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  • 7/27/2019 Large Claims

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    L A R G E C L A I M S I N I N S U R A N C E M A T H E M A T I C S *J E F L . T E U G E L S

    K a t h o l i e k e U n i v er s it e tt te L e u v e n , B e l g i u m

    L A D I E S , G E N T L E M E N ,I t a k e g r e a t p l e a s u r e m a d d r e s s i n g t h is a u d i e n c e . A s y o u m i g h t k n o w I ' m am a t h e m a t i c i a n w i t h a d e e p i n t e r e s t i n i n s u r a n c e m a t h e m a t i c s . A s s uc h , it is m ys i n c e r e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e g a p b e t w e e n p r a c t i s i n g a c t u a r i e s a n d t h e o r e t i c a lr e s e a r c h e r s c a n b e m a d e s u b s t a n t ia l l y sm a l l e r . I f m y c o n t r i b u t i o n c a n h e l p inb r i d g i n g t h e g a p , I w ill f e e l f u l ly c o m p e n s a t e d f o r t h e e f f o r t i t t o o k t o p r e p a r et h i s l e c t u r e a n d t h e r e s u l t s c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n .

    T h e s i m p l e f a ct th a t w e m e e t o n t h e o c c a s io n o f th e s i x te e n t h A S T I N C o l -l o q u i u m g i v es m e a c h a l le n g i n g o p p o r t u n i t y t o h e l p i n c r e a t i n g a p l a t f o r m o nw h i c h b o t h t h e o r e t i c i a n s a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s c a n m e e t .

    T h e s u b j e c t o f m y l e c t u r e s t e m s f r o m a l o n g i n t e r e s t i n l a r g e c l a i m s : W h a ta r e t h e y ? A r e t h e y r e a l l y d a n g e r o u s 9 I s t h e r e a w a y t o g e t t h e m u n d e r c o n t r o l ?C a n o n e r e c o g n i z e t h e m i n p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s ?

    I l i k e t o e x p r e s s i n s i m p l e m a t h e m a t i c a l t e r m s s o m e r e s u l t s t h a t m i g h t h e l pin a c q u i r in g b e t t e r m s i g h t o n t h e i m p a c t o f l a r g e c l a im s in i n s u r a n c e m a t h e m a t i c s .P e r h a p s , n o r e s u l t w i ll b e o f i m m e d i a t e a p p l i c a b i l i t y a s r e a l i t y is t o o c o m p l i c a t e dt o b e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e s im p l i c i ty o f t h e r e s u l ts t o fo l l o w . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e l a t t e rc a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f a r e a l w o r l d i n w h i c h o n e h a s t o t a c k l el a r g e c l a i m s i n t h e o r y a s w e l l a s i n p r a c t i c e .

    1. W HAT ARE LARGE CLAIMS ~O n o t h e r o c c a s i o n s I h a v e t r ie d t o s e t u p m a t h e m a t i c a l d e f i n it io n s o f w h a t o n em i g h t c a ll a l a r g e cl a im . N o n e o f t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s s e e m e d t o sa t is f y t h e p r a c -t i t i o n e r s . W h a t c o u l d w e d o b e t t e r t h a n i n q u i r e w i t h p e o p l e i n p r a c t i c e , w h a tt h e y m e a n t b y la r g e c la i m s ? H e r e i s a n a n t h o l o g y o f t h e m a i n a n s w e r s t o t h eq u e s t i o n s t a t e d a b o v e .

    ANSWER 1 . L a r g e c l a i m s a r e t h e u p p e r 1 0 % l a r ge s t c l a i m s .I t is n o t q u i t e c l e a r w h y 1 0 is u s e d ? I s e e t w o m a i n r e a s o n s w h y t h is a n s w e r i sp u t f o r w a r d . T h e l ay o u t o f c l a im s t at is t i c s v e r y o f t e n h a s e x t r e m e l y b r o a di n t e rv a l s f o r t h e h i g h e s t c la i m s ; s e c o n d l y , m a n y r e i n s u r a n c e t r e a t ie s u s e p r o p o r -t i o n a l r e i n s u r a n c e .

    ANSWER 2 . E v e r y c l a i m t h a t c o n s u m e s a t l ea s t 5 % o f th e s u m o f c la i m s , o ra t l e a s t 5 % o f t h e n e t p r e m i u m s .

