launching a new - edl€¦ · section 1 washington’s presidency section 2 challenges to the new...

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USAWorld

Launching a NewRepublic 1789–1800

Launching a NewRepublic 1789–1800

Section 1Washington’sPresidency

Section 2Challengesto the NewGovernment

Section 3TheFederalistsin Charge

9

1794Whiskey

Rebellion occurs.

1792Washingtonreelectedpresident.

1789George Washingtoninaugurated as president.

1793French king Louis XVI executed; Reign ofTerror begins in France.

1789French Revolutionbegins.

1791Slaves revolt inSanto Domingo.

1789

1791The first Bank ofthe United Statesis established.

George Washington’s first cabinet.Left to right: Secretary of War HenryKnox, Secretary of State ThomasJefferson, Attorney General EdmundRandolph, Secretary of the TreasuryAlexander Hamilton, and PresidentGeorge Washington.

CHAPTER

Launching a New Republic 291

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Visit the Chapter 9 links for more informationabout the new republic.

Interact with History

1800Thomas Jeffersonelected president.

1798Alien andSedition Acts

1796John Adams electedpresident.

1798French Expedition

to Egypt

1797Britain appoints

Richard WellesleyGovernor-General

of India.

1800Napoleonbecomes

First Consulof France.

1800

The year is 1789, and George Washington has

been inaugurated as the first president of the

United States. It quickly becomes obvious to

you and to others that the president will need

help. He chooses people with different talents

and experience to help him govern.

What kind ofperson wouldyou choose to help you govern?What Do You Think?• Why might you want people with different

viewpoints in your government?

• What do you think your biggest challengeswould be?

http://www.classzone.com/books/ca05_ww1

Identifying and Solving ProblemsAs you read history, try to identify problems in past times and the solutions that people came upwith to solve their problems. A graphic organizer such as the chart below can help you to keeptrack of problems and their solutions. In the middle of the chart, four headings categorize themajor issues faced by the young nation. Copy the chart into your notebook and then record prob-lems and the proposed solutions in each category.

See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R18.

What Do You Know?What do you think of when you hear the words democracy andrepublic? Why do you think the citizens and leaders of the newcountry wanted to establish a republic governed by laws?

Think About• the experience of the colonists under British rule• the effect of the Revolutionary War and the period

immediately after the war• your responses to the Interact with History about

choosing people to govern (see page 291)

What Do You Want to Know?What questions do you have about the people whocreated the U.S. government? Record your questions

in your notebook before you read the chapter.

Reading Strategy: Identifying and Solving Problems

disputes with foreign nations

As settlers move west, they clashwith Native Americans.

president’s need for aid and advice

source of income for government

PROBLEMS

Relations with Native Americans

Economics

Foreign Affairs

Politics

Treaty of Greenville

doctrine of neutrality

cabinet appointments

tariffs

SOLUTIONS

292 CHAPTER 9

9CHAPTER

Taking Notes

This early American flag has 13 starsrepresenting the original 13 colonies.

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS

Reading 2.7 Evaluate theunity, coherence, logic, internal consistency, andstructural patterns of text.


Washington’s PresidencyMAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

11

The president and the Congressbegan to set up the newgovernment.

The strength of the U.S. today is dueto the decisions of the Founders abouthow to organize the government.

inaugurate

Federal JudiciaryAct

cabinet

tariff

Taking Notes Use your chart totake notes about Washington’s presidency.

Economics

Politics

Foreign Affairs


ONE AMERICAN’S STORYCharles Thomson had served as secretary

of the Continental Congress in 1774. Now,

on April 14, 1789, he came to Mount

Vernon in Virginia with a letter for George

Washington. Washington knew the reason

for the visit. Thomson’s letter was to tell

him that he had been elected the nation’s

first president. Before giving Washington

the letter, Thomson made a short speech.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

I have now Sir to inform you that . . . your patriotism and your readiness tosacrifice . . . private enjoyments to preserve the liberty and promote thehappiness of your Country [convinced the Congress that you would accept]this important Office to which you are called not only by the unanimous votes of the Electors but by the voice of America.

Charles Thomson, quoted in Washington’s Papers, Library of Congress

As you will read in this section, Washington accepted the honor

and the burden of his new office. He guided the nation through its

early years.

Washington Takes OfficeWashington had been elected only a few months before. Each memberof the electoral college had written down two names. The top vote-getter, Washington, became president. The runner-up, John Adams,became vice-president. Washington left Mount Vernon on April 16,1789. He traveled north through Baltimore and Philadelphia to NewYork City, the nation’s capital. On April 30 at Federal Hall,Washington was inaugurated, or sworn in, as president. John Adamsof Massachusetts was his vice-president.

Charles Thomson delivers thenews to Washington.


8.3.4 Understand how the conflictsbetween Thomas Jefferson andAlexander Hamilton resulted in theemergence of two political parties(e.g., view of foreign policy, Alienand Sedition Acts, economic policy,National Bank, funding and assump-tion of the revolutionary debt).

8.4.1 Describe the country's physicallandscapes, political divisions, andterritorial expansion during theterms of the first four presidents.

8.4.3 Analyze the rise of capitalismand the economic problems andconflicts that accompanied it (e.g.,Jackson's opposition to the NationalBank; early decisions of the U.S.Supreme Court that reinforced thesanctity of contracts and a capitalisteconomic system of law).

HI1 Students explain the centralissues and problems from the past,placing people and events in amatrix of time and place.

HI3 Students explain the sources ofhistorical continuity and how thecombination of ideas and eventsexplains the emergence of newpatterns.

