimately, X invented modern rocketry.)

The next two stories require reader to complete an implied story ending: “The last man on Earth sat alone in a room. There was a knock on the door.” [Brown] (…and, as you may have guessed, it was the ghost of Christmas past.) “Steve ignores editor’s word limit and…” [Meretzky]


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(…so Steve doesn’t get his article published.) These short, short stories have the advantage, first, that they are short and thus are pedagogically non-threatening. They exhibit a variety of sentential forms and can lead easily to some following (short) composition. More examples are found at: http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/14.11/sixwords.html 4c Parallel stories In this category I presented a couple of examples. In the first, a reasonably intermediate level grammatical sentence pattern is presented (FOF held constant) from four different sources. In the example, they proceed from the most mechanical, least story-like, to the most ‘intimate’ story-like example. It takes two hours to drive from Plainville to Center City. (ELT Grammar Practice Book) It takes two hours to go from New York to Philadelphia by train. (Tourist Travel Guide) It takes two hours to shampoo a camel from tail to head. (Odd Facts Newspaper Column) It took two years to get from my bed to your bed. (Contemporary novel) The second example compares two translations of the opening paragraph of a story originally written in Korean as translated by an English-speaking Korean and a Korean-speaking Irishman. I suggest a few classroom activities that might be built around these comparisons. 1a. The Crane by Hwang Sun-Won (translated by Kim Se-young)

“The northern village at the border of the 38th Parallel was ever so snug under the bright high autumn sky. In the space between the two main rooms of the empty farm house, a white empty gourd was lying against another white empty gourd.”

1b. Cranes by Hwang Sun-Won (translated by Kevin O’Rourke)

“The village on the northern side of the 38th Parallel frontier was ever so quiet and desolate beneath the high, clear autumn sky. White gourds leaned on white gourds as they swayed in the yard of an empty house.”

Examples of Student Activities based on Parallel Texts:

Think of the village as described in 1a and 1b as two different villages. Which one would you choose to live in? Why?


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Write an opening sentence of a short story in which you briefly introduce the village of 1a as it might appear in winter rather than autumn.

Draw two pictures of the positions of the white gourds as they might appear in illustrations for texts 1a. and 1b. What language influenced your positioning of the gourds?

The three example sections above will, I hope, suggest some possibilities for the use of story texts focusing on both form and meaning in English language teaching. References Krahnke, K. (1987). Approaches to syllabus design for foreign language teaching. New

York: Prentice-Hall.

Norris, J.M. & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417-528.

Stories Dr. Suess. (1957). The Cat in the Hat. New York: Random House Inc.http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/14.11/sixwords.html Those wishing further examples and explanation are welcome to write me at <[email protected]> for a copy of the PowerPoint slides I used as part of my plenary presentation at LaoTESOL 2014.


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“Couja say_it_again?”: Needed Skills for Understanding Natural Speech

Alison Kitzman Department of Commerce Kindai University Osaka, Japan

Abstract Language learners find native speakers difficult to understand especially in music, movies, or other situations in which meaning cannot be negotiated or communication slowed. Unfamiliar accents partially account for this, but which over time and with adequate exposure can be learned. However, there are several pronunciation effects of natural speech that occur across all dialects. Natural speech phenomena inhibit a learner’s ability to parse individual words when listening. Knowing a set of easy-to-learn rules, like linking, trimming, vowel reduction, and blending can ease comprehension problems, lower anxiety in interpersonal communication, and aid in developing proper rhythmic pronunciation.

Introduction to Natural Speech Pedagogy

Learners often have difficulty comprehending the rapid conversations of native speakers. This is made more difficult when there is inadequate exposure to native speakers and worse in situations where language is non-negotiable, like listening to music or watching a movie. Dialect is often blamed, but the main difficulty stems from a lack of ability to parse individual words in phrases such as these:

“He has made your problems.” versus “He has major problems.”

“Would you like soup or salad?” versus “Would you like a Super Salad?”

At speed, these sentences can sound exactly alike due to a set of natural speech (NS), also known as connected speech, phenomena which occur across all dialects worldwide and at all levels of register regardless of social situation (Joos, 1966). Unlike many other languages, English relies heavily on NS phenomena vowel reduction to maintain its rhythm, but this altered pronunciation does not have any corresponding spelling changes, leaving the learner at a disadvantage. Contextual clues aid in comprehension (Kitzman, 2007), but lower-level learners who may not get the gist at all may never develop confidence in their comprehension abilities resulting in decreased motivation to study English overall.

The teaching of these phenomena has been criticized and even considered vulgar at times due to the misconception that NS is informal. While NS is not acceptable in written form at any but the intimate level of register, in spoken form it is not in and of itself informal. On the contrary, non-use of NS makes a speaker sound stiff or arrogant, and teacher-talk is anything but natural. Overly enunciated speech is slow, lacks natural


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vowel reduction at both the sentence and word levels, and does little to prepare learners for rapid real-world communication with native speakers or in non-negotiable listening situations.

Since the 1980s, traditional drilling of phonemes in North American and European pedagogy has given way to methods that center on the discourse-level, as communication breakdowns are directly attributable to meaning in context (c.f., Thomas, 1995; Jenkins, 2000; and Shockey, 2003), yet there seems to be an indifference to the importance of NS amongst educators, material writers, and learners, who appear unaware of how NS affects communication and comprehension. Current pedagogy in mainstream textbooks still focuses on phonemes with little regard to NS (Crawford & Ueyama, 2011). However, phonemes present their own problems for teaching, such as alphabet-phoneme representation and dialect shift. Many non-phonemic features, such as intonation and tone, are too important to communication to be ignored. Whereas some teachers shy away from presenting NS, both Ito (2006) and Carreira (2008) have shown no difficulty teaching NS. In fact, simple NS rules have been for learners and educators alike (c.f., Dickerson, 1989; Hahn & Dickerson, 1999). Any pronunciation pedagogy should include prediction, perception, and production of the NS phenomena that make parsing language difficult.

Other aspects of pedagogy weigh into the argument of whether or not phonological skills should be taught at all. The key reason for learning pronunciation is intelligibility, defined by Smith (1992) as word recognition, utterance comprehension, and understanding hidden meaning. Studies on intelligibility also show prosodic features were more significant barriers to listener comprehension than phonemic features (c.f., Magen, 1998; Anderson-Hsieh, Johnson, & Koehler, 1994). Affective issues also influence pronunciation learning. For example, either the misconception that pronunciation does not make a major contribution to communication or the fear of failure to produce fine motor-skill phonemes might cause learners to feel antipathy for it when introduced. Elson (1992) found learners actively choose to cease communication when anxious. Finally, learners might not even desire a native-like accent. The severe pressure of having to be intelligible in real-world encounters might demotivate students. Daniels (1997) argues that learners might resist adopting a native-like accent due to individual or social pressures. A dearth of non-native speakers in common EFL oral communication course books, may communicate to learners that they are not part of the English-speaking group (Drummond and Grogan, 2010). Such a scarcity of peer role models might convey a lack of possible success to learners causing lower motivation or even cause at-risk learners to reject English. To mitigate these inhibitors, educators should foster the acceptance of accent addition; the concept that a learner adds L2 phonological features to their knowledge but without necessarily losing any L1 features that might be closely related to cultural or personal identity. In this way, learners can overcome any feeling of loss of their personal identity, known as accent subtraction, without the pressure of feeling that they have to attain native-like proficiency. Native-like pronunciation is not necessary as long as intelligibility is not compromised. A greater awareness of communication barriers, positive teacher support, and more productive practice help students acquire valuable metalanguage skills and processes that are useful for continued autonomous learning.


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Natural Speech Phenomena Defined

To understand NS’s role in pronunciation, it is necessary to understand the two aspects of English pronunciation that generate it. First, English employs a syllable-timed rhythm and uses stress and intonation for meaning. Syllable-timed languages utilize a continual up-down wave pattern in which the duration between each stressed syllable is virtually the same. The beat can become faster or slower but it does not disrupt the undulating stress/no-stress rhythm.

¤ � � ¢ � ¤ �

I am an English teacher. î [intonation]

Generally, important content words are stressed, meaning they are voiced louder and longer.

stressed content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, questions words, negatives unstressed function words: pronouns, prepositions, articles, ‘be’ verbs, conjunctions, helping verbs, etc.

However, the rules are flexible, and when emphasis of meaning requires it, normally unstressed function words can be stressed, as in this example.

A: I am an English teacher.

B: Aya is an English teacher?

A: No, I am an English teacher. [The pronoun is stressed for contrast.]

At higher speeds, only important words need to be understood, so function words may become subsumed – marking the beginning of NS. Consider this simple example for classroom use.

¢ ¤ ¤

English teacher Japan.

an English teacher in Japan. I’m an English teacher in Japan.

Start by clapping the 3-beat rhythm. Then, repeatedly say the three content words in time with each clap. Speed up the clapping, the beat, and the words but keep the rhythm


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the same. Next, start slow again and add the function words “an” and “in” before each stressed word – keeping the same rhythm and saying each content word on the beat. Finally, squeeze in the contraction “I’m” before the first beat and take it up to normal speed, or faster, for fun. The production of words on the upbeat and the squeezing of function words between beats is not easy to accomplish without a few tricks native speakers employ to keep the rhythm, but NS phenomena make it possible.

The second important aspect to NS is that English pronunciation is comprised of two main elements. The first is the segmental, or the discrete vowel and consonant phonemes that compose words. The second is the suprasegmental, which incorporates all other pronunciation phenomena, like tone or stress, which take place at the word- or sentence-level. Natural speech developed organically, managing English’s rhythm and alternating patterns of strong and weak stress, and it is largely related to suprasegmentals. Variants can be found in other languages. In English, the alternating pattern of strong and weak forms serves to delineate thought groups and to distinguish the more important words in an otherwise fairly continuous stream of speech (Whalley & Hansen, 2006). Natural speech saves time and ensures the most important information is understood even if it is a function word. Natural speech phenomena include:

• vowel and consonant reduction • vowel and consonant insertion • vowel and consonant elision • trimming/elision • partial or full blending/assimilation

• fusion (incorporating multiple phenomena) • contractions • flapping • glottalization • linking

A possible utterance might change like this:

Enunciated: What are you going to do about it, buddy?

Connected: Whatcha gonna do ‘bout _it, bu’dy?

Phenomenon: blending fusion vowel elision linking flapping

word elision word elision

Natural speech affects the pronunciation, but the utterance remains grammatically correct.

Four Simple Rule-based Natural Speech Phenomena To teach all the forms of NS may seem overwhelming, but a few sets of basic rules can be easily learned regardless of a learner’s ability level. Refer to Dickerson’s (1989) Stress in the Speech Stream for an exhaustive explanation of NS. The first set of rules to address here is linking. English speakers link their words together to make the time between words shorter, allowing them to speak faster. There are only three instances to remember.

• same consonant + same consonant bus_stop • vowel + vowel show_up • consonant + vowel did_it

Example: Stan_needed mini_ice x cream cups_at x the store.


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same c v+v c+v Notice the Cs between ‘ice cream’ and the Ts between ‘at the’ are not linked. Linking these is a common prediction practice error, when learners incorrectly link the alphabetic letters instead of considering the phonetic sounds. Also, while the Is in ‘mini ice’ may look the same alphabetically, it is important to note that their phonemes are different.