    * Invited Lecture at the 16th ASTIN Colloquium, 27-30th September, 1982, Liege, Belgmm.ASTIN BULLETIN Vol 13, No '2

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    82 T E U G E L ST h i s d e s c r ip t i o n m i g h t b e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r sm a l l p o r t f o li o s a l t h o u g h i t is a g a i nn o t v e r y p r e c i s e .

    A N S W E R 3 . Every claim for which the actuary has to go and see one of thechief members of the company.A l t e r n a t i v e l y e v e r y c l a im o v e r s h o o t i n g a p r e a s s i g n e d q u a n t i t y . N e e d l e s s to s ayt h a t s t o p - l o s s r e i n s u r a n c e t r e a t i e s t r i g g e r o f f t h is r e p l y .

    A N S W E R 4 .T :A :T :A :T :A :T :

    Hidden m the following exchange of thoughts.M i s t e r a c t u a r y , w h a t d o y o u m e a n b y la r g e c l a im s ?T h e y d o n ' t e x is t.S o r r y , I d o n ' t q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d .W e l l , l a rg e c l ai m s d o n ' t e x i st si n ce w e r e i n s u r e d a n g e r o u s p o r t f o li o s .B u t h o w d o y o u f in d o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t a p o r t f o l io is d a n g e r o u s ?T h i s i s c l e a r : w e w a t c h f o r l a r g e c l a im s .B u t , w h a t d o y o u m e a n b y la r g e c la i m s ?

    F r o m t h e a b o v e a n s w e r s w e c a n d r a w s o m e c o n c lu s io n s :- - p r a c t i t i o n e r s b e l i e v e i n l a r g e c l a i m s ;- - t h e y d o n ' t p r e c is e ly k n o w h o w t o d e f i n e t h e m ;- - t h e r e i n s u r a n c e t r e a t ie s u s e d m t h e i r c o m p a n y g i v e g u i d e l in e s o n h o w t o

    d e a l w i t h l a r g e c l a i m s .A l m o s t a l l r e s p o n d e n t s g a v e s o m e e x p l i c it e x a m p l e s o f w h a t t h e y c o n s i d e r t o

    b e l a r g e c l ai m s . T h e r e is o f c o u r s e t h e c l a ss ic a l s e t: e a r t h q u a k e s , t o r n a d o s , a i rc r a s h e s , f l o o d s , e t c . A t l e a s t t w o o t h e r s a m p l e s w e r e i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h a c t u a l d a t a .

    E X A M P L E 1 . P o r t f o l i o o f f ir e i n s u r a n c e f o r w o o d e n h o u s e s in S c a n d i n a v i a .a p a r t f r o m s m a l l f ir es , s o m e t i m e s a b u r n i n g h o u s e s e ts t h e s u r r o u n d i n g f o r e s to n f ir e a n d t h r e a t e n s o t h e r h o u s e s in th e i m m e d i a t e v i c in i ty .

    E X A M P L E 2 . P o r t f o l i o o f s c h o o l b u s i n s u r a n c e . T h e t y p i c a l c o u r s e o f l if e o fa b u s l o o k s a s f o l l o w s : t h e f i r s t 8 t o 1 0 y e a r s t h e b u s i s u s e d o n l o n g d i s t a n c et ri p s; t h e n t h e b u s is e m p l o y e d o n o n e d a y e x c u r s i o n s ; t h e b u s e n d s i ts c a r e e ra s a s c h o o l b u s . I t is n o t h a r d t o f o r e c a s t t h a t l a c k o f g o o d m a i n t e n a n c e m a k e ss c h o o l b u s e s a c c i d e n t p r o n e .

    H o w d o e s o n e t r a n s f o r m t h e a b o v e v a g u e q u o t a t i o n s i n to h a r d m a t h e m a t i c a lt e r m s ? S c a n n i n g t h e e x i s t i n g li t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h l a r g e c la i m s w e f i n d t h a tt h e r e is o f t e n a g r e e m e n t o n t h e c l a i m s iz e d i s t ri b u t i o n o f la r g e c la im s . T h en o n - e x i s t e n c e o f c e rt a in m o m e n t s o r t h e u s e o f s o - c al le d " s h a d o w c l a im s " s u g g e s tt h a t f a t- t a i le d d i s tr i b u t io n s l ik e t h e P a r e t o - d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e m o d e l sf o r d e a l i n g w i t h l a r g e c l a i m s .