As the nation’s first president, Washington faced a difficult task. Heknew that all eyes would be on him. His every action as president wouldset a precedent—an example that would become standard practice.People argued over what to call him. Some, including John Adams, sug-gested “His Excellency” or “His Highness.” Others argued that suchtitles would suggest that he was a king. The debate tied up Congress fora month. Finally, “Mr. President” was agreed upon. Congress had to set-tle other differences about how the new government should be run.

Setting Up the CourtsThe writers of the Constitution had left many matters to be decided byCongress. For example, the Constitution created a Supreme Court butleft it to Congress to decide the number of justices. Leaders also arguedabout how much power the Supreme Court should have. One reason fordisagreement was that the states already had their own courts. Howwould authority be divided between the state and federal courts?

To create a court system, Congress passed the Federal Judiciary Actof 1789. This act gave the Supreme Court six members: a chief justice,or judge, and five associate justices. Over time, that number has grownto nine. The act also provided for other lower, less powerful federalcourts. Washington appointed John Jay, the prominent New York lawyerand diplomat, as chief justice.

Washington’s CabinetThe Constitution also gave Congress the task of creat-ing departments to help the president lead the nation.The president had the power to appoint the heads ofthese departments, who were to assist the presidentwith the many issues and problems he had to face.These heads of departments became his cabinet.

The Congress created three departments. In his firstmajor task as president, Washington chose talentedpeople to run them. For secretary of war, he pickedHenry Knox, a trusted general during the Revolution.It was Knox’s job to oversee the nation’s defenses. Forsecretary of state, Washington chose Thomas Jefferson.He had been serving as U.S. minister to France. TheState Department oversaw relations between the

United States and other countries.Washington turned to the brilliantAlexander Hamilton to be the sec-retary of the treasury. Hamiltonhad to manage the government’smoney. The secretary’s ties to thepresident began during the warwhen he had served as one ofWashington’s aides. To advise the

A. MakingInferences Whywere people soconcerned abouthow to addressthe president?A. Answer Theyprobably believedthat the way thepresident wasaddressed mightaffect how theoffice was per-ceived—as amonarchy or ademocracy.

Vocabularyjudiciary: systemof courts andjudges

294

THE PRESIDENT’S CABINETThe president’s cabinet hasmore than tripled in size since itbegan with the secretaries ofstate, war, and treasury, and theattorney general. As the nationhas faced new challenges, thegovernment has added newdepartments. In 1977, concernsabout oil shortages led to thecreation of the Department ofEnergy. The Department ofVeterans’ Affairs was added in1989. Today the cabinet (shownbelow) includes the heads of 14departments.

government on legal matters, Washington pickedEdmund Randolph as attorney general.

These department heads and the attorney generalmade up Washington’s cabinet. The Constitution madeno mention of a cabinet. However, Washington beganthe practice of calling his department heads together toadvise him.

Economic ProblemsAs secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton facedthe task of straightening out the nation’s finances. First ofall, the new government needed to pay its war debts.During the Revolution, the United States had borrowedmillions of dollars from France, the Netherlands, andSpain. Within the United States, merchants and otherprivate citizens had loaned money to the government.State governments also had wartime debts to pay back. By1789, the national debt totaled more than $52 million.

Most government leaders agreed that the nationmust repay its debts to win the respect of both foreignnations and its own citizens. Hamilton saw that thenew nation must assure other countries that it wasresponsible about money. These nations would do busi-ness with the United States if they saw that the countrywould pay its debts. If the nation failed to do so, nocountry would lend it money in the future.

Hamilton came up with a financial plan thatreflected his belief in a strong central government. Hethought the power of the national government shouldbe stronger than that of the state governments.Hamilton also believed that government shouldencourage business and industry. He sought the supportof the nation’s wealthy merchants and manufacturers. He thought thatthe nation’s prosperity depended on them. The government owed moneyto many of these rich men. By paying them back, Hamilton hoped towin their support for the new government.

Hamilton’s Financial PlanIn 1790, Hamilton presented his plan to Congress. He proposed threesteps to improve the nation’s finances.

1. paying off all war debts2. raising government revenues3. creating a national bank

Hamilton wanted the federal government to pay off the war debts of thestates. However, sectional differences arose over repayment of state debts.Virginia, Georgia, and many other Southern states had already repaidtheir debts and did not like being asked to help Northern states pay theirs.


ALEXANDER HAMILTON1755?–1804

Alexander Hamilton was borninto poverty in the British WestIndies. When he was ten yearsold, the young Alexander went towork as a clerk. He so impressedhis employers that they helped tosend him to school at King’sCollege (now ColumbiaUniversity) in New York.

During the Revolutionary War,he became an aide to GeneralWashington. Hamilton moved upquickly in the army and later inpolitical life. Although of humbleorigins, Hamilton had little faithin the common people and puthis trust in the wealthy andeducated to govern.

Why is it odd that Hamiltondistrusted the commonpeople to govern?B. Making

Inferences Whymight merchantsand manufacturerssupport a strongcentral govern-ment?B. AnswerBecause a strongcentral govern-ment couldencourage thedevelopment ofbusiness andmake it easier todo business andcollect debts.

Art to come

How Banks WorkWhy did Hamilton want to create a national bank? He believedthat such a bank could help the economy of the new nation. Itwould create a partnership between the federal government andAmerican business.

Let’s say you deposited money into a bank account. Then youwent back another day to withdraw some of the money. Whathappened in the meantime? Did the money just sit in the bankuntil you wanted it back? No—the bank used your money, and indoing so, helped fuel economic growth. In this way, money flowsin a circular path from people like you into the general economyand back to you again. In the process, money can create goodsand services, jobs, and profits, as the diagram explains.

Hamilton asked Thomas Jefferson of Virginia to help him gainSouthern support. They reached a compromise. In exchange forSouthern support of the plan, Northerners agreed to place the newnation’s capital in the South. The location chosen was on the PotomacRiver between Virginia and Maryland.