English speakers can also squeeze unstressed syllables between regular stressed syllables by cutting sounds that are not needed – a phenomenon called trimming. This is also known as elision, but learning such a difficult Latinate adds a burden on learners who would do best to focus on the pronunciation for this lesson. Trimming is most common in these ten instances:

• her à er • his à is • he à e • him à im • have à av

• has à as • had à ad • them à əm • and à an • --ing à ən

Example: Mike_hadn’t_ordered the_oil_and vinegar dressing.

Trimming does not occur at the beginning of a sentence. Take note that trimming in most of these cases exposes a vowel at the beginning of the word, which subsequently needs to get linked as here with ‘Mike_hadn’t.’ Learners often need additional practice distinguishing between trimmed ‘him’ and ‘thəm.’ Also, this is not to be confused with the Cockney dialect’s drop initial H, /h/.

It may not have escaped notice that the E, /e/, in ‘them’ changed to a schwa, /ə/. This exhibits the third and perhaps most common timesaver which is reducing the vowel to the fastest and most relaxed sound possible, /ə/ schwa. Learners are quickly introduced to this NS phenomenon once they are learning multi-syllable words, so explanations taking this phenomenon from the word- to the sentence-level are not generally difficult. Reduction on this level occurs mainly in function words exemplified here:

• a àə • an àən • and àənd • at àət • can àcən • do àdə

• for àfər • of àəv • or àər • to àtə • you àyə • your àyər

Example: She wrote_ə letter tə yər mother fər the cake_ənd_nuts.

If all vowels in the above function words were to have been full-vowels, there would be little way to differentiate the important information from the unimportant. It would also take more time to enunciate, at which point the rhythm would be lost. As before, reduced vowels are eligible for linking as are any other exposed phonemes if the word is trimmed. In very fast speech or some dialects, sentence-initial words may be reduced, but it is uncommon.


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The final simple rule has just six instances to remember. It is called blending, and it always occurs before a word-initial /y/. In the NS phenomenon a word-final phoneme is blended together with a word-initial /y/ to make a new sound.

• d + y = j would you

• z + y = zh has your

• t + y = ch won’t you

• ts + y =/ch it’s yours

• s + y = sh this your

• ks + y = ksh box your

Example: I don’t want you to go to a bad university, would you?

/ch/ /j/ /j/

It is important to remind learners that NS are related to pronunciation and not spelling. Word-initial /y/ is often overlooked in cases like ‘bad university’ as is word final /z/ when spelled S, as in the case ‘has your.’ Of course, linking, trimming, and reduction follow any blending.

While not a separate rule per se, there exist several advanced reduced forms that mix linking, trimming, reduction, and blending in a phenomenon known as fusion.

• what are you à wə -tchə • what is your à whə-tchər • going to (future only) à gonnə • have got to à haftə • give me à gimme

• don’t know à dənno • let me à lemme • got to à gottə • want to à wannə

Learners often encounter these complex forms in music lyrics and try to use them inappropriately in conversation or in written communication. Though other NS cross register boundaries, these forms are used only in conversation with intimate friends and family.

For teachers it is important to review the NS usage guidelines with learners. First, it is important both teachers and learners recognize that these are just a few examples of NS, given here for their ease of understanding and frequency of use. Also, exceptions and additions to these rules exist. NS is about sounds, not spelling. Do not use any form of NS in written form except for contractions, and even those should be limited to casual writing. Finally, speakers should avoid using advanced reduction forms like fusion, unless with friends.


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Implications for the Classroom

While neither segmentals nor suprasegmentals are without their difficulties, educators need to adjust their approach of phonological education to include more suprasegmental features, as these errors contribute more to miscommunication at discourse-level than segmental errors do. Easy-to-learn NS phenomena with abundant input should be introduced as early as possible and incorporated into listening, speaking, and reading as well as pronunciation lessons. Building an explicit awareness of these phenomena through written predictive exercises before the expectation of verbal production facilitates learners’ interlanguage stage of pronunciation, encourages autonomy, contributes to lifelong learning, and helps learners better parse native speaker utterances. Understanding the benefits of overtly teaching NS could lessen some of the affective burdens inhibiting and frustrating many who have been trained to emphasize accuracy over fluency when speaking or listening. Only once students have a solid foundation in receptive listening and productive prediction should they be asked to verbalize NS – if ever.

Step-by-step suprasegmental and NS education can proceed gradually from absolute beginner to near native. Absolute beginners learn stress/no-stress rhythm once they begin multi-syllable words. Learners can apply this as they become capable of uttering full sentences, when English stress-timed rhythms and sentence-level stress should be overtly introduced. It is not too early to introduce how unstressed forms are effectively reduced and squeezed to fit between stressed forms to high-beginners. Suprasegmental features that contribute significantly to meaning, such as contrast stress and choice intonation, should also be introduced early – before learners are expected to use them. Having had this early-development, pre-intermediate learners would be ready for the four simple rule-based NS phenomena and the general guidelines for their usage. Finally, after adequate time to develop and practice these complementary and invaluable listening and speaking skills, exceptions to the rules can be introduced. Breaking down NS education into simple explicit rules like these, with some regard to frequency, and practicing through prediction exercises would supplement the short list of examples common in textbooks today. Learning these skills early enough saves learners the trouble of having to unlearn other entrenched patterns.

Students given durable pronunciation tools early in their education will be more prepared for the expectations and requirements of higher-level English, not only with native-speaker interactions, but also in non-negotiable receptive situations. Natural speech awareness is one of these essential tools – one that can balance easily with segmentals in the classroom. That natural speech is “casual” is a misconception, and to continue to stigmatize it as such does language learners a gross disservice.


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References

Anderson-Hsieh, J., Johnson, R. & Koehler, K. (1992). The relationship between native speaker judgments of non-native pronunciation and deviance in segmental, prosody and syllable structure. Language Learning, 42(4), 529-555.

Crawford, M. J. & Ueyama, Y. (2011). Coverage and instruction of reduced forms in EFL course books. The Language Teacher, 35(4), 55-61.

Carreira, J. M. (2008). Effects of teaching reduced forms in a university preparatory course. In K. Bradford-Watts, T. Muller, & M. Swanson (Eds.), JALT 2007 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT.

Daniels, H. (1997). Psycholinguistic, psycho-affective and procedural factors in the acquisition of authentic L2 pronunciation. In A. McLean (Ed.), SIG selections 1997 special interests in ELT (pp. 80-85). Whitestable: IATEFL.

Dickerson, W. B. (1989). Stress in the speech stream: The rhythm of spoken English. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Drummond, H., & Grogan, M. (2010). An examination of the EFL textbooks at one Japanese university from a World Englishes perspective. In K. Bradford-Watts, E. M. Skier, & M. Walsh (Eds.), Pan-SIG 2010 conference proceedings. Kyoto: JALT.

Elson, N. (1992). Unintelligibility and the ESL learner. In P. Avery & S. Ehrlich (Eds.), Teaching American English pronunciation (pp. 229-236). New York: Oxford University Press.

Hahn, L. D., & Dickerson, W. B. (1999). Speechcraft: Discourse pronunciation for advanced learners. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Ito, Y. (2006). The comprehension of English reduced forms by second language learners and its effect on input/intake process. In J. D. Brown & K. Kondo-Brown, (Eds.), Perspectives on teaching connected speech to second language speakers (pp. 67-81). Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Joos, M. (Ed.) (1966). Readings in linguists I: The development of descriptive linguistics in America 1925-1956 (4th ed.). Chicago: Chicago University Press.

Kitzman, A. B. (2007). The ‘Cornfield Test:’ A study into the ‘Katakana Effect’ and intelligibility of Japanese pronunciation of English. The JASEC Bulletin, 16(1), 15-28.

Magen, H. (1998). The perception of foreign-accented speech. Journal of Phonetics, 26, 381-400.


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Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 201-231.

Shockey, L. (2003). Sound patterns of spoken English. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Smith, L. E. (1992). The spread of English and issues of intelligibility. In B. B. Kachru (Ed.), In the other tongue: English across cultures (2nd Ed.), (pp. 75-90). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in interaction. London: Longman.

Whalley, K., & Hansen, J. (2006). The role of prosodic sensitivity in children’s reading development. Journal of Research in Reading, 29(3), 288-303.


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Activities for Active Reading in Class

Amanda Gillis-Furutaka Department of English Kyoto Sangyo University, Japan

Abstract How can reluctant readers be encouraged to take an active part in a reading lesson? In this workshop, the presenter will share a variety of activities that she has used with low intermediate level Japanese university students. The activities can be used with a variety of reading text types, at a variety of levels, and require the students to discuss, write, draw, act, and use their imaginations at full stretch.

Introduction What are the essential ingredients of class activities that will catch and hold the attention of our students? Recent research in neuroscience and applications of these findings to the educational context (Freeman Dhority & Jensen, 1998; Willis, 2006; Caine, Caine, McClintic & Klimek, 2009; Sousa, 2010; Wolfe, 2010; Medina, 2014; Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, Helgesen, 2014) has identified a number of factors that allow educators to work with the brains of their learners. The following list is an amalgamation of the main factors identified by these researchers:

Emotion Personalization Student choice Variety and novelty Challenge Letting learners create Using all the senses Letting learners collaborate Repeating to remember/Remembering to repeat Breaking activities into 10-minute (or less) bits Standing up and moving regularly Praising effort, not ability This paper will briefly outline the importance of each of these factors and then demonstrate ways in which they can be applied to nine classroom activities. The activities have been carried out with Japanese low-intermediate level learners (TOEFL ITP scores 400–450, CEFR A2–B1), but can easily be adapted for use with materials at lower and higher levels and with learners from different cultural backgrounds.


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Factors that allow educators to work with the brains of their learners

Emotion

Emotion strongly influences whether the brain initially pays attention to information. Having our emotions aroused ensures that we react quickly to emotionally relevant information and also enhances our memory because the event is stamped with extra vividness. “We remember events that elicit emotional reactions for a longer time than those that don’t” (Wolfe, 2010, p. 137). This is due to the neurochemical nature of the stress response. Adrenaline is released when we experience stress or excitement and experiments have demonstrated that if adrenaline is released naturally, “that experience will be remembered especially well” (LeDoux, 1996, p. 206).

Moreover, the more intense the arousal is, the stronger the imprint it creates. The brain retains emotionally charged imprints better than those that are not emotionally charged. In the classroom, simulations and role-plays are highly engaging and enhance not only the meaning of the material, but also the emotional connections.

On the other hand, when there is too much stress for a student, such as being called on when not yet prepared, the rational/thinking cortex is impeded or less efficient and emotion becomes dominant over cognition and the student’s mind goes blank. Emotion is, therefore, a double-edged sword that teachers need to handle with care.

While bearing this in mind, Freeman Dhority points out that: “The old thinking of keeping the class’s emotions in check or ‘having an even keel’, is outdated. ‘Positive’ emotions spur an excitement and love of learning while ‘negative’ emotions block learning if ignored” (1998, p.12). Textbooks generally avoid emotional content, so it is often necessary for teachers to find ways of tapping into the students’ emotions. In a reading class where teachers have a free choice of materials to use, this is possible. Great stories arouse strong emotions.

In general, the optimal state of mind for meaningful learning is relaxed alertness because this allows people to experience low threat and high challenge (Caine et al., 2009). If learners are both relaxed and emotionally engaged at the same time, they are prepared to take risks in thinking, questioning, and experimenting. In this state, learners are able to master new skills and engage the executive functions because they feel confident and have a sense of purpose (Caine et al., 2009).