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    LARGE CLAIMS IN INSURANCE MATHEMATICS 832 HOW DANGERO US ARE LARGE CLAIMS?

    T o g e t s o m e f e e l i n g f o r t h e d a n g e r r e s u l t i n g f r o m l a r g e c l a i m s w e d e a l w i t h t h ec l a s s i c a l r u i n p r o b l e m . A s s u m e t h a t c o n s e c u t i v e c l a i m s o c c u r , a c c o r d i n g t o aP o i s s o n p r o c e s s , { N ( t ) ; t I >0 } w i t h p a r a m e t e r A > 0 . C a l l t h e s e s u c c e s s i v e c l a ima m o u n t s B ~ , B 2 . . . . a n d a s s u m e t h a t th e y a re i n d e p e n d e n t w i th c o m m o n d i s tr i-b u t i o n o f B , s a y B ( x ) = P { B ~

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    84 T E U G E L Sw h i c h f o r u l a r g e r e a d s

    Pit < T u < m ] ~ p ( 1 - p ) - ~ [ 1 - / 3 ( / ) ]i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f u. H e n c e s o m e o f t h e p r o b a b i l i ty o f g e t t in g r u i n e d in [0 , t ] c a nb e s h i f t e d t o I t, m ) b y i n c r e a s i n g u ; h o w e v e r r u i n r e m a i n s h i g h ly p r o b a b l e . I t iso b v i o u s f r o m t h e a b o v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t s o m e t h i n g h a s to b e d o n e . L i s te n i n gt o t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r r e i n s u r a n c e m i g h t b e a p p r o p r i a t e .

    3. i s REINSURANCE HELPFUL?L e t u s r e p h r a s e t h e q u e s t i o n s o m e w h a t t o g et a r e s u lt w it h b r o a d e r a p p l i c ab i l i ty .I n s t e a d o f A ( i ii ) w e w o u l d l i k e to i m p o s e a c o n d i t i o n t h a t m a i n l y al l o w s s m a l lc l ai m s . A l t h o u g h t h e c o n d i t io n B ( iv ) is s o m e w h a t t e c h n ic a l o n e m i g h t v a g u e l yi n t e r p r e t it a s m e a n i n g t h a t

    1-B(x) 0 so t h a t h i g h c l a i m s a r e v e r y i m p r o b a b l e . L e t A ( s ) = s - 3 , [1 - b ( s )]w h e r e b ( s ) = E [ e x p - sB] is t h e L a p l a c e t r a n s f o r m o f t h e c l a i m si ze B . W e a s s u m e

    B(i) : c = 1 ;B ( i i ) ; p < l ;B(i i i ) : B( x ) is a n o n - l a t t i c e d i s t r i b u t i o n ;B ( i v ) : t h e r e e x i s t a v a l u e K > 0 s u c h t h a t A ( - - K ) = 0 .

    T h e r e s u l ts c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o ( 2) a n d ( 3 ) a r e n o w : U n d e r B ( i) , (ii) a n d ( iv ), t h e r ee x is ts a c o n s t a n t C 1 s u c h th a t ( s ee th e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d p a p e r b y E m b r e c h t s -V e r a v e r b e k e )(4 ) P{T , ,

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    LARGE CLAIMS IN INSURANCE MATHEMAT ICS 85

    (7)I f 1 - p /~ M l g l l + p q~/

    w h e r e = a - ~ p . M , ~ = E Y , a = E Y 2 a n d A = g - ' M { 1 - B ( M ) } . A l s o

    ( 8 ). a p V M~ VM (1 - - p ) + 2 ~ (1 - e M M)

    O M + V M p ( 1 O W M ~~< VM(1--p) - e x p - ~ - ) .

    T h e s e f o r m u l a s a r e i n te r e s t i n g a s f ir st a p p r o x i m a t i o n in t h a t th e d e p e n d e n c e o nM a n d p Is e m p h a s i z e d . T h e l a r g e r M , t h e s m a l l e r VM a n d 0 M ; t h e c l o s e r p i st o 1 t h e s m a l l e r V M a n d 0 M .