The secretary of the treasury favored tariffs. A tariff is a tax on importedgoods. It serves two purposes: raising money for the government andencouraging the growth of American industry. The government placed thehighest tariffs on foreign goods—such as shoes and textiles—thatAmericans bought in great quantities. This ensured a steady flow ofincome to the government. In addition, since tariffs made foreign goodsmore expensive, they encouraged people to buy American goods.

Hamilton also called for the creation of a national bank. Such a bankwould meet many needs. It would give the government a safe place to keep

CONNECT TO HISTORY1. Analyzing Points of View

Do you think that the peoplewho feared a strong centralgovernment supportedHamilton’s idea of a nationalbank? Why or why not?

See Skillbuilder Handbook,page R9.

CONNECT TO TODAY2. Making Inferences How do

banks make money?

For more about banking . . .

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H&M Co.

Businesses use the loans to createnew products andservices. As theysell more, theyhire more workersand raise wages.

Banks use much of the money they receive indeposits. They lend money to people who wantto buy cars or homes or to businesses that wantto expand operations. Banks charge interest—afee for a loan—to those who borrow the money.

Workers use theirwages to buy thegoods and servicesthey want. Theydeposit some moneyin banks as savingsbecause banks paythem interest.

1

1 2

2

3

3

296

goodsand

services


money. It would also make loans to businesses andgovernment. Most important, it would issue banknotes—paper money that could be used as currency.Overall, Hamilton’s plan would strengthen the centralgovernment. However, this worried Jefferson and Madison.

Interpreting the ConstitutionJefferson and Madison believed that the Constitution discouragedthe concentration of power in the federal government. TheConstitution’s writers had tried to make the document general enoughso that it would be flexible. As a result, disagreements sometimes aroseover the document’s meaning.

The debate over Hamilton’s plan for a national bank exposed differ-ences about how to interpret the Constitution. Madison and Jeffersonargued that the Constitution did not give the government the power toset up a bank. They believed in the strict construction—narrow or strictinterpretation—of the Constitution. They stated that the governmenthas only those powers that the Constitution clearly says it has.Therefore, since the Constitution does not mention a national bank, thegovernment cannot create one.

Hamilton disagreed. He favored a loose construction—broad or flex-ible interpretation—of the Constitution. Pointing to the elastic clause inthe document, he argued that the bank was “necessary and proper” tocarry out the government’s duties. (See The Living Constitution, page254.) According to this view, when the Constitution grants a power toCongress, it also grants Congress the “necessary and proper” means tocarry out that power. Jefferson and Hamilton argued their positions toWashington. Hamilton won, and the Bank of the United States was setup in 1791. The president, meanwhile, was dealing with other challengesat home and abroad, which you will read about in Section 2.


2. Using GraphicsIn a chart, list members ofWashington’s cabinet andtheir responsibilities.

Which cabinet member hadthe greatest responsibilities?Explain. (REP1)

3. Main Ideasa. What was the purpose ofWashington’s cabinet? (8.3.4)

b. What economic problemsdid the new governmentface? (8.3.4)

c. How did Hamilton’s finan-cial plan attempt to solve thenation’s economic problems?(8.3.4)

4. Critical ThinkingContrasting How didHamilton and Jefferson differin their interpretation of theConstitution? (REP5)

THINK ABOUT• views on the

national bank • views on the role of

government

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• inaugurate• Federal Judiciary Act• cabinet• tariff

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

LANGUAGE ARTSART

Imagine you oppose or support Hamilton’s plan for the nation’s finances. Write aletter to the editor or draw a political cartoon expressing your opinion. (REP5)

1

Vocabularycurrency: money

Cabinet member

Responsibilities

C. Answer Strictconstructionfavors a narrowinterpretation ofthe Constitution,while loose con-struction favors a broad interpre-tation.

C. ContrastingWhat is the main differencebetween strictand looseinterpretations ofthe Constitution?

Two of the firstU.S. coins, 1792

Taking Notes Use your chart totake notes about challenges to thenew government.

298 CHAPTER 9

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYIn the West, American settlers met fierce resistance from Native Americans.

Chief Little Turtle of the Miami tribe of Ohio had won decisive victories

against U.S. troops.

In 1793, the Miami again faced attack by American forces. Little Turtle

warned his people about the troops led by General Anthony Wayne.


We have beaten the enemy twice under different commanders. . . . The Americans are now led by a chief [Wayne] who never sleeps. . . . We have not been able to surprise him. Think well of it. . . . It would be prudent [wise] to listen to his offers of peace.

Little Turtle, quoted in The Life and Times of Little Turtle

While the council members weighed Little Turtle’s warning, President

Washington was making plans to secure—guard or protect—the western

borders of the new nation.

Securing the Northwest TerritoryAs a general, Washington had skillfully waged war. As the nation’s president,however, he saw that the country needed peace in order to prosper. But inspite of his desire for peace, he considered military action as trouble brewedin the Trans-Appalachian West, the land between the AppalachianMountains and the Mississippi River. The 1783 Treaty of Paris hadattempted to resolve the claims. The source of the trouble was competingclaims for these lands. Some years later, however, Spain, Britain, the UnitedStates, and Native Americans claimed parts of the area as their own.

Spain held much of North America west of the Mississippi. It alsoclaimed Florida and the port of New Orleans at the mouth of the

22

Washington established centralauthority at home and avoided warwith European powers.

Washington’s policies at home andabroad set an example for laterpresidents.