Personalization

Human beings are both similar and different. Every human is an expression of DNA, but each individual has a unique genetic blueprint. Moreover, the brain is shaped and influenced by experience. This combination of a unique genetic heritage and unique experiences ensures that everyone’s brain is organized differently and that people understand and make decisions based on their own perception of what is happening around them. For students to learn effectively, their individual experiences, talents, abilities and capacities have to be engaged (Caine et al, 2009). They also need to care about the new information introduced by teachers and see that it has personal relevance to them and can be used by them in the future.


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Learning involves building on what is known already and so is highly individual. It is therefore essential for learners to be able to respond to teaching material and activities at a personal level for the material to resonate and for them to be able to create meaning (Freeman Dhority, 1998, p. 9). Teachers can create opportunities for personalization by asking student-centered questions and by allowing them to discuss what frightened, amused or interested them. Students can also be asked to explain what they were reminded of and they could be asked what more they would like to know about the topic, or what they would like to do about what they saw, heard or experienced (Willis, 2009, pp. 45-46).

Student choice

Given that each individual has a different personality that has developed as a result of their genetic heritage and life experiences, it is natural that we all learn better in different ways at different times and for different types of learning matter. In order to optimize student learning, it is helpful to offer a choice of activities or materials whenever possible. Willis (2006) advises us to “engage and maintain students’ attention by providing opportunities for them to set their own pace, select the hook that will connect them to the topic, and have some choice in the way they learn the information” (p. 43).

Variety and novelty

In order to survive and be successful, we need to be able to sense a cause, predict the effect then act quickly and appropriately. Our brains are therefore structured to recognize familiar patterns and to notice and remember novel events that are unexpected. They are particularly stimulated when we predict one effect, but experience a different one. The amygdala is the brain’s alarm system. Neuroimaging has demonstrated that when it is mildly stimulated, there can be enhanced information transit through the brain. Moreover, when sensory data pass through the stimulated amygdala, they are encoded with emotional meaning, and information with positive emotional connections, as was explained above, is more memorable. For these reasons, lessons should ideally include surprises and positive emotional experiences such as novelty to attract the students’ attention and to help them remember the new information that follows (Willis, 2006).

Challenge (Moderate challenge versus threatening situations)

Tokuhama-Espinosa (2014) explains that learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat. When a person is threatened, the combination of neurotransmitters present in the brain will prevent other chemicals from successfully creating the synapses needed for new learning. On the other hand, manageable challenges enhance the probability of learning because they generate a favorable combination of neurotransmitters. The challenge for teachers is to be sure to take into account the fact that for each student different tasks and situations will be either challenging or threatening. “Reducing stress and establishing a positive emotional climate in the classroom is arguably the most essential component of teaching” (Hardiman, cited in Sousa, 2010, p. 238).

Letting learners create


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Studies show that, compared to tasks requiring conventional kinds of thinking, creative thinking appears to engage more complex neural networks. Creative thinking encourages divergent patterns of thinking as students generate ideas, identify multiple solutions to problems, design plans of action, and apply learned content to real-world contexts. In addition, when students examine concepts in deeper, more analytical ways, the brain uses multiple complex systems of retrieval and integration (Hardiman in Sousa, 2010, p.242). They are more deeply engaged with the learning material and therefore learn more effectively. Effective tools for fostering creativity in students are collaboration, role play, and improvisation.

Using all the senses

“The brain’s first contact with the world is through the senses. So learning must engage our senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch, and movement (to name a few). These are naturally activated by physical experiences the learner has with the world” (Caine et. al, 2009, p.7). When students are engaged in a variety of activities that stimulate multiple sensory intake centers in their brains, they can develop multiple pathways in their brains that lead to the same memory storage destination. In other words, when several senses are stimulated with the same information, more brain connections are available when learners need to recall that memory later on. For example, if the information is taught with visual and auditory associations, it can be recalled later by learners using either their visual or sound memory (Willis, 2006).

We do not have to worry about over stimulation as long as students select input rather than have it forced on them. “High quality, high volume input is the raw material upon which the language learning brain thrives” (Freeman Dhority, 1998, p.11). This is because “the human brain is highly sophisticated at prioritizing massive levels of information”(Freeman Dhority, 1998, p. 11). It constantly sorts information so that survival, learning, and focus on task occur in order of priority. Educators need to be mentors not just of the subject matter taught, but also of the memory and retention process (Willis, 2006).

Letting learners collaborate

Tokuhama-Espinosa (2014) points out that the brain is a social organ and depends on interactions from other people to make sense of social situations. For this reason, humans will generally choose to work in groups as opposed to alone, bouncing ideas off one another. “We not only gain information by listening, watching, and interacting with other people, we learn about ourselves when we compare our own actions and thoughts with those of others” (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p. 33).

Moreover, Freeman Dhority explains that, “Our primary communication skills are language-driven… Speaking can facilitate learning and understanding faster, especially in groups. Cooperative learning, role-play, dramatic expression, discussion, brainstorming and group projects all facilitate the learning process” (Freeman Dhority, 1998, p.15).

Repeating to remember/Remembering to repeat

Willis points out that the role of educators is to be memory enhancers and not just


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information dispensers because: “The more times one repeats an action or recalls the information, the more dendrites sprout to connect new memories to old, and the more efficient the brain becomes in its ability to retrieve that memory or repeat that action” (Willis, 2006, p. 8). Teachers therefore need to provide many occasions for students to work with the new language they encounter to allow time and opportunity for permanent neuronal circuits of axons and dendrites to be set down and developed. There is a famous phrase that describes this process: “Cells that fire together, wire together.” In other words, when neurons fire in sync with one another, they are more likely to make new connections. Repeated stimulation allows the connections to grow stronger and a given neuron becomes more likely to trigger another connected neuron (Willis, 2006). This does not mean that rote memorization or drills are effective learning techniques. In fact, quite the opposite is true; students need to be able to process the same information through a variety of ways to maintain their active interest while they strengthen the neural connections.

Breaking activities into 10-minute (or less) bits

Medina (2014) reports that studies have confirmed that the human attention span during a lesson or other kind of presentation is typically only 10 minutes. Educators and presenters need to bear this in mind and to make sure they catch and hold the attention of their students and audiences every 10 minutes. They also need to remember that students and audiences need to be given time to digest new information. Freeman Dhority explains that “for optimal learning to take place, the brain needs ‘down time’ for internal processing” (Freeman Dhority, 1998, p. 13). Teachers should plan activities in roughly 10-minute segments and allow passive times when the learners’ brains can process the input. Also, lessons need to be punctuated at these10-minute intervals with attention-grabbing moments.

Standing up and moving regularly

Paleoanthropologists agree that our ancestors have always moved a great deal, covering 12 to 20 kilometers a day, and that “the human brain became most powerful in the world under conditions where motion was a constant presence”(Medina, 2014, p. 21). Recent scientific research has also demonstrated that people who take regular exercise can achieve superior cognitive performance compared with people who are sedentary. Research on children and adolescents shows that those who are fit “allocate more cognitive resources to a task and do so for longer periods of time” (Medina, 2014, p. 27). They also tend to be less disruptive in terms of their classroom behavior when they are active and they have higher self-esteem, less depression and less anxiety. Why is this the case? The brain needs a large and constant supply of both energy and oxygen (to absorb toxic waste produced by energy extraction). Glucose molecules for energy and toxic electrons are transported to and from the brain by blood, and when we exercise, we increase the blood flow across the tissues of our body. Exercise, therefore, improves the energy delivery and waste removal system all over the body, and in the brain it encourages the creation of new cells. For these reasons, teachers need to make sure that students get out of their seats and move around during lessons as well as during their break times.


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Praising effort, not ability

It is best to compare students’ own previous work when acknowledging improvement. Moreover, praise that explicitly acknowledges the connection between the students’ effort and their specific achievement, rather than for their intelligence, causes them to work more, experience more enjoyment, and be more persistent in tasks (Willis, 2006). If you praise their ability or intelligence, they will not feel the need to work hard.

To sum up, our brain does not store memories, it recreates them, very approximately, every time we recall. We don’t have “memory banks.” Rather we have pathways for specific types of learning and some pathways are more easily retrieved than others. For example, our brain is poorly designed for textbook, rote and semantic learning. Learning in contextual, episodic, event-oriented situations are more compatible with our brain because: “The brain thrives on engaging implicit learning pathways including motor learning, location changes, music and rhythm” (Freeman Dhority, 1998, p. 13). With this knowledge in mind, let us now look at some classroom activities that help build and activate neural pathways in our learners’ brains.

Suggested activities

1. Reading Circles

Reading circles are an effective way to involve all students actively in the reading of a text or story. The “circles” are groups of 4-6 students. Reading circle activities can be used when the whole class is reading the same material and working in independent circles, or when different circles are working on different texts. Each circle member has a role. Teachers can create the roles they feel suitable for their class and for the text to be used.

By way of example, I shall refer to the roles used by Furr (2011) for classwork on short stories: Discussion leader (who organizes and keeps the discussion flowing), summarizer (who summarizes the main ideas of the text), connector (who finds connections between what they read and their own lives or world events), word master (who selects a pre-determined number of important vocabulary items for the circle to learn), culture collector (who looks for interesting cultural information and/or differences), passage person (who identifies key sentences in the text which provide important information or mark a turning point in the plot.)

It is a good idea to provide each student with a handout that explains what they have to do and which provides space for them to make notes (using words and/or pictures or diagrams.) It is also a good idea to get the students to read aloud in their groups, taking turns and taking parts for the dialog if it is a story. Students can work on their individual tasks in class, or for homework, if they have a copy of the text to take home. When all the students in the group are ready, the discussion leader begins the group discussion. This can be in the first language (L1) for low-level students if the teacher’s focus is on deep understanding. For more advanced students, it is good to challenge them to try to use the target language (TL). The group discussion can be followed up with a written report from


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each student, based on their own work and the results of the group discussion.

Which of the essential ingredients do reading circles include? Firstly, opportunities for learner collaboration and learner choice are offered, especially if the teacher allows students to choose and/or negotiate their roles among the circle members. In addition, by getting each student in the circle to focus on a different aspect of the text, there is plenty of variety and novelty during the circle discussion work, and there are many opportunities for personalization. If reading circles are used more than once, a greater element of challenge can be introduced each time by encouraging the learners to take on a new role, and not always the same role.

Should teachers encourage reading aloud or silent reading? Wolfe (2010) reports that, “PET scans of a reader show that much more frontal lobe activity occurs when the subject reads silently than when he or she is reading aloud to others. Activity in the frontal lobes often indicates higher-level thinking. On the other hand, the scan of a student reading aloud glows brightly in the motor area of the brain that governs speech but shows little activity elsewhere” (p.15). She goes on to say that one could interpret these scans to show that comprehension is greater when one reads silently. Do these scans suggest that students should never read aloud? Of course they don’t. Reading aloud, and especially reading in the role of a character in a story, excites the emotions. The benefits of emotional engagement in the learning process have already been explained. Awareness of this information allows teachers to make more informed decisions about how to balance silent reading and reading aloud.

2. Readers’ Theatre

The students work in groups of 4–6 to adapt a scene from a story they have read and write a script that they then practice and read aloud in front of the class. They should include one narrator (at least) who explains to the audience the action and motivations of the characters by reading with a lot of expression.

This activity includes many of the essential ingredients. First, students are repeatedly using key vocabulary and grammatical structures as they write and practice the script. They need to think creatively about how to turn a narrative into a drama and will find themselves needing to think deeply about the motivations, feelings and reactions of the characters during this process. If the students are encouraged to stand each time they practice, they will be getting a regular fresh blood flow to their brains and reaping all the benefits that this entails.