    T h e m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n e h a s a b o u t t h e c la i m s iz e d i s tr i b u t io n t h e m o r ep r e c i s i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d f o r VM a n d 0 M. W e w i ll r e t u r n t o t h e s e r e s u l t s i n af o r t h c o m i n g p u b l ic a t i o n .

    T o g e t a q u i c k o v e r v i e w o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e s i tu a t i o n s d e s c r i b e di n 2 a n d 3 I p r o p o s e t o i n t r o d u c e i s o r u i n e s , i .e ., c u r v e s i n t h e (t, u ) p l a n e t h a tg i v e t h e s a m e p r o b a b i l i t y o f r u i n . T h r e e t y p i c a l c a s e s a r e d e p i c t e d i n f i g . 1 . H e r ee = P { ~ , ~ t}. T h e f u ll l in e s c o r r e s p o n d t o a n e x p o n e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h A = ,

    = 1 w h i l e th e d o t t e d l in e s c o m e f r o m / ~ ( x ) = 2 / r a r c t a n x a n d p = , a = 2 .F o r f ix e d ti m e t h e i n it ia l r e s e r v e s fo r t h e P a r e t o - t y p e c a s e a r e m u c h l a r g e r

    t h a n f o r t h e e x p o n e n t i a l c a s e . A l s o t h e i n f i n it e h o r i z o n v a l u e s a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t .F o r e x a m p l e f o r t h e e x p o n e n t i a l c a se u = 7 . 9 g i v es e = 0 . 0 1 w h i le f o r t h eP a r e t o - t y p e c a s e u = 6 9 . 4 .

    L e t m e p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s o f i s o r u i n s i. e. , P [ T , ~< t ] a n d P [ T , > t]w i t h q u i t e d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

    4 . HOW CAN ONE DETECT LARGE CLAIMS?W e l ik e to f o r m u l a t e a n a p p r o a c h w h i c h m i g h t b e u s e fu l in p r a c t i c e if s u i ta b l ya d a p t e d . A c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f e x i s ti n g r e i n s u r a n c e p r o c e d u r e s is t h a t e s t i m a t e dr e t e n ti o n s a n d p r e m i u m s a r e b a s e d o n p a s t y e a r ' s d a t a. P e r h a p s o n e r e al iz e s a no v e r a l l l o s s i n t h e p o r t f o l i o ; i n o t h e r c a s e s l i k e l a r g e s t c l a i m s r e i n s u r a n c e a n dE C O M O R , e s t im a t e s a r e b a s e d o n t h e l a rg e s t c la im s r eg i s te r e d d u r i n g t h e y ea r .U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e o r d e r i n g o f c l a im s in i n c re a s i n g o r d e r is a t i m e c o n s u m i n gu n d e r t a k e n e v e n f o r a c o m p u t e r . M o r e i m p o r t a n t is t h a t th e r u in d i s a s te r is o n l yd i s c o v e r e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e b o o k - k e e p i n g y e a r .

    T h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e t ri e s t o d o b e t t e r . W e a s s u m e t h a t cl a im s a r e P a r e t od i s tr i b u te d s o t h a t 1 - B ( x ) = x -~ (x >i 1 ) w i th u n k n o w n a . W e l o o k a t t h e c l ai m sa s th e y c o m e i n : a n y t im e a c la i m is r e p o r t e d b i g g e r t h a n a ll p r e v i o u s c l a i m s w eg e t a w a r n i n g . M o r e p r e c i s e ly w e l o o k a t t h e s e q u e n c e o f s o - c a l le d r e c o r d t i m e s

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    8 6 T E U G E L S

    15'm m a l

    reserve

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    - / ' X / ~ I15

    //

    //

    //

    //

    / / / /

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    E = 0 . 0 1

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    I IF I I I I20 25I| I I I I I I30 time

    FIGURE 1. Isorums defined by e = P { T . ~ t }

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    LARGE CLAIMS IN INSURA NCE MATHEMA TICS 87

    and record values.N1 = 1, X1 =B1N2=inf{l:Bz>Xl}, X2=BN2N3=inf{l:Bt>X2}, X3=BN~

    It is easy to show that 1/cz can be excellently estimated by the sequence ofwarning values. Indeed, for any k, 1/k log Xk is an unbiased, efficient estimatorfor l/oz. (Alternatively the sample mean of the log B, could be used to estimate1/o~).