Battle of FallenTimbers

Treaty ofGreenville

Whiskey Rebellion

French Revolution

neutral

Jay’s Treaty

Pinckney’s Treaty

Challenges to theNew Government

Economics

Politics

Foreign Affairs



8.3.5 Know the significance ofdomestic resistance movementsand ways in which the central gov-ernment responded to such move-ments (e.g. Shay’s Rebellion , theWhiskey Rebellion).

8.4.1Describe the country's physicallandscapes, political divisions, andterritorial expansion during theterms of the first four presidents.

8.5.2 Know the changing bound-aries of the United States anddescribe the relationships the coun-try had with its neighbors (currentMexico and Canada) and Europe,including the influence of theMonroe Doctrine, and how thoserelationships influenced westwardexpansion and the Mexican-American War.

8.5.3Outline the major treatieswith American Indian nations dur-ing the administrations of the firstfour presidents and the varyingoutcomes of those treaties.

L. Ontario

L. Erie

L.M

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Miss i s s ippi R

.

Wabash R.

Illin

oisR.

Ohio R.

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

St. Clair'sDefeat

Battle ofFallen Timbers

Detroit

Ft. Greenville

Ft. WayneFt. Miami

Pittsburgh

PENNSYLVANIA

VIRGINIA

KENTUCKY

NORTHWESTTERRITORY

CANADA

0

0

100 Miles

200 Kilometers

Land ceded (surrendered)by Native Americans inTreaty of Greenville (1795)BattleU.S.-held fortBritish-held fort

Mississippi. For American settlers in the West, this port was key to trade.They carried their goods to market by flatboat down the Mississippi toNew Orleans. They took Spanish threats to close the port very seriously.The Spanish also stirred up trouble between the white settlers and theCreeks, Choctaws, and other Native American groups in the Southeast.

The strongest resistance to white settlement came from NativeAmericans in the Northwest Territory. This territory was bordered by theOhio River to the south and Canada to the north. Native Americans inthat territory hoped to join together to form an independent NativeAmerican nation. In violation of the Treaty of Paris, the British still heldforts north of the Ohio River. The British supported Native Americans inorder to maintain their access to fur in these territories. Eventually, NativeAmericans and white settlers clashed over the Northwest Territory.

Battle of Fallen TimbersBelieving the Northwest Territory was critical to the security andgrowth of the new nation, Washington sent troops to the Ohio Valley.As you read in One American’s Story, this first federal army took a beat-ing from warriors led by Little Turtle in 1790. The chief ’s force camefrom many tribes, including the Shawnee, Ottawa, and Chippewa, whojoined in a confederation to defeat the federal army.

After a second defeat in 1791 of an army headed by General Arthur St.Clair, Washington ordered another army west. This time AnthonyWayne, known as “Mad Anthony” for his reckless courage, was at its head.

The other chiefs ignored Little Turtle’s advice to negotiate. Theyreplaced him with a less able leader. Expecting British help, NativeAmerican warriors gathered at British-held Fort Miami. On August20, 1794, a fighting force of around 2,000 Native Americans clashedwith Wayne’s troops. The site was covered with trees that had beenstruck down by a storm. The Native Americans were defeated in whatbecame known as the Battle of Fallen Timbers.

The Trans-Appalachian West, 1791–1795

A. MakingInferences Whatexpectationsmight the NativeAmericans havehad of the Britishas the tribescame intoconflict withwhite settlers?A. Answer NativeAmericans proba-bly expected theBritish to supportthem in their conflicts withAmerican settlerssince both wereclashing withAmerican settlers.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Land surren-dered by NativeAmericans inTreaty ofGreenville2. Rivers and lakesprovided an easyway to movetroops andsupplies.

The Battle ofFallen Timbersmemorialsculpture belowshows twoAmerican soldiersand a NativeAmerican.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps1. Region What does the yellow

area of the map represent?2. Location Why might the British

forts be located near water?

299

Obeying Rules and LawsAs the Whiskey Rebellion shows, since the earliest days of therepublic our government has made laws and punished those whobroke them. These laws affect not only adult citizens, but youngpeople as well.

Today, for example, communities across the country are trying to control the problem of juvenile crime by imposing curfews on young people. These laws requireminors to be off the streets after a certain time, often ten or eleven atnight. Penalties can be harsh. In cer-tain communities, minors who breakcurfew laws can be detained, andtheir parents can be fined.

People who favor curfews believesuch laws cut crime. Those whooppose curfews think such limitsare the responsibility of parentsand not the government.

Why Should You ObeyRules and Laws?1. What are some arguments in

favor of curfew laws? What arearguments against them? Makea list of each.

2. Poll your classmates to see howmany agree with each position.

3. Write an essay expressing youropinion on this issue.

4. Brainstorm changes oradaptations to curfew laws thatyou think would make themmore flexible.

See Citizenship Handbook, page 283.

For more about young people and the law . . .

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The Native Americans retreated to Fort Miami. The British, not want-ing war with the United States, refused to help them. The Battle of FallenTimbers crushed Native American hopes of keeping their land in theNorthwest Territory. Twelve tribes signed the Treaty of Greenville in1795. They agreed to cede, or surrender, much of present-day Ohio andIndiana to the U.S. government.

The Whiskey RebellionNot long after the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Washington put anotherarmy into the field. The conflict arose over the government’s tax onwhiskey, part of Hamilton’s financial plan. From Pennsylvania toGeorgia, outraged farmers resisted the tax. For them, whiskey—and thegrain it was made from—were important products.

Because of poor roads, backcountry farmers had trouble getting theirgrain to market. Crops such as wheat and rye were more easily carried tomarket in liquid form, so farmers made their grain into whiskey. Afarmer’s horse could haul only two bushels of rye but could carry twobarrels of rye whiskey. This was an amount equal to 24 bushels of thegrain. In addition, their customers paid more for whiskey than grain.With little cash to buy goods, let alone pay the tax, farmers often tradedwhiskey for salt, sugar, and other goods. The farmers used whiskey asmoney to get whatever supplies they needed.