3. Writing a New Ending

This can be done as individual, group or pair work. The students think of an alternative ending for the story and present their ideas orally, in pictures or in writing. This simple activity allows personalization, creativity, student choice, novelty and surprise.


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4. Making a Storyboard

This simple activity is suitable for small groups of 2–4 students and works especially well with a drama, crime, or mystery story. After reading the story, each group has a large sheet (or two) of paper that has been divided into squares (about 12cm x 12 cm) large enough to draw an illustration with dialog and a caption. Their task is to turn the story into a TV show and to create a storyboard showing the stages of the TV show. The completed storyboards can then be displayed for all students to see.

This activity requires students to think about such things as the order in which the events will need to be shown to a screen audience. For example, should a murder scene be shown first to draw the TV audience into the story even though the original written version does not make it clear when and why there was a murder until later in the story? Making a storyboard encourages repeated reading and deep discussion of the original text as well as group collaboration. The visual cortex is stimulated a great deal and divergent, creative thinking is required.

5. Making a New Book Cover

This post-reading activity not only allows students to use their individual creativity, but it also personalizes the story by making them identify which were the most important aspects of the story for them. If students are required to write their own blurb as well as draw illustrations, they will be challenged to put into a few words their response to the story. This activity has the added benefit of raising awareness of the role of a book cover and how they can make good use of the information on a book cover when deciding whether to try reading the book or not.

6. Reading about a Famous Person (using magazine or online articles)

Famous people generate a lot of curiosity and so are excellent topics for a reading lesson. This activity needs to be spread over at least two lessons and involves several steps. First, find out what the students know about the famous person already. (You can use photos or pictures and some questions to prompt them.) Next, tell the students to imagine they are magazine journalists and to prepare questions to ask that person in an interview. This can be done in pairs or groups of three. Elicit the questions to the board. (It’s a good idea to get the students out of their seats and writing the questions themselves.) The students then read the article to see which of their questions are answered. The article can be adapted to the students’ level if necessary. It can also be divided into shorter sections with different groups of students reading different sections and then exchanging information. The students can also be told to note new and interesting information about the person and any more questions that they have after reading the article.

Original magazine articles can be long and include a lot of idiomatic language that is hard for lower level students to understand. Adapting an article is sometimes better than overwhelming the students and losing their interest. If possible, however, retain the illustrations. The visual input will enhance understanding and memory.


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For homework, the students have to try to find the answers to their own questions that were not answered in the article. They can do this in libraries or online. They share their information in the next lesson. As a final follow-up activity, the students can make vocabulary quiz questions for each other. These can be simply translation-style questions, (e.g. How do you say “_____” in English? How do you say “_____” in Lao?) Or they can include questions that require deeper knowledge of the vocabulary items, such as “How do you spell “_____”? What’s a synonym/antonym for “_____”?, etc. If the class is divided into teams, this kind of quiz game generates a lot of excitement and collaboration, which makes vocabulary study and memorization far more effective.

7. Creating a Picture Story

Pre-reading activities are essential, especially if the context of the reading material is another culture and the unknown vocabulary needs to be explained carefully. Pre-reading activities can be led by the teacher using pictures, photos, movie clips, sound effects and real objects (where appropriate). Multiple sensory input will create multiple pathways for memory storage which will aid recall later.

An alternative approach is allowing the students to explore for themselves the era, cultural setting, and situation of the characters of the story. This can be done by using an illustration from the story, and inviting them to create their own story based on the scene and the people in the picture. They should give suitable names to the people, think about their ages and the relationship between them as well as what is happening now and what happened before the moment shown in the picture. They can also predict what may happen later. They should not be told that the picture is from a story that they will be reading later. Instead, they should be encouraged to create whatever situation their imaginations suggest. The role of the teacher is to answer questions and provide guidance about the era, setting, etc. when required. Stories can be shared as oral presentations or in written form.

This activity, whether done individually or in pairs or groups, provides plenty of opportunities for student choice, creativity, personalization, variety and novelty. Plus there is a surprise waiting for them! The students’ recognition of the same illustration when they later come to read the story reconnects the neural pathways that were set up during the process of creating their own story, strengthening the neural networks related to the setting and situation and the series of lessons based on this content.

8. Writing a Letter from One Character to Another

A very powerful way to allow students the opportunity to identify personally with characters in the stories they read is to choose a point in the story in which one character may want or need to explain their actions or feelings to another. Ask the students to imagine they are that character and to write a letter (or email, postcard, etc.) from that character to the other. As an optional follow-up activity, the authors of the letters can be anonymous (if preferred) and the letters exchanged with another student who then reads


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and writes a reply based on the contents of the first letter, the student’s understanding of the situation, and the personality and motives of the character they are writing as. In addition to personalization, this activity includes novelty and surprise, as well as repetition of key language from the story.

9. Exploiting the ‘As If Principle’

This idea was suggested by Douglas Forster and Joseph Poulshock at a presentation entitled Researching the “As If” Principle and ER at the 7th Annual Extensive Reading Seminar held on September 28, 2014 at Keisen University, West Tokyo. They took their ideas from Richard Wiseman (2013) who introduces the work of William James, born in 1842 in New York City, and widely viewed as the father of modern psychology. I adapted their original procedure a little and had a very positive outcome with my class.

William James is famous for his ‘As If’ principle. He believed (but never actually tested) that behaviour causes emotion. In other words, people should be able to create any feeling they desire by simply acting as if they are experiencing that emotion. James explained it himself: “If you want a quality, act as if you already have it.” His hunch has since been confirmed by scientific research. This diagram explains his idea simply.

Behavior and Emotion

Common sense suggests that the chain of causation is: You feel happy –You smile

You feel afraid –You run away

The As If theory suggests that the opposite is also true: You smile –You feel happy

You run away – You feel afraid

Figure 1. The ‘As If’ Principle (Wiseman, p. 11)

The aim of the activity was to increase motivation to read and feelings of pleasure in reading by reading in a variety of places and creating positive slogans to promote enjoyment of reading. The students’ task was to work with one or more good friends and use their phones to take photos of each other reading. The photos could be taken anywhere and should be funny, surprising, thought- provoking, or simply interesting or unusual. They should aim to catch the attention of others and the person in the photo MUST be reading a book or something else IN ENGLISH. Next lesson, they added captions to the photos and then groups of 5-6 students put their individual slides into a


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slide show with background music and other effects. The results were stunning and a pre- and post-activity survey showed a clear increase in positive attitudes towards reading in English. By demonstrating to others how much fun reading could be, the students actually experienced this emotion themselves.

The slides need not be put into a slide show. They can be printed as posters and used to decorate classroom walls and corridors to sustain and spread the positive emotion further and for longer.

Conclusion

The above-listed activities illustrate how teachers can increase student learning by using emotion in lessons, allowing plenty of opportunities for students to collaborate, be creative, choose and personalize what they work on. The human brain is stimulated by novelty, variety and surprises and so these are key ingredients of most of these learning activities. In order to enhance retention of new learning material, meaningful repetition has to be built into activities. Also, different senses should be utilized when processing the learning material so that multiple neural pathways are established and strengthened, facilitating later recall. The role of the teacher is to create and maximize opportunities for understanding and memorization and so activities need to be carefully timed so that students can have a break at regular (preferably 10-minute) intervals and be allowed to stand up and move their bodies. With fresh minds and bodies and with an acceptable level of challenge, students can achieve the state of relaxed alertness that optimizes learning. Last, but far from least, teachers should praise their students for their progress compared with their own previous work, and for their level of effort rather than for their ability. This will encourage all students to keep trying hard and maximize their potential.

References

Caine, R. N., Caine, G., McClintic, C., & Klimek, K. (2009). 12 brain/mind learning principles in action: Developing executive functions of the human brain. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Freeman Dhority, L. & Jensen, E. (1998). Joyful fluency: Brain-compatible second language acquisition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Furr, M. (Ed.) (2011). Bookworms club: Pearl. Stories for reading circles. Oxford: OUP.

Helgesen, M. (2014). DIY NeuroELT: Ways to make your textbook more brain-friendly. Retrieved from http://helgesenhandouts.weebly.com/uploads/1/1/2/5/11251138/3._diy_neuro-elt_handout_june_2014.pdf

LeDoux, J. (1996). The emotional brain. New York: Simon & Schuster. Medina, J. (2014). Brain rules: 12 principles for surviving and thriving at work, home,

and school (2nd edition). Seattle, WA: Pear Press.


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Sousa, D. (2010). Mind, brain, and education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2014). Making classrooms better: 50 practical applications of mind, brain, and education science. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Ltd.

Willis, J. (2006). Research-based strategies to ignite student learning: Insights from a neurologist and classroom teacher. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Wiseman, R. (2013). The ‘as if’ principle: The radically new approach to changing your life. New York: Free Press.

Wolfe, P. (2010). Brain matters: Translating research into classroom practice (2nd edition). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.


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Everybody has a Story

Donna Fujimoto Osaka Jogakuin University Japan

It was a great honor to be asked to be a plenary speaker at the Lao TESOL conference in February 2015. My first concern was what topic should I select? It had to be one that would be of interest and practical use to the Lao teachers from both the urban areas and from the provinces. If I share my current research, it would be of little practical use as there would be too much technical jargon to explain, and the time needed to share the methodology and results would take much more time than a plenary talk.

Another topic, however, that could cover both research and classroom practice is that of “narratives.” Narrative analysis is an important part of qualitative research, and even quantitative research studies often explain results in the form of a narrative. In our everyday lives, a narrative is simply a story. In our daily conversations with each other, we often share our experiences by relating a whole or part of a story. We are constantly hearing or watching stories through radio, television, films, youtube, podcasts, and other media. We have heard fairy tales as children, and we have learned how to make up stories both real and fantastic. In fact, “Narrative knowing is a fundamental mode of understanding by which people make sense of their own and others’ actions and life events” (Polkinghorne, 1996, p. 77).

Since stories are so fundamental, they can certainly be used in the language classroom at all levels, from novice to advanced. And, thus, for the plenary I decided to present a brief note about the research basis of narratives, but then devote the majority of time to practical pedagogical activities that have always worked in my classes and could perhaps be used by the teachers at the conference. My main message was: Everybody has a story. Here is one of the activities that I decided to share:

(1) True/False a) For homework, students are asked to write two brief stories where they

must be one of the characters. One story has to be completely true and the other completely false.

b) In class, students are put in pairs. Each student decides which story to tell, and the other student must guess if the story is true or false. For larger classes, make small groups where each student has the experience of presenting a story in front of a small audience.

c) For a later class introduce the idea of competition in a game format. Make two opposing teams. One student at a time tells a story while the opposing team members keep a score card of their correct and incorrect guesses. For each correct guess the opposing team members who were listening gain 10 points; however, for each incorrect guess, the storyteller’s team gains the


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10 points. After all the members have presented their stories, the scores are tallied. After the game, have students make comments, for example, the trickiest stories, the student that they could guess well or not well, the most surprising story, etc.

The True/False activity can be modified and extended in many ways. For the novice-level students who have little self-confidence in speaking, it is perfectly okay to allow them to read their stories. They can be coached explaining that it is allowable to read, but they must give eye contact to the listeners. As students become more familiar with the task, they are encouraged to only use notes rather than read. Intermediate and advanced level students must present without notes, and they are encouraged to use facial expression, body language and gestures as they tell their stories. Since partners and/or groups are changed during the class time, it allows students practice in perfecting their stories.