    If we are afraid for example that the average claim EB should be infinite wecan construct confidence intervals for 1/a and check whether or not the value1 belongs to it. In this sense consecutive warnings could lead to an alarminglylow value of a.

    To be m ore precise let us deno te by p~'~ (/3) the p robabilit y tha t all estimatesof 1/a based on the first n warning values suggest that a 4).

    Similarly, 5 consecu tive alarms make a >t 1.5 already quite unlikely.Any time a warning leads to an alarm, the company might ponder to take

    reinsurance and that while the claims are still coming in.Although this and allied procedures look promising refinements are necessary

    since in a sample of size n t here are on the average only log nwa rni ng or reco rdvalues.

    5. CONCLUSIONSWe have only indicated some major items where recent mathematical develop-ments can help the practitioner to get a better understanding of reality.

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    88 TEUGELSA s I h o p e t o c o n t i n u e r e s e a r c h i n t h e a r e a o f p r i m a r y r e i n s u r a n c e I h o p e t o

    g e t i n sp i r in g s u g g e s t i o n s f r o m y o u . L e t m e m e n t i o n a fe w t o p ic s o n w h i c h t h ep r a c t i t i o n e r h a s a c q u i r e d i n si g ht , i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r t h e t h e o r e t i c i a n :

    - - w h a t a r e t h e r u le s o f t h u m b u s e d in p r a c t i c e t o d e c i d e a b o u t r e in s u r a n c e ?- - h o w a r e t h e r e t e n t io n s c h o s e n ?- - w h a t p r e m i u m p r in c i pl e s a r e u s e d ?

    - - w h o m a k e s t h e f in al d e c i s io n ?- - c a n y o u p r o v i d e e x a m p l e s (o r e v e n d a ta ) o n p o r t f o l i o s w h e r e l ar g e c l a im s

    d o o c c u r ?L e t m e f in a ll y d r a w a p a ra l le l b e t w e e n i n s u r a n c e m a t h e m a t i c s a n d s t a ti st ic s .

    I n b o t h f ie ld s t h e r e a r e r e s e a r c h e r s a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s ; i n b o t h a r e a s a g a p i s f e l ti n b e t w e e n t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e ; f o r t u n a t e l y i n b o t h d o m a i n s p r a c t i t i o n e r s a n dt h e o r e t i c i a n s m e e t in fr u i tf u l c o n f e r e n c e s .

    T h e r e is o n e m o r e p a r a ll e l t h a t n i c el y a p p l i e s t o m y s e l f: n o t t o o m a n y p e o p l ei n a c t u a r i a l s c i e n c e s h a v e t o w o r r y a b o u t l a r g e c l a i m s . O n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l s i d e ,f e w s t a ti s ti c i a n s a r e i n v o l v e d i n th e s t u d y o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a r e a o f s t at is t ic s ,n a m e l y t h a t o f s o - c a l l e d o u t l ie r s . I f y o u f e e l t h a t m y i n t e r e s t i n l a rg e c l a i m s isu n s o u n d , t h e n d o w i th m e a s w i t h o u t l i e r s in s t at is t ic s : g e t t h e m o u t . B u t i f y o uf e e l t h a t l a r g e c l a i m s a r e i m p o r t a n t , h e l p m e i n g e t t i n g a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n go f w h a t t h e y a r e a n d w h a t y o u w o u l d r e a l ly li k e t o d o w i th t h e m .T h a n k y o u f o r y o u k i n d a t te n t io n .

    ACKNOWLEDGMENTT h e a u t h o r w o u l d l ik e t o t h a n k a la r g e n u m b e r o f a c t u ar i es t h a t c o m m e n t e d

    o n h i s l e c t u r e , b y s u g g e s t i n g a l t e r a t i o n s , b y g iv i n g m o r e i n s ig h t in r e i n s u r a n c et r e a ti e s , b y p r o v i d i n g d a t a , e t c . A l s o t h e r e f e r e e o f t h e p a p e r m a d e s o m e g e n e r a lc o m m e n t s t h a t w i l l h e l p t h e a u t h o r t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e t a s k l e a d o u t i n h i s o w ni n t r o d u c t i o n .