B. Reading a MapUse the map onpage 299 to seewhich two statesto the southbordered theland ceded byNative Americans.

300 CHAPTER 9


In the summer of 1794, a group of farmers in westernPennsylvania staged the Whiskey Rebellion against the tax.One armed group beat up a tax collector, coated him with tarand feathers, and stole his horse. Others threatened an armedattack on Pittsburgh.

Washington, urged on by Hamilton, was prepared to enforcethe tax and crush the Whiskey Rebellion. They feared that notto act might undermine the new government and weaken its authority. Hamilton condemned the rebels for resisting the law.


Such a resistance is treason against society, against liberty,against everything that ought to be dear to a free,enlightened, and prudent people. To tolerate it were toabandon your most precious interests. Not to subdue it wereto tolerate it.

Alexander Hamilton, The Works of Alexander Hamilton

In October 1794, General Henry Lee, withHamilton at his side, led an army of 13,000 soldiersinto western Pennsylvania to put down the uprising.As news of the army’s approach spread, the rebels fled.After much effort, federal troops rounded up 20 bare-foot, ragged prisoners. Washington had proved his point.He had shown that the government had the power andthe will to enforce its laws. Meanwhile, events in Europegave Washington a different kind of challenge.

The French RevolutionIn 1789, a financial crisis led the French people to rebelagainst their government. Inspired by the AmericanRevolution, the French revolutionaries demanded libertyand equality, and set out to create a government based onthe will of the people. At first, Americans supported theFrench Revolution. By 1792, however, therevolution had become very violent.Thousands of French citizens were massacred.Then, in 1793, Louis XVI, the king of France,was executed.

Other European monarchs believed therevolution threatened their own thrones.France soon declared war on Britain, Holland,and Spain. Britain led the fight against France.

The war between France and Britain putthe United States in an awkward position.France had been America’s ally in theRevolution against the British.

EYEWITNESS TOREVOLUTIONIn 1789, an American citizenwith a strange first name,Gouverneur Morris, went toParis as a private business agent.Three years later, PresidentWashington appointed him U.S.minister to France. An eyewit-ness to the French Revolution,Morris kept a detailed record ofwhat he saw, including the exe-cution of the king and queen byguillotine, as shown below.

Here is part of a letter hewrote on October 18, 1793:

“Terror is the order ofthe Day. . . . TheQueen was executedthe Day before yester-day. Insulted during herTrial and reviled in herlast Moments, shebehav’d with Dignity

throughout.”

“Such aresistanceis treason.”

Alexander Hamilton

301

A 1778 treaty still bound the two nations together. In addition, many sawFrance’s revolution as proof that the American cause had been just. Jeffersonfelt that a move to crush the French Revolution was an attack on liberty every-where.Hamilton, though,pointed out that Britain was the United States’ mostimportant trading partner, and British trade was too important to risk war.

In April 1793, Washington declared that the United States wouldremain neutral, not siding with one country or the other. He stated thatthe nation would be “friendly and impartial” to both sides. Congressthen passed a law forbidding the United States to help either side.

Remaining NeutralBritain made it hard for the United States to remain neutral. Late in1792, the British began seizing the cargoes of American ships carryinggoods from the French West Indies.

Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to England for talks about theseizure of U.S. ships. Jay also hoped to persuade the British to give uptheir forts on the Northwest frontier. During the talks in 1794, news cameof the U.S. victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. Fearing another entan-glement, the British agreed to leave the Ohio Valley by 1796. In Jay’sTreaty, the British also agreed to pay damages for U.S. vessels they hadseized. Jay failed, however, to open up the profitable British West Indiestrade to Americans. Because of this, Jay’s Treaty was unpopular.

Like Jay, Thomas Pinckney helped the United States reduce tensionsalong the frontier. In 1795, Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain gaveAmericans the right to travel freely on the Mississippi River. It also gavethem the right to store goods at the port of New Orleans without payingcustoms duties. In addition, Spain accepted the 31st parallel as the north-ern boundary of Florida and the southern boundary of the United States.

Meanwhile, more American settlers moved west. As you will read in thenext section, change was coming back east as Washington stepped down.

302 CHAPTER 9

2. Using Graphics Use a chart to record U.S.responses to various chal-lenges.

Which challenge seemedgreatest? Why? (HI2)

3. Main Ideasa. What military and otheractions secured the West forthe United States? (HI2)

b. Why did Washington con-sider it important to putdown the Whiskey Rebellion?(HI2)

c. How did the FrenchRevolution create problemsfor the United States? (HI2)

4. Critical ThinkingDrawing ConclusionsWhy was neutrality a difficultpolicy for the United Statesto maintain? (HI1)

THINK ABOUT• ties with France • ties with Britain• restrictions on trade


significance of:• Battle of Fallen

Timbers• Treaty of Greenville• Whiskey Rebellion• French Revolution• neutral• Jay’s Treaty• Pinckney’s Treaty

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

GEOGRAPHYART

Challenge

From Spain

From Britain

From France

Response

Make a map that describes the Battle of Fallen Timbers, or draw a scene from that battle. (HI1)

D. Answer Byremaining neutral,the new nationdid not make ene-mies, did not losea trading partner,did not becomeinvolved in a war.

D. EvaluatingWhat were someof the advantagesto the new nationof remainingneutral?

2

C. DrawingConclusionsWhat sort of U.S.obligation toFrance did thewartime allianceand treaty of1778 create?C. Answer SinceFrance supportedthe U.S. in itsRevolution, manypeople thoughtthe U.S. shouldsupport France.

The Federalists in Charge

WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

33

MAIN IDEA


The split between Hamilton andJefferson led to the growth ofpolitical parties.