It has often happened that some students in my classes have specifically asked if they can make up a story on the spot. When students themselves volunteer this on their own, it is a sure sign that students are truly engaged. When one or two students have done this, others who previously seemed quiet, have amazingly become eager to put aside their planned stories to relate new ones because their classmates’ stories have reminded them of some newer story line.

In one of my classes, a student said he had found a way to detect if a person was lying or not. He said he noticed that the teller’s eye gaze was different when lying than when being truthful. The other students never noticed this type of nonverbal behavior, and it brought up much discussion, speculation, and laughter. Then one student pointed out that the person with his lie-detecting method did not have a particularly high score, and this led to even more laughter and more discussion.

The stereotype of Japanese students is that in the English classroom they are shy and reticent, but this certainly did not hold true when they participated in this True/False activity. There are several factors which combined to produce this outcome:

(1) the universality of narratives (Bruner, 1990) and

(2) the close connection between narratives and the Self. People order their experiences, shape their intentions, use their memory, and structure their communication through the use of narratives. (Brockmeier & Carbaugh, 2001). When the students recognized that the stories they could share in the classroom were not something conceptually and linguistically difficult but simply everyday events and experiences from their own or imagined lives, they felt empowered and could find their voice;

(3) student engagement. When all students—no matter what their level of language proficiency—can readily participate and even more so when some go beyond the initial classroom task by suggesting new game rules and deciding to make up their stories on the spot, it is a clear sign that communication and connection were prioritized and not grammar and accuracy. The students enjoyed learning about their classmates in these short glimpses, and they liked being able to share in turn.


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Finally, (4) the Japanese concept of honne and tatemae (a person’s true feelings contrasted with the thoughts and behavior that are expected by society) and the related concept of uchi and soto (an in-group or the private self contrasted with the out-group or the public self). These are overly simplistic glosses, but they are given here to suggest that by allowing Japanese students to construct both true and false stories, they were given the license to express themselves in either one of these categories. Whether their story was false or true, it was only a persona who was speaking, and anything undue, strange or silly could be blamed on that persona. I believe this liberated my students to be active and engaged, and it seemed no one worried about mistakes.

If Lao teachers have students who are reticent in class, I have no doubt that the power of storytelling can be effectively used to activate and enrich the lessons. The True/False activity is only one out of an array of possibilities that teachers can try. Why not ask students to explain a favorite movie or television program? How about suggesting that they write a short science fiction about the world 3,000 years from now? Make students consider a short history of their country. Find out what kind of fairy tales they know. The possibilities are endless because stories are endless.

References

Brockmeier, J. & Carbaugh, D. (2001). Narrative and identity: Studies in autobiography, self and culture. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Bruner J. (1990). The narrative construction of reality. Critical Inquiry, 18(1), 1-21.

Polkinghorne, D. (1996). Narrative knowing and the study of lives. In G. Kenyon, J.E. Birren, J. Schroots, and T. Svensson (Eds.), Aging biography: Explorations in adult development, (pp. 77-99). New York: Springer.


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Developing Presentation Skills Evelyn Naoumi Meiji University Graduate School Tokyo, Japan Many teaching contexts lack courses developed specifically to target the development of presentation skills for teachers and students. If presentations are considered as genre, research into genre (Noguchi, 2015) gives guidance in indicating where the problems may lie in unsuccessful presentations and why presentation skills should be targeted. The emphasis is often on what is presented (the content) rather than how it is presented (presentation form and skills) and the resulting presentations often disappoint or even confuse those listening to them (effect). Students and teachers need frequent opportunities to present and reflect on their presentations through courses that have been developed from the wealth of research into presentation skill development and also to experiment with some of the many materials available for teaching presentation skills. Furthermore, as English becomes increasingly important in the ASEAN region, there is a need for courses that give both teachers and students exposure to presentation skill development in English. The methods and materials presented in this article are the result of one teacher’s experience in developing student presentation skills in English. The students in the courses taught are from many different fields of study but nevertheless there are fundamental techniques and materials that can be used in all fields. The purpose of this paper is to examine these in more detail within the context of a Lao themed presentation. For the purposes of this paper I have chosen the topic ‘An Introduction to the UNESCO world heritage site, Luang Prabang’ as an example presentation. This paper will first introduce some presentation basics, describe the three stages in presentation and apply them to a Lao context.

Presentation basics It is important for teachers and student to understand that there are three stages in making a presentation.

Figure 1: Steps in presentation

Preparing•Wh.questions• Themeselection

Creating•Wh.questions• Structureandslides

Practicing•Wh.questions•Activities


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In each step the Wh. Questions, familiar to both students and teachers, are used to focus on the key problems in each stage. At the beginning of any presentation assignment teachers should stress the importance of time management and the next figure shows the generally accepted time framework for presentations.

Figure 2: Time management in presentations (Adapted from Reynolds, 2012) This pie chart shows clearly that teachers should allocate more time for preparation and practicing. Often students make presentation scripts and slides before finalizing the theme of the presentation and the content and rarely allow enough time for practice.

Preparing the presentation Wh. questions Who are the listeners? A common mistake in unsuccessful presentations is the failure to identify the audience. The content as a result is either too generalized or too specialized so people stop listening. Of course, it is often difficult to picture an audience in a new and unfamiliar context but if students try to answer the following questions when planning the content of a presentation they are often more focused. Why are the listeners there?

Often students have to give presentations as part of their course to the same set of classmates but in future this will be an important question to help them define the focus of their presentations.

What do the listeners already know about the topic? It is often a good idea to ask students to think back to when they began to research a particular topic because many in the audience may only have general knowledge. Conversely, in research presentations they need to satisfy students with similar research topics.

Practicing

Creating

Preparation


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What do the listeners want to know about the topic? This is the most difficult question to answer but students need to avoid presenting the obvious.

Who is the speaker? Students need to introduce themselves effectively by establishing their credibility as speakers in order to confirm the relevance of the presentation content to the audience. Why? In answering this question it is important to stress the differences between the two types of presentations: informative (lectures, product information, and orientations) and persuasive (case studies, new interpretations or theories and sales pitches). Informative presentations are easier for students and should be the focus of the early part of a presentation skills course. Where? This question raises awareness of the importance of the venue, whether it is familiar or not. Teachers should mention room size, equipment and the importance of trying to check the venue before beginning a presentation. Deciding a theme for the presentation If the presentation has a theme, it is easier to create the presentation slides and script.

Creating the presentation Wh. questions The following questions provide a guide for creating a presentation How?- presentation structure Students need to be reminded that presentations should have an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Many novice presenters find it difficult to balance the content of each part and it is very common for the presentations to lack a conclusion and a good lead in to questions. Here too the importance of visuals should be stressed. When beginning a presentation skills development course it is important to have students practice making presentations with a very simple template and a familiar topic. A very effective unit in the textbook “Speaking of Speech” gives an introduction to a student’s hometown as an example of an informative speech. The template used is:

Table 1. My hometown. Source: Harrington & Le Beau (2009)

SEE

DO

EAT

GETTING AROUND

In my classes, this template becomes the springboard for brainstorming ideas as students have to come up with three examples for each box. The students can then use the template as a simple poster by putting four sheets of A3 paper together or can write the


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template on the board before giving their presentation. The next step is to think of the introduction and the following table gives the elements often included in an introduction to a presentation.

Table 2. Elements in an introduction

Self introduction Individual/ Group members Hook/ Relevance Purpose/ Who is the audience and what

do they want to know? Outline The structure of the presentation Time A set time given by the teacher Questions When can the audience ask questions? Transition Lead into SEE; then DO; then EAT; then

GETTING AROUND (Adapted from Emmerson, 2009)

The next step is to conclude the presentation and students must choose one of the three items for each of the sections and come up with a short sentence to underline the relevance of the information presented for the audience.

How?- Visuals It is important that students learn to keep visuals simple, particularly when using posters or PowerPoint. Teachers need to emphasize the following:

1. A visual image can be more effective than words; 2. Complete sentences should not be used; 3. Language should be simple not complex words that are difficult to pronounce; 4. The font should be easy to read and large enough to see from the back of the room

for PowerPoint or about 5 paces away for posters.

Practicing the presentation Wh. Questions How?- delivery skills Students will often identify poor pronunciation and eye contact as target areas for skill development but will overlook rhythm, intonation, voice projection, pausing and pacing. The activity introduced in this section is effective in a Japanese context and with foreign students from various countries. Activity Most students have difficulty with pronunciation, pacing, intonation and voice projection. In some cultures eye contact is also a problem. The following simple activity can be used to practice all of the above. Step 1 The students prepare a simple self-introduction with the following information:

(i) What is your name and where do you study /work? (ii) What do you study/ do and why is it important? (iii) What do you want to do in the future?


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(iv) Why do you want to study English? Step 2 Put students in small groups (five students is a good number). One student begins his/ her self-introduction but each item must be delivered in one breath. After the student has finished he/ she chooses the next person by eye contact. Step 3 The students find it difficult to speak without pauses. The students work with a partner to divide up the sentences into sections and add rising and falling intonation. Step 2 is then repeated. Step 4 Students again work with a partner to decide what information is important for listeners to remember about them and this is stressed by pausing before the key word, saying the key word louder or more slowly. Repeat Step 2. Step 5 The final step is rhythm which students practice by tapping their feet or clapping.

Good morning, /I am John Smith /and I study at Downtown University. // I study environmental science/ because I am concerned /about the future of our planet.// In the future,/ I want to work in a company /specializing in cleaning up polluted rivers.// I will need to work with foreign scientists /on joint projects /so I need English.//

Key:

/ Short pause after a chunk within a sentence

// Pause at the end of a sentence

Rising intonation

Falling intonation

Stress

Figure 3. A sample speech (Adapted from Emmerson, 2009)

This speech can be used as a warm-up activity in subsequent classes and as a model when


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students are preparing their own presentations. How? -Visuals Another area often overlooked in presentation skill development is providing students with sufficient opportunities and a variety of tasks to use visuals such as pictures, diagrams, graphs and tables in their presentations. Harrington and Le Beau (2009) however, provide a very simple recipe for effective use of visuals which can be applied to every kind of presentation.

Figure 4: How to introduce visuals (Adapted from Harrington & Le Beau, 2009)

Graphs are very useful for teaching these steps. One example could be a graph showing the average annual temperatures in a city or country to pinpoint the best month for visiting. Graphs plotting changes in currency exchange rates or oil prices are easily available and can be used in many ways in the classroom. Many students have problems with large numbers in English so a popular activity is to have one student choose a line graph with large numbers (for example, oil prices over one month). The student then explains the graph and other students try to draw the graph. What? –Problems It is important to ask students what they think are some of the reasons why presentations are unsuccessful. This is an opportunity to review the answers to the Wh. questions and it is very effective to use an example of an ineffective presentation from teaching materials or for the teacher to give one. It is important that students have an opportunity to relate the failure to consider the Wh. questions to unsuccessful presentations. What?- Presentation checklist Checklists for presentations are very useful in later evaluations of student presentations but the items should be chosen by the students. There are many presentation checklists available in presentation teaching materials that can be adapted to suit different needs. What?- Preparing for questions I have all students prepare three questions for me to ask after the presentation. Many students need to revise asking and answering questions so this is the time to review the types of questions in English and their role

Introduce Explain Highlight


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Example Presentation Preparing the presentation Who? I would stress that the listeners are a group of first time visitors to Laos with very little knowledge of Lao lifestyle or culture.