The two-party system is still a major feature of politics in theUnited States.

foreign policy

political party

XYZ Affair

Alien and Sedition Acts

states’ rights


8.3.4 Understand how the conflictsbetween Thomas Jefferson andAlexander Hamilton resulted in theemergence of two political parties(e.g., view of foreign policy, Alienand Sedition Acts, economic policy,National Bank, funding and assump-tion of the revolutionary debt).

8.3.7 Understand the functions andresponsibilities of a free press.

8.4.2 Explain the policy significance offamous speeches (e.g., Washington'sFarewell Address, Jefferson's 1801Inaugural Address, John Q. Adams'sFourth of July 1821 Address).

8.5.2 Know the changing boundariesof the United States and describe therelationships the country had with itsneighbors (current Mexico andCanada) and Europe, including theinfluence of the Monroe Doctrine,and how those relationships influ-enced westward expansion and theMexican-American War.

8.10.3 Identify the constitutionalissues posed by the doctrine of nullification and secession and theearliest origins of that doctrine.

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYIn 1796, President George Washington decided that two terms in office

was enough. But as he left office, he feared the growth of political

parties would split the nation into enemy camps. In 1796,

he wrote a final address to the nation.


Let me now . . . warn you . . . against the[harmful] effects of the spirit of party. . . . This spirit, unfortunately . . . existsin different shapes in all governments . . . butin those of the popular form, it is seen in itsgreatest rankness and is truly their worstenemy.

George Washington, Farewell Address

In his address, Washington warned of the dangers of political division,

or what he termed “the spirit of party.” As you will see in this section, few

people took his advice.

Washington RetiresWashington had come to the presidency greatly admired by theAmerican people. Throughout his eight years in office (1789–1797), hehad tried to serve as a symbol of national unity. In large part, he suc-ceeded. During his second term, however, opponents of Jay’s Treaty ledattacks on the president. Thomas Paine called Washington “treacherousin private friendship . . . and a hypocrite in public life” because he failedto support the French Revolution.

Washington saw such attacks as the outcome of political disagree-ments. In his farewell address, he warned that such differences couldweaken the nation. Despite his advice, political parties became a part ofAmerican politics.

This painting portrays MountVernon in 1792.

Taking Notes Use your chart totake notes about the Federalists andthe establishment ofa two-party system.

Economics

Politics

Foreign Affairs


A. Answer TheFederalistsbelieved in astrong nationalgovernment, anational bank,and a loose inter-pretation of theConstitution.Democratic-Republicansbelieved in a lim-ited government,an economybased on farming,and a strict inter-pretation of theConstitution.

A. SummarizingWhat were themajor beliefs ofeach party?

Americans listened more closely to Washington’s parting advice onforeign policy—relations with the governments of other countries. Heurged the nation’s leaders to remain neutral and “steer clear of permanentalliances with any portion of the foreign world.” He warned that agree-ments with foreign nations might work against U.S. interests. His adviceserved to guide U.S. foreign policy into the twentieth century.

Growth of Political PartiesDespite Washington’s warning against political parties, Americans weredeeply divided over how the nation should be run. During Washington’sfirst term (1789–1792), Hamilton and Jefferson had hotly debated thedirection the new nation should take. Then Jefferson returned toVirginia in 1793. During Washington’s second term, Madison tookJefferson’s place in the debates with Hamilton.

Both sides disagreed on how to interpret the Constitution and oneconomic policy. Hamilton favored the British government and opposedthe French Revolution. Jefferson and Madison were the opposite.Hamilton fought for a strong central government. Jefferson andMadison feared such a government might lead to tyranny. They had dif-ferent visions of what the nation should become. Hamilton wanted aUnited States in which trade, manufacturing, and cities grew. Jeffersonand Madison pictured a rural nation of planters and farmers.

These differences on foreign and domestic policy led to the nation’sfirst political parties. A political party is a group of people that tries topromote its ideas and influence government. It also backs candidates foroffice. Together, Jefferson and Madison founded the Democratic-Republican Party. The party name reflected their strong belief in democ-racy and the republican system. Their ideas drew farmers and workers tothe new party. Hamilton and his friends formed the Federalist Party.Many Northern merchants and manufacturers became Federalists.

304 CHAPTER 9

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Charts1. Which economic interests were served by the Federalists?2. Which party favored a ruling elite? Which put more trust in the common people?

Strong national government

Fear of mob rule

Loose construction (interpretation)of the Constitution

Favored national bank

Economy based on manufacturingand shipping

Supporters: lawyers, merchants,manufacturers, clergy

DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANSFEDERALISTS

Limited national government

Fear of rule by one person or apowerful few

Strict construction (interpretation)of the Constitution

Opposed national bank

Economy based on farming

Supporters: farmers, tradespeople

The First Political Parties

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Federalistsserved the eco-nomic interests ofbusiness and man-ufacturing; thepropertied classes.2. Federalistsfavored a rulingelite; Democratic-Republicans putmore trust in thecommon people.


John Adams Takes OfficeIn 1796, the United States held its first elections inwhich political parties competed. The Federalistspicked Washington’s vice-president, John Adams, astheir candidate for president. An experienced publicservant, Adams had been a leader during theRevolution and at the Continental Congress. He hadalso been a diplomat in France, the Netherlands, andBritain before serving with Washington. TheDemocratic-Republicans chose Jefferson.

In the electoral college, Adams received 71 votesand Jefferson 68. The Constitution stated that therunner-up should become vice-president. Therefore,the country had a Federalist president and aDemocratic-Republican vice-president. Adamsbecame president in 1797. His chief rival,Jefferson, entered office as his vice-president. In1800, Adams became the first president to governfrom the nation’s new capital city, Washington, D.C.