The speakers are students Why? There is a need to give an introduction to Luang Prabang as a UNESCO world heritage site before beginning the tour of the town. Creating the presentation The suggestions below are for a PowerPoint presentation but the slides can be visuals on a poster. How? – presentation structure This is an informative presentation so the template “My Hometown” is a useful tool. Introduction The most difficult part of the introduction is the hook or relevance. Students could use a famous photo as a lead in but they must convince their audience that the presentation has important information relevant to their visit to Luang Prabang. Students must introduce themselves and give an outline of their presentation. Body Four aspects of Luang Prabang What to see, do, eat and how to get around. It is important to narrow the choice of examples according to time or financial constraints. Conclusion One slide with four suggestions. How? – visuals

1. Students need to decide whether this is a poster presentation or a PowerPoint presentation.

2. Students need to think about using maps and photos. They have to consider which ones are easy to understand and are attractive to first time visitors.

3. If this is a PowerPoint presentation, 6 slides should be the maximum; one slide each for the introduction and conclusion and four slides for the body.

Practicing the presentation Use the suggestions given above in practicing the presentation.

Conclusion Using Wh. Questions in the three stages of a presentation, preparing, creating and practicing has been very useful in my presentation skill development classes. I hope that the example of introducing Luang Prabang to a non Lao audience and the activities in this paper will encourage more teachers to incorporate presentation skill development into their classes.


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References Emmerson, P. (1999). Business builder: Intermediate teacher’s resource. London:

Macmillan. Harrington, D., & LeBeau, C. (2009). Speaking of speech: New edition. London:

Macmillan. Noguchi, J. (2015). Materials development based on genre awareness. Plenary Speech.

The Second International Symposium on Innovative Teaching and Research in ESP. U.E.C. Tokyo.

Reynolds, G. (2012). Presentation zen. (2nd Ed.). Berkeley, C.A.: New Riders (Pearson).


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Symbolic Gestures That Make Memories Last: Momosign Martin R. Momoda Literacy Innovations Specialist PoP (Pencils of Promise) Laos

Abstract

The innovation of using symbolic gestures from sign languages of the deaf for hearing learners of a second language may require a conceptual leap. The purpose of this paper is to show that this is possible and how its efficacy is based on theoretical frameworks of memory from cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Theoretical understandings of memory substantiate the importance of visual-spatial input and the possibilities for skill training to effectively encode it to working memory. Momosign is an example of using symbolic gestures for second language learners of English. This method uses gestures from Lao Sign Language and is being piloted in elementary schools in the Lao PDR. New classroom practices that utilize visual-spatial modalities based on cognitive psychology and neuroscience have promising and practical applications for the second language classroom.

Introduction

Cognitive psychology and neuroscience contribute to an understanding of how sensory stimuli are encoded into working memory as a prerequisite for language learning. Conclusions about the limits of memory capacity (Kane & Engle, 2002), however, might discourage the baffled language instructor or the frustrated learner. Rather than concede to the constraints, practitioners are encouraged to explore skill training that takes advantage of the brain’s ability to remember (Kane, 2003). In particular, training that encodes the visual-spatial with auditory modalities may be a long overlooked way to improve working memory.

This paper reviews the theoretical validation of using symbolic gestures in the encoding process of memory for students of a second language with the example of Momosign, a method now being used for teaching English as a second language in elementary schools in the Lao PDR.

What is Momosign?

Momosign was developed by Martin Momoda in 2008 for learners of English as a second language, initially for secondary and college level students. The method was introduced at the district level for elementary school teachers and is presently being used in more than 20 schools built by PoP (Pencils of Promise) in Luang Prabang Province.


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The method was initially developed for resource deficient and overcrowded classrooms led by teachers who often have almost no knowledge of English. Through direct experimentation, gestures were found to engage students and improve retention. In later pilots, it was found that the use of signs from Lao Sign Language showed the most dramatic results.

Momosign in Laos uses signs from Lao Sign Language. Though ASL (American Sign Language) is considered synonymous with English and is widely used, the Momosign program aims to ultimately provide communicative means between the deaf and the hearing in the specific region that the L1 sign language and L2 target language is used. If such a method were widespread, a communicative bridge could connect the hearing and the deaf. In addition to the Lao program, preparation has been made for the use of Momosign in Myanmar, Cambodia and Thailand for programs in those respective countries.

The primary aim of Momosign, however, is to more effectively help second language learners easily commit sensory input to working memory. The purpose of this paper is to show that using signs from a sign language is theoretically sound and can be used for effective encoding into working memory.

A typical Momosign session begins with the teacher introducing a set of words in a given category, or for more advanced students, a target sentence pattern. Categorical groupings of new words help students chunk information. L1 is used to confirm meaning, but is not necessary for instructing, explaining or writing on the board. Once students understand that they are being drilled with signs and the associated verbal representation, they concentrate on observation and response. Students do not mimic or repeat, but are challenged to convert their visual input to the verbal equivalent. Teachers must first introduce the verbal equivalent of the sign in the target language, but can then drill without speaking. Classrooms, however, are anything but silent as students shout out responses in chorus.

Observational evidence shows a high consistency of specific behavioral responses among learners. Strong enthusiasm, concentration and engagement are typified by focused eye contact on the teacher, quick and loud responses, smiling and laughing. Students often stand to get a better view or leap to their feet to participate fully. Students are not instructed to sign themselves, but many do. Of special note is that this response has been found not only among children, but also among adult educators and professionals participating in TESOL conferences.

Research is now being conducted on what has been observed as a high retention of words over a long period of time. In many cases, students remember signs and words months afterwards, even without training during that interval. The high degree of enthusiasm and engagement indicates that attention processing and encoding are functioning for working memory.

Theoretical frameworks of memory validate these responses observed among students, though further quantitative studies will be necessary to confirm that improved memory is a direct result of signed drilling during encoding rehearsals.


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Theoretical Frameworks of Memory

The classic theory of memory is the information processing model of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) which describes a three-part model consisting of sensory memory (SM), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). The brain is understood to hold sensory stimuli only for the time needed to process what will be committed to short-term memory and what will be forgotten. Storing input in long-term memory requires encoding and rehearsal in order for it to be retrieved for task performance (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968).

Further developments were made to this theory by Baddeley and Hitch (1998, 2001) with the subdivison of short-term working memory (ST-WM) into the Phonological Loop (PL) and Visualspatial Sketchpad (VS) governed by the Central Executive (CE). Doing so maps out how auditory and visual stimuli can be processed independently yet simultaneously without dual task interference. This is significant in the following discussion of integrated audio-visual input for memory and language learning (Baddeley, 1974).

Sensory Memory

Sensory input includes sight (iconic), sound (echoic), touch (haptic) and all other stimuli that humans can sense. In a given moment immeasurable amounts of information enter the neural system. Attention describes the cognitive process of focusing sensory information and committing it to working memory leaving the rest to decay as it is irrelevant to task performance. Iconic memory is understood to have a buffer span of no more than a second (Sperling, 1960). According to research in neuroscience, memory is a biological event encoding neural tissue in the brain involving chemicals and electricity. Requisite excitations in postsynaptic neurons may be synonymous with what is termed as attention. Attention is like the steady hand holding the welding iron that has only a few seconds to find the right target. There is no guarantee either that the weld will hold without strategic rehearsal. Memory is biological, but strategies to improve it are learned skills (Dunning, 2013).

Paralanguage: Overlooked Sensory Input

When teachers command, “Pay attention” or “Listen to me,” they are trying to help students with their memory strategies but pre-programming the point of attention may not always be what the brain wants to attend to.

It is relatively recent in the history of linguistic research that a wider range of sensory input has been considered as an essential component of language and communication. Studies of nonverbal communication have focused on voice (prosody), touch (haptic), distance (proxemics), use of time (chronemics) and eye contact (oculesics), while


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kinesics studies posture, gesture, stance and movement. Meanwhile, the integrated-systems hypothesis (Kelly, 2010) challenges the conventional understanding of paralanguage being peripheral and leads us to understand that nonverbal modals are integral if not central to language and communication.

Visual and Audio: Bimodal Functioning in Language

Evidence shows that the brain can process different sensory input simultaneously. PET scans record brain activity for speaking and signing occurring in the same location indicating that language processing operates in both visual and audio modes (Hickok, Bellugi & Klima, 1996). This is consistent with Baddeley’s model of the independence of subsystems as cases show that patients with impaired subsystems are still able to comprehend text (Baddeley, Papagno & Valla, 1988). Furthermore, evidence of cross-modal plasticity has been found in deaf people who could process non-auditory input in auditory processing locations (Campbell & MacSweeney, 2004). Perhaps, teachers should be saying, “I would like your divided and simultaneous attention.”

Gestures

Language teachers who understand the importance of visual-spatial input are saying, “Watch me” along with “Listen to me.” Research confirms that gestures enhance memory (Quinn-Allen, 1995), that training with gestures makes recall easier (Zimmer, 2000), is effective regardless of age (Freeman & Ellis, 2003) and can be used with autistic people (Carr, 1979). Such research shows that gestures are not auxiliary to language, but are an integral part of it. Brain processors are not only adept at juggling different balls at the same time, but appear to be able to do so with one hand. The existence of languages with no written form proves that a language can be primarily auditory. The existence of sign languages proves that language can be primarily visual. With evidence confirming that the brain is multi-modal, has plasticity and can work simultaneously, there are good reasons to take advantage of these abilities with the use of signs from sign language.

Sign Language for the Hearing

Preverbal infants have to resort to crying and kicking among other methods to express their needs. Using signs from sign language has proven to be an effective way for infants to get their point across in less dramatic ways while also facilitating their language development (Goodwyn & Acredolo, 2000). At early ages, attention is focused on alertness, spatial orienting, attention to object features and endogenous attention (Colombo, 2001). Therefore, baby signing can be understood as a natural extension of what is already happening naturally. Infants learn about the communicative function of gestures from their social environments. They learn that gestures have associated meaning and that consistency between form and function increases the effectiveness of


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communication (Goodwyn, 2000). The question is not why baby signs are used, but why they are discontinued at some point. Much of the research on baby signs focuses on the onset of language and on the language advantage that signing promises (Abrahemsen, 1985). Once verbal abilities take over, signing tends to be abandoned with some concerns that it will interfere or replace verbal development. Concerns over the speed of onset and skill advantage reflect parental interest in keeping their children at the front of the line, but this linear trajectory focusing on verbal skills overshadows the importance of visual-spatial skills and their contribution to cognitive development. What if sign language was taught and promoted beyond baby signing? Would strengthened visual-spatial perception facilitate memory in second language learning? Theoretical underpinnings support this proposition.

Rehearsal: Making memories last

Decay theory (Thorndike, 1914) describes how information fades from sensory and short-term memory unless some type of mental rehearsal occurs. Commonly cited rehearsal strategies include elaboration, chunking, the use of visual cues and mnemonics. The most commonly used strategy in conventional second language classrooms is repetition. This practice is justified by evidence that shows that the number of times input is attended to increases the probability of storage in short term memory (Anderson, 1983). On the other hand, rote memory drills can easily become a mindless exercise in maintenance rehearsal in the way one might continue to flick on a switch that lights only momentarily. Without stimulating postsynaptic neurons, little will be committed to working memory.

Using signs incorporates many rehearsal strategies because of the direct one-to-one semantic association of signs and verbal language. Signs have high RIM (Readily Inferable Meaning) meaning elaborative strategies can be easily used. Even concepts of time, direction, intensity, negation and comparison are expressed in visual and spatial ways that spoken language can only handle abstractly.

Likewise, signs from sign language make visual and spatial chunking possible in ways that strictly verbal communication cannot. One example is how negation in spoken language requires syntactic manipulation, whereas facial expressions in sign language easily and categorically express it. Neidle (2000) confirms that such non-manual expressions are able to directly communicate abstract syntactic features.

Conventional language instruction tends to rely on text and L1-L2 translation, both which involve highly Arbitrary Conventional Symbols (ACS). Letters have no concrete association with meaning. Sounds in one language have no direct association with sounds in another. The difficulties of encoding and decoding high ACS explain the high cognitive load required of language learners and the frustration they experience.

Struggling with methods that are inherently difficult and theoretically inconsistent with cognitive processes of memory is not only taxing to the student, but to the teacher as well. Rather than dismiss these struggles as a problem of individual intelligence or effort, Moreno (2003) proposes that there are systematic ways to reduce cognitive load through


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better instructional design (Stanovich, 2003).

Retrieval and cued response

The ease of language production depends on the ease and ability to retrieve information. Retrieval is most effective when conditions or cues match the encoding conditions as stated in the encoding-specificity principle (Tulving, 1979). Affective or artificial gestures tend to vary by person and situation whereas Momosign uses standardized signs in encoding rehearsal drills that are identical to those used in retrieval drills. Students pay attention to the subtleties in the codes and are able to accurately catch signs that differ only by a finger. In addition, they are able to do so quickly. The speed of cued responses increases with practice. Students often shout out responses at the very onset of a sign. This is very possibly an unprecedented case of the teacher struggling to keep up with the retrieval speed of the student.

Automaticity

Retrieval speed as well as accuracy is important for language competence. The ability to quickly perform a task is termed automaticity and like the speed at which a webpage can load, it determines how successfully we can complete a task. Speed is considered essential for learning and information processing and is something that improves with practice (Schneider & Fisk, 1983).

In one study of retrieval time, Waugh (1985) found retrieval times for paired associates for single syllable words to be around 800 ms and down to 400 ms after 18 practice sessions. This is about the time it takes to read a word aloud. No known empirical studies have been done on retrieval time of signed cued vocabulary, but observation shows with dramatic consistency the retrieval time is very quick (Momoda, 2011), often faster than what the teacher can sign. Answers appear to involuntarily pop out and this can also be considered a sign of strong automaticity.

More attention is being given to retrieval as a learned strategy. Karpicke and Blunt (2011) claim that it is a more effective strategy than elaborative study. If so, quiet cubicles in the library are not the kind of place where the best study habits are practiced, and more attention will be given to the rock concert atmosphere that happens in Momosign classrooms (Momoda, 2011).

Conclusion

This review of theoretical frameworks on memory illuminates the paradigm shift possible with Momosign. Developments in neuroscience research show the possibilities of improving working memory through skill performance training especially with the visual-spatial modality as found when using signs from a sign language. It suggests a shift in the classroom from, “Listen to me,” to “Let’s move it.”


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Some skeptics suggest that using signs from sign language adds an additional third language burden to the second language learner and instructor. This third language is better described as the visual-spatial line that connects the verbal dots or a transparent overlay on conventional input that creates a vivid holographic effect. It is the electricity that charges attention. Rather than a conceptual leap, using signs from sign language can possibly be the long awaited homecoming of separated modalities.

References Abrahemsen, A. C. (1985). Is the sign advantage a robust phenomenon? From gesture to

language in two modalities. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31(2), 177–209. Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control

processes. In K. Spence, & J. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89–195). New York: Academic Press.

Baddeley, A., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). New York: Academic Press.

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English for Communication in Multicultural Societies: An Example Steven Graham Rajamangala University of Technology Isan Khon Kaen, Thailand This brief paper is for dissemination by LaoTESOL for conference participants attending the 12th Annual LaoTESOL Conference, 2-3 February 2015 and contains extracts of an article that is currently being written by Steven Graham, Timothy Swihart, Roderick Lucas, and Prudchayaphorn Boontool. The provisional title of this article is “Investigating Learner Preferences and Classroom Anxiety in an EFL Context to Improve Course Delivery” which will be forwarded for publication at a later date. Abstract In order for member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to play an active part in the forthcoming economic union in 2015, the learning of English has become an even more important ingredient to help forge links with other ASEAN countries and at the same time assist in cementing their place in the future prosperity of the region. This paper demonstrates how English can be taught in a learner-centered way with communicative activities that engage the students allowing them to appreciate the need for English when dealing with other countries in the ASEAN organisation. Using presentations and demonstrations to show the similarities and differences with other countries, students can appreciate how culture and language varies throughout the region. This ability to communicate empowers students to take the opportunity to better appreciate and understand their neighbours, whilst improving their English language education at the same time. Introduction The teaching methodology employed in the English for Communication in Multicultural Societies (ECMS) classes is in line with the Thai government directives of the 1999 Education Act (1999) and the Basic Education Curriculum 51 (Bureau of Academic Affairs and Educational Standards, Office of the Basic Education Commission, Ministry of Education, 2008), although it is possible that many new university students have not been exposed to these methodologies. Critical thinking is one example of the ECMS course where students are provided with an information gap that needs to be filled. This curiosity is the difference between what they know and what they want to know (Loewenstein, 1994). They are not given all the information that they need; they have to research it. The directives from the 1999 Education Act encourage learner-centered teaching in that the teacher prepares and gives the lesson in a way that takes into account the students’ needs and aspirations and is contextually applicable to the students (Richards, 2011). This approach is utilized as follows: each week, one student from every group gives an individual presentation on three aspects of cultural and language difference between the country they had been studying and their country of origin. The presentation is recorded and a DVD is given to the class so that students can visually review their presentations


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and critically evaluate their English language performances. Each group also enacts a weekly demonstration of two or three language functions covered in the previous week’s class and homework activity.

By using Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), these demonstrations are created, planned and performed by the students in the context of real life situations so that English can be used in a communicative way. This way a more indirect approach to teaching conversation is taken; however, when there are difficulties a more direct approach is needed (Richards, 1990). A DVD is also made of these performances in order for students to review and evaluate their work for the purpose of improving their English language skills in context. It is important to note that the major part of the planning and preparation for the presentations and demonstrations take place in the students’ own time as the majority of the three hour lesson time is taken up with the actual presentations and demonstrations. The intention is to give students a certain amount of autonomy in their learning (Cotterall, 1995).

Richards (2005) gives a very good concise history of CLT showing three phases from traditional approaches up to the late 1960s, classic teaching from 1970s to 1990s and current CLT from the late 1990s to now. CLT has become a term that covers many different communicative activities; however, task based activities have been the focal point of the course design for the ECMS course. Using the framework designed by Ellis (2003), it was possible to compose a course that had task components (Nunan, 2004) based on language functions that focused on form (Halliday, 1970), presented by students as tasks (presentations and demonstrations), using a minimal amount of teaching materials. The emphasis was now put on the students to investigate the information and materials they required to complete the tasks, giving them more autonomy in their learning (Cotterall, 1995). The ECMS course For this course students need to demonstrate communicative competence. Students need to know how to use the language in a range of different functions and purposes. In addition, they need to use a variety of language based on the settings and participants they encounter. They must understand and be able to produce many different kinds of texts and also know how to sustain interactions despite the limitations of their knowledge of the L2 (Richards, 2005). Language functions, sometimes called situation and situational dialects, form a major part of the course work, as it was deemed a very proficient way to learn a foreign language (Hall & Hall, 1987). Students need to understand how time and space are related to different cultural contexts over a range of different functions (Hall & Hall, 1990). On the first day of class, all students take a placement test in order to ascertain their level of English language proficiency. This is to give the lecturers an opportunity to ascertain the level of English in the classes they have been assigned.

Students are expected to accomplish two core tasks during the first half of the semester. Each student gives an individual presentation of approximately 4 minutes, as well as participating in a group demonstration of about 7 minutes. Preparations for the presentations are conducted in groups. Each group is given a country to compare to their


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own country of origin. Each student is to concentrate on three aspects of language and culture from the country assigned to their group as the basis for comparison with their country of origin. A scripted Presentation Layout (see Appendix A.) is given to the students in their course book to use in their preparation. For the demonstration phase of the course, students are to write, plan and perform brief skits in their groups to demonstrate how language functions they had been studying in class could be used in the correct context. A Play and Demonstration planner is in Appendix B. The Presentation Layout and the Play and Demonstration Planner were developed by Graham (2011a) as part of previous coursework.

Because of the cumulative nature of information researched by each group, students are allowed to choose their own groups for the group-work phases of the course. This was in line with the initial objective of having the students remain in the same groups for the entirety of the course. Based on research by Komin (1990) and Knowles, Mughan and Lloyd-Reason (2006) describing the occupational related values and culture in Thai establishments and the value of language for decision makers in international trade, culture, and language were selected as the central focus of the course work.

Research has borne out the fact that it is easier to retain language and, as a result, use again when the language is employed in genuine circumstances (Glenberg, Willford, Gibson, Goldberg and Zhu, 2011). In order to give students the occasion to not only rehearse but also perform the recently attained language, presentations and demonstrations replicating real life situations were selected as the main classroom activities. These classroom activities are also validated by Senior (2011) who maintains that CLT necessitates students enhancing their verbal proficiencies by collaborating in an assortment of diverse circumstances in the classroom. Utilizing demonstrations as a means of developing language skills also has the supplementary advantage of providing students the maximum opportunity for working together as a team as well as the ability to put into practice the development of soft skills. While CLT may not be culturally fitting in all Asian contexts (Ellis, 1996), students from the four faculties in this project were not intimidated by its use. In fact, because the demonstration of language functions was understood as more like performing in a play (Pislar, 2011), the students connected very positively on various levels as part of the process.

To assess the students, continuous assessment is used in conjunction with a midterm test and a final test. The midterm test consists of each student giving an individual presentation of cultural and language differences between the country they have been studying and their own. Furthermore, each group demonstrated their competence in fourteen language functions used in the correct context. Groups then had the opportunity to peer review the other groups’ demonstrations. The final test comprises of a group PowerPoint presentation and another group demonstration including the previous fourteen language functions plus another eleven. For the purpose of peer review, the class is given a DVD containing the recorded clips of each presentation and demonstration. The peer review allows the students to analyse each other as to English language proficiency (pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, etc.), presentation skills and to evaluate whether or not all language functions were used correctly in the demonstrations. During the midterm test the peer review for individual


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students only focuses on presentation activities. The demonstrations are reviewed as a group. While viewing the DVD, students record their insights in note form and send them to the teacher and the student being evaluated by email. The rate of recurrence of errors and areas of improvement written down in the notes are collated by the teacher. Recent research by Schwerdt and Wuppermann (2011) shows the benefits of lecturing in terms of the competences forming part of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) student achievement test. Evidence suggests that this benefit is strongest with students who are more advantaged and those who are classed as high achievers. On the other hand, this ECMS course was designed with a peer instruction approach in mind for students who were not necessarily classed as high achievers. This is more in line with the thinking of Crouch and Mazur (2001) in that peer instruction was used to engage the students through the activities that took place as they applied the core concepts being presented and then explained or demonstrated those concepts to their classmates. It is this application of the theory that makes peer instruction so powerful and the active nature of this learning has been proven to increase student performance in the sciences (Freeman, Eddy, McDonough, Smith, Okoroafor, Jordt, & Wenderoth, 2014). The difficult process of assessing the oral presentations (Utech, 2011) was mitigated by a holistic approach which utilizes implicit and explicit correction (Ellis, Loewen & Erlam, 2006). This approach also sets criteria for the examinations based on fluency, accuracy, language, content and body language. To counter the students’ anxiety while making their presentations in front of a video camera, the recordings were completed each class-period so as to increase the students’ confidence during the course. This had the two-fold benefit of allowing students to evaluate their own performance on a regular basis and reduce their apprehension when being filmed for their test. Feedback was provided on a recurring basis as a whole class activity over a period of time to develop the target language and soft skills (Lyster & Saito, 2010). The feedback is, by design, constructive in nature. Comments are intentionally directed towards what was positive about the presentations and demonstrations rather than what was negative (Vasagar, 2011). In addition, feedback is given in a way so as not to interrupt the students during their delivery thus avoiding the risk of impeding fluency and avoiding confusion, so it is given collectively and at the end of the presentations or demonstration activities. This way, individual students are not identified directly and students need to reflect on their work to identify if they made the error that is being commented on (Lewis, 2002). Conclusion Whilst this paper has discussed a course that took place at the tertiary level, the core components have been used to a certain degree in secondary education to good effect. The introduction of activities such as these at an early stage will need the cooperation of social studies and English language teachers if we are to prepare our students for further education and life in ASEAN after 2015.