Problems with FranceWhen Washington left office in 1797, relations between France andthe United States were tense. With Britain and France still at war, theFrench began seizing U.S. ships to prevent them from trading withthe British. Within the year, the French had looted more than 300U.S. ships.

Although some Federalists called for war with France, Adams hopedtalks would restore calm. To this end, he sent Charles Pinckney, ElbridgeGerry, and John Marshall to Paris. Arriving there, they requested a meet-ing with the French minister of foreign affairs. For weeks, they were

WASHINGTON, D.C., ANDBENJAMIN BANNEKERBenjamin Banneker was afree African-American farmer.He was a self-taughtmathematician and astron-omer. He also wrote analmanac (see below). He was named to the surveycommission appointed to layout the boundaries of thenation’s new capital. Workingwith chief planner PierreL’Enfant, Banneker helped todecide where the WhiteHouse and Capitol would belocated. Their final design isshown at the left.

B. DrawingConclusions Howdid the XYZAffair show theyoung nation’sgrowingconfidence?B. Answer Thenation was willingto defy Frenchpower and tobuild up itsstrength.

ignored. Then three French agents—later referred to as X, Y, and Z—took the Americans aside to tell them the minister would hold talks.However, the talks would occur only if the Americans agreed to loanFrance $10 million and to pay the minister a bribe of $250,000. TheAmericans refused. “No, no, not a sixpence,” Pinckney shot back.

Adams received a full report of what became known as the XYZAffair. After Congress and an outraged public learned of it, the pressturned Pinckney’s words into a popular slogan: “Millions for defense,not one cent for tribute!” In 1798, Congress canceled its treaties withFrance and allowed U.S. ships to seize French vessels. Congress also setaside money to expand the navy and the army.

The Alien and Sedition ActsThe conflict with France made Adams and the Federalists popular withthe public. Many Democratic-Republicans, however, were sympatheticto France. One Democratic-Republican newspaper called Adams “theblasted tyrant of America.” In turn, Federalists labeled Democratic-Republicans “democrats, mobcrats, and other kinds of rats.”

Angered by criticism in a time of crisis, Adams blamed the Democratic-Republican newspapers and new immigrants. Many of the immigrantswere Democratic-Republicans. To silence their critics, the FederalistCongress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. These acts targetedaliens—immigrants who were not yet citizens. One act increased the wait-ing period for becoming a U.S. citizen from 5 to 14 years. Other acts gavethe president the power to arrest disloyal aliens or order them out of thecountry during wartime. A fourth act outlawed sedition, saying or writinganything false or harmful about the government.

With these acts, the Federalists clamped down on freedom of speechand the press. About 25 Democratic-Republican newspaper editors were

306 CHAPTER 9

American newspapers fueledpublic anger over the XYZ Affair by publishing editorialsand cartoons like this one. Here the five-man group rulingFrance demands money atdagger point from the threeAmericans. The Americandiplomats respond, “Ceasebawling, monster! We will notgive you sixpence!”

What attitude does thecartoonist have towardFrance’s role in this affair?How can you tell?


2. Using GraphicsUse a cluster diagram toreview details about theAlien and Sedition Acts.

What was the worst effect ofthe Alien and Sedition Acts?Why? (HI2)

3. Main Ideasa. What two pieces of advicedid Washington give in hisFarewell Address? (8.3.4)

b. What led to the rise ofpolitical parties? (8.3.4)

c. Why did Congress pass the Alien and Sedition Acts?How did Kentucky andVirginia respond? (8.3.4)

4. Critical ThinkingEvaluating Do you thinkWashington’s warning about political parties wasgood advice? Explain. (REP4)

THINK ABOUT• roles of political parties • advantages of parties• disadvantages of parties


significance of:• foreign policy• political party• XYZ Affair• Alien and

Sedition Acts• states’ rights

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

TECHNOLOGYSPEECH

Read more about Benjamin Banneker. Plan part of a video presentation on himor present dramatic readings of excerpts from the almanac he wrote. (REP4)

3

Alien andSedition Acts

C. MakingInferences Howmight the theoryof states’ rightsundermine thefederalgovernment?C. Answer Itmight encouragestates to try tonullify or ignorefederal laws.

charged under this act, and 10 were convicted ofexpressing opinions damaging to the government. AVermont congressman, Matthew Lyon, was also lockedup for saying that the president should be sent “to a madhouse.” The voters re-elected Lyon while he was in jail.

The Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson andMadison, searched for a way to fight the Alien andSedition Acts. They found it in a theory called states’rights. According to this theory, states had rights that thefederal government could not violate. Jefferson andMadison wrote resolutions (or statements) passed by theKentucky and Virginia legislatures in 1798 and 1799. Inthe Kentucky Resolutions, Jefferson proposed nullifica-tion, the idea that a state could nullify a federal lawwithin the state. In the Virginia Resolutions, Madisonsaid a state could interpose, or place, itself between thefederal government and its citizens. These resolutionsdeclared that the Alien and Sedition Acts violated theConstitution. No other states supported Kentucky andVirginia. However, within two years the Democratic-Republicans won control of Congress, and they eitherrepealed the Alien and Sedition Acts or let them expire.

Peace with FranceWhile Federalists and Democratic-Republicans battled at home, Adamsreopened talks with France. This time the two sides quickly signed theConvention of 1800, an agreement to stop all naval attacks.

Adams’s actions made him enemies among the Federalists, but hespoke proudly of having saved the nation from bloodshed. Adams lostthe presidential election of 1800 to Thomas Jefferson. You will read moreabout Jefferson in the next chapter.

FREEDOM OF THE PRESSSince the Alien and Sedition Acts,the Supreme Court has ruledmany times that a free press hadthe right to publish informationcritical of or harmful to the gov-ernment or government officials.