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References Bureau of Academic Affairs and Educational Standards, Office of the Basic Education

Commission, Ministry of Education. (2008). Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008). Retrieved from Office of the Basic Education Commission: http://www.academic.obec.go.th/web/doc/d/147

Cotterall, S. (1995). Developing a course strategy for learner autonomy. ELT Journal, 49(3), 219-227. doi:10.1093/elt/49.3.219

Crouch, C. H., & Mazur, E. (2001). Peer instruction: Ten years of experience and results. American Journal of Physics, 69(9), 970-977.

Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1-6. doi:10.1073/pnas.1319030111

Hall, E. T., & Hall, M. R. (1987). Hidden differences: Doing business with the Japanese. New York: Anchor Books.

Hall, E. T., & Hall, M. R. (1990). Understanding cultural differences: Germans, French and Americans. Boston, MA: Intercultural Press.

Halliday, M. A. (1970). Language structure and language function. In J. Lyons (Ed.), New horizons in linguistics (pp. 140-165). Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Lewis, M. (2002). Giving feedback in language classes. (W. A. Renandya, & J. C. Richards, Eds.) Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Center.

Loewenstein, G. (1994). The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation. Psychological Bulletin, 116(1), 75-98. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.75

Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. (1990). The language teaching matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. (2005). Communicative language teaching today. (W. A. Renandya, & J. C. Richards, Eds.) Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Center.

Schwerdt, G., & Wuppermann, A. C. (2011, Summer). Sage on the stage. Retrieved from Education Next: http://www.hks.harvard.edu/pepg/PDF/Papers/PEPG10-15_Schwerdt_Wuppermann.pdf


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Appendix A.

Presentation Layout

Good afternoon, my name is __________________ and I am going to talk to you today about ________________________. Please don’t ask any questions until the end of my presentation. My presentation is in three parts. First I am going to talk about ___________________, then I am going to talk about _________________ and finally I will talk about __________________________. Let’s move on to the first part of my presentation, ________________________. That is all I have to say about ______________________________. Now I am going to talk about ___________________________________. That is everything I want to say about _______________________ and finally I am going to talk about __________________________________________. That is the end of my presentation concerning _____________________________. I would like to summarise by saying that I talked about ______________________, ________________________________ and ___________________________________. Thank you for being such an attentive audience, I hope you enjoyed my presentation. Are there any questions?


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Appendix B.

Play and Demonstration Planner

Our general topic is: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Characters in our play: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ General settings of our play: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Basic story and examples of language to be used: ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ We are going to show the audience the following functions: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

(Based on an original idea by Joseph S. Cravotta)


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Sketches and drawings of what will happen in the four scenes: Scene 1

The most important functions in scene 1 are: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Scene 2



The most important functions in scene 4 are: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


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Voice and Variety in ELT: Reflections on the Lao TESOL 2015 Plenary Presentations

Ted Rodgers Prof. of Psycholinguistics University of Hawaii

Introduction

The emerging themes of the Lao TESOL 2015 plenary speeches seemed to be, first, finding one’s own voice in reading, writing and teaching. The second theme dealt with options in choosing what variety(ies) – dialectal models - of English to read, write and teach. My plenary presentation dealt with “finding my own voice” in early overseas exposures to the debates between “British English” and “American” as dialectal and methodological models for ELT instruction.

In the 1970’s I worked within the British Council offices in both London and in Asia. The dialect model there was obviously British English, especially the London educated dialect known as Received Pronunciation. In comparable engagements with the U.S. cultural equivalent, the United States Information Agency, the dialectal model was something like standard mid-western American broadcast English. I was somewhat fortunate in my own teaching for that was the dialect of English native to me.

I twice had the uninvited opportunity to defend “American” vs British English in two luncheon discussions at the English Speaking Union annual meetings at Dartmouth House in London. The first luncheon in 1968 was chaired by Prince Phillip and the second in 1993 was chaired by Prince Charles (last names unknown). Both princes lectured on the choice of British English as the “obvious” model for ELT in preference to “American” or any other minor variety. At the end of the head table, Ted Rodgers (aka “Prince Charming”), participating in his own voice (viz. with tongue-in-cheek) compared some choices of dialect and dialectics in contemporary British and American schools of practice.

Dialects in ELT

There are obviously other varieties of English – Australian, New Zealand, South African, Singaporean – in addition to British and American. In my own, particularly early, experience, the debates largely centered on the British vs American options. In the 1985 Regional English Language Seminar in Singapore, speakers considered the four options diagrammed below.


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(Partial references for the four ELT dialect options shown in diagram above)

International (Nuclear) English (Quirk, Randolph 1987)

British English (Honey, John 1983)

American English (Mencken, H.L. 1986)

Local English(es) (Tay, Mary 1996)

References are to spokespersons for these positions, not necessarily references to presentations at the RELC 1985 Seminar. (Mencken, unfortunately, couldn’t make the Seminar but was represented, inadequately, by Rodgers, T.S. (1985).

Dialects in ELT

Dialectics, sometimes referred to as “methodology”, has also, at times, had British cf American biases. In the 1960’s – 1970’s what was called “Situational Language Teaching” (SLT) in British circles had a methodologically contending but twin partner in what was entitled “The Audio-Lingual Method” (ALM) promoted by American applied linguists. In current parlance, what is labelled “Content-Based Language Teaching”


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(CLBT) in North America has a similar but competing British/European proposal labeled “Content and Language Instructional Learning” - acronymed in the thoroughly un-English syllable (CLIL). Detailed discussion of these pedagogical approaches is found in Richards and Rodgers (2014).

In my presentation I compared, somewhat chronologically, shifting foci on and pedagogy for dialog/dialogue use in ELT instruction as influenced primarily by various trans-Atlantic scholars. I presented examples from amongst the diverse set of dialog/dialogue pedagogical uses shown below:

Diverse uses of the dialog/dialogue found in ELT manuals and student texts

• Drama and fiction generally • Grammar: phonology, morphology, syntax • Special Purposes • Social formulas • Insults • Vocabulary • Collocation • Language chunks – phrasal verbs, etc. • Culture learning • Instructions • Choruses • Composition • Teacher training

In this write-up I offer as textbook samples, ELT dialogs from two different time periods and different sources.

Example 1: (Typical of a dialog in a 1960’s ELT coursebook lesson)

The dialog below was constructed to support practice of the following grammatical points;

a. be + verb + -ing;

b. three forms of future tense;

c. contractions

Sim: Are you going to Herb’s party tomorrow?

Alice: No, I’m not going. I have an exam the next day, so I’ll be studying all night.

Sim: Is your brother going?

Alice: He’s taking the train from Hamburg, so he won’t be here in time.

Sim: Well, we’re all going. And I’m going to party-hearty as they say.

Alice: And while you’re all partying, I’ll be studying the night away.


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Example 2: The dialog was developed to exemplify and provide practice in social formulae of possible use to university students’ studying English in the U.S. In this case, the social formulae dealt with offering apologies and their tactful rebutting, as unnecessary.

Apologies and Gracious Rebuttals Sutra

Local: I’m sorry there’s no power.

Visitor: Don’t worry. I don’t mind it.

Local: Our roads are dirty and are pot-holed.

Visitor: Elsewhere you’ll also find it.

Local: I’m ashamed we can’t do more.

Visitor: You’ve really done more than enough.

Local: I wish you could see the country.

Visitor: As I’m learning, times are tough.

Local: The drinking water made you sick.

Visitor: It’s nothing. It’s over. It ends.

Local: You can’t have made much of your visit.

Visitor: Not so. I’ve made lots of new friends.

As an important side note in this contemporary view of dialog is the focus on” memorability” as a critical element in instructional use of dialogs.

Making dialogues memorable

Dialogs, like epic tales (e.g. Odyssey, Iliad) are remembered and told using a variety of memory devices.

• METER • RHYME • RHYTHM • ALLITERATION • ASSONANCE • FIXED PHRASES • STORY LINE • DRAMA


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In sum, one view of contemporary use of dialogs in ELT assumes the value of the following criteria in dialog development and pedagogical use.

Dialogs in ELT use should be:

• Pedagogically focused • Communicationally diverse • Informationally interactive • Memorable (rhythmic, rhymed, comic) • Plotted - a mini story

My presentation has, perhaps, overly emphasized the influence of American and British applied linguistics on practices in ELT. Perhaps, as well, was over-emphasized the (then) sometimes competitive relationship between the dialects and dialectics of American and British applied linguistics. These observations have been historically valid in my own experience, as least in the minor respects outlined in the plenary. More generally, my personal and professional relationships with British applied linguists have been friendly and collaborative. In fact, British applied linguists and their agencies (esp. The British Council, in the past) have often been more accommodating and supportive than representatives and agencies from my own country.

I appreciate the opportunity offered by the LaoTESOL planning committee to allow me to reflect on and share some views following the experience of my past 50 years in English Language Teaching.


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Editorial Board Lao TESOL Conference Proceedings: Selected Papers (2013-2015)

Overall Charge of Publication, Selection, and Editing Professor Dr. Soukkongseng Saignaleuth

President of the National University of Laos

Associate Professor Dr. Phetsamone Khounsavath Lao TESOL President

Associate Professor Dr. Bouasavanh Keovilay

Former Dean of the Faculty of Letters, National University of Laos Proceedings Chair

The Lao TESOL Committee

Advisor to the Project

Denley Pike Director of Vientiane College

Supervision of the Project

Mr. Thongsouk Keomany Deputy-Head of Department of English

National University of Laos

Mr. Sisamout Saenbouttaraj Deputy-Head of Academic Division/Lao TESOL Coordinator

Faculty of Letters, National University of Laos

Associate Professor Thavisack Phasathanh National University of Laos

Consulting Editors

Chris Ruddenklau Darren Lingley

Kindai University, Japan Kochi University, Japan

Readers Mark Holst Donna Fujimoto

Otaru University, Japan Osaka Jogakuin University, Japan

Evelyn Naoumi Amanda Gillis-Furutaka Meiji University, Japan Kyoto Sangyo University, Japan

Chris Kerr

Cover Design Judy Namchaythip Souvannavong

Freelance Communication Consultant


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lao tesol conference proceedings: selected papers (2013-2015)

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