A free press has a responsibilityto remain independent, not justfrom the government, but fromindividuals or groups which might influence its reporting. For instance, a newspaper ortelevision network must beunafraid to cover a heavyadvertiser accurately, even if a critical or negative story causes the company to pull itsadvertising. Editors and reportersmust frequently report gifts theyare given and financial holdingsthey may have.

To demonstrate accountability,most media outlets run correc-tions, when necessary, and lettersfrom viewers or readers.

TERMS & NAMESBriefly explain the significance of each of the following.

1. inaugurate 6. neutral

2. cabinet 7. foreign policy

3. tariff 8. political party

4. Battle of Fallen Timbers 9. Alien and Sedition Acts

5. Whiskey Rebellion 10. states’ rights

REVIEW QUESTIONSWashington’s Presidency (pages 293–297)

1. What questions about the judiciary were left open bythe Constitution? How were they answered? (HI1)

2. What financial problems did the new nation face?(HI1)

3. How did Hamilton and Jefferson interpret theConstitution differently? (REP5)

Challenges to the New Government (pages 298–302)

4. What did Washington do to secure the West? (HI1)

5. What were the major arguments regardingtaxation under the new government? (REP5)

6. Why did Washington favor neutrality in the conflictbetween France and Britain? (HI1)

7. What problems did the Jay and Pinckney treatiesaddress? (HI1)

The Federalists in Charge (pages 303–307)8. Why did Washington oppose political parties? (HI1)

9. What was the XYZ Affair? (HI1)

10. Why did Federalists pass the Alien and SeditionActs? How did Republicans respond? (HI2)

VISUALSUMMARY

308 CHAPTER 9

9Chapter ASSESSMENT

The First Presidents (8.4.1)

Strong Government

• Cabinet• Judiciary Remaining Neutral

• Jay’s Treaty

• Pinckney’s Treaty

Secure the West

• Battle of Fallen Timbers

• Treaty of Greenville

Federalists vs.Democratic-Republicans

• Differed overConstitution

• Disagreed on national bank

Problems with France

• XYZ Affair

• Convention of 1800

CRITICAL THINKING1. USING YOUR NOTES: IDENTIFYING AND SOLVING PROBLEMS

Using your completed chart, answer the questions. (HI2)

a. What were the problems that characterized theFederalist era?

b. What do the solutions to these problems revealabout the characteristics of the era?

2. ANALYZING LEADERSHIPHow did Washington’s efforts to serve as a symbol ofnational unity help the new nation? (HI1)

3. APPLYING CITIZENSHIP SKILLSHow might the farmers in the Whiskey Rebellion haveexpressed their disapproval of the whiskey tax whilestaying within the law? (HI4)

4. THEME: DEMOCRATIC IDEALSDid the formation of political parties make the nationmore or less democratic? (HI1)

How did the challenges of setting up a governmentthat you discussed before you read the chapter com-pare with the actual challenges you read about?

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

Politics

Foreign Affairs

Economics


WASHINGTON PRESIDENCY1789–1797

ADAMS PRESIDENCY1797–1801

Interact with History


TEST PRACTICECLASSZONE .COM

Use the chart and your knowledge of U.S. history toanswer questions 1 and 2.

Additional Test Practice, pp. S1–S33.

1. How much money did the government owe duringthe period shown on the chart? (8.3.4)

A. $4,270,000

B. $4,400,000

C. $77,000,000

D. $77,230,000

2. What could the government do to increaseincome? (8.3.4)

A. decrease duties and taxes

B. increase duties and taxes

C. increase the national budget

D. pay off the public debt

This quotation from George Washington’s FarewellAddress is a warning to future leaders. Use thisquotation and your knowledge of U.S. history toanswer question 3.

PRIMARY SOURCE

Let me now . . . warn you . . . against the [harmful]effects of the spirit of party. . . . This spirit, unfortunately . . . exists in different shapes in all governments . . . but in those of the popular form, it is seen in its greatest rankness and is truly theirworst enemy.

George Washington, Farewell Address

3. What danger was Washington warning Americansabout in his Farewell Address? (8.3.4)

A. foreign governments

B. Antifederalists

C. political parties

D. taxation

CLASSZONE .COMINTERNET ACTIVITY

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT1. WRITING ABOUT HISTORYImagine that you are a U.S. citizen during the FrenchRevolution. Write a letter to the secretary of state giv-ing reasons why you think the United States shouldaid the French, aid the British, or remain neutral.(REP5)

• Use library resources to research the different sides.

• Use your research to persuade the secretary of stateto your point of view.

2. COOPERATIVE LEARNINGWork with other students to research the Alien andSedition Acts and the positions taken by both politicalparties. Consider these questions: Were the acts consti-tutional or an abuse of basic rights? Should criticism ofthe government be allowed in a time of possible war?Choose two group members to debate the Federalistand Democratic-Republican positions. (REP4)

INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGYCREATING A CAMPAIGN COMMERCIAL Create a 30-second television commercial for eitherJohn Adams, the Federalist party candidate, or ThomasJefferson, the Democratic-Republican party candidate.(REP5)

• On the Internet, find information about your candi-date that shows why he is a good choice.

• Locate at least two pictures that reveal differentimages of the candidate. Also, use the Internet tofind suitable background music for the commercial.

• Use your resource materials to create a 30-secondcampaign commercial.

For more about the 1796 election . . .

STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT

Financial Problems, 1789–1791

Source: Historical Statistics of the United States

$77,230,000 =total public debt

$4,270,000budget to rungovernment

$4,400,000 from duties ortaxes imposed on importedand exportedgoods

DEBTS EXPENSES INCOME



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