Lawrence Kohlberg

The Moral Reasoning of Children

Fall 2010Mebane & Frassrand

MoralityA set of values that a person follows.

Actions which are preceded by moral judgments; they take priority over all other value judgments; implicate judgment of one’s self as either good or bad; and they tend towards a high degree of generality, universality,

consistency, and inclusiveness (Kohlberg’s dissertation)

Hypothesis• Children will fall into one of Kohlberg’s six

stages of moral reasoning.

• After being asked questions, the children will answer them consistently every time.

• The reasonings of younger children will fall in the preconventional reasoning group, while the reasoning of older children will fall in the postconventional reasoning group.

Biography• Born October 25, 1927 in New York, to a well-to-

do family• Youngest of four children• Raised Jewish (like Vygotsky!!)• Attended Andover Academy for High School• Did not immediately go to college, instead

became an engineer on a ship in Europe.• Went to college at University of Chicago• Scored so high on admissions tests that he only

had to take a few classes to earn Bachelor's degree (which he did in only one year!)

Biography cont.• Graduated with his Ph.D. in 1958 (Univ. of Chicago)• Intended to become Clinical Psychologist• Instead became interested in Piaget and his theories of

moral development in children and adolescents• Professor at the University of Chicago (1962-68), and

later at Harvard (1968-87)• Responsible for creation of “Moral Development” as a

field within Psychology• Contracted a tropical disease while doing research in

Belize• Struggled with Depression• Died on January 17, 1987 reportedly of having committed

suicide

Bibliography of Works• A Cognitive-Developmental Analysis of Children's Sex-Role

Concepts and Attitudes (1966)• The Meaning and Measurement of Moral Development (1981)• The Philosophy of Moral Development: Moral Stages and the

Idea of Justice (1981) - used• The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity

of Moral Stages (1984) - used• Child Psychology and Childhood Education: A Cognitive

Developmental View (1987)• Constructivist Early Education, Overview an Comparison With

Our Program: Overview and Comparison With Other Programs (1989)

• The Stages of Ethical Development: From Childhood Through Old Age (1991)

Kohlberg’s Philosophy of Education

• Believed that there should be a cooperative effort in all that people do, i.e. that they should work together as a community.

• Believed also that group discussions and debates are the best way to learn.

• This is important because in a collective group, you are more able to form ideas (notion of social contract)

• Kohlberg would approve of Mrs. Khirallah’s classroom setting because it is a seminar style class, allowing for interactive learning.

• He would not approve of lecture style because students are not easily able to participate and debate different ideas and moral aspects.

Piaget and Kohlberg• Piaget’s work had a direct influence on Kohlberg• Kohlberg based his work off of Piaget’s theory of

moral development. • Found Piaget’s work to be impressive, yet

“incomplete” (Crain, p.152)• Decided to expand upon Piaget in order to

enhance his theory.• Added two more stages to Piaget’s theory

because he did not think that Piaget’s stages were thorough enough.

• Kohlberg’s development of moral reasoning

Kohlberg’s Six Stages of Moral Reasoning

• In order to do what is right, on must first know what is right

• How do children understand what kind of behaviors are right, and which are wrong?

• Established three different levels in which moral reason is developed. In each level there are two stages, an early stage and a late stage.

Level I: Preconventional• Children ages 4 to 10 years old typically fall within in this

stage. • This level is characterized by one-dimensional thinking

– Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation• Conception that there is a set of rules handed down by

an authority figure (parents, teachers) that must be obeyed, otherwise punishment will follow.

• Children are very ego-centric. They are unable to consider the perspectives of others.

– Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange• Move towards reciprocity and idea that what is right is

also fair.

Level II: Conventional• Children ages 10-13 years typically fall in this stage• Focused on social relationships, duties, and conventions• The child in this stage tends act in accordance to what

society defines as right. – Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships

• Awareness of shared emotions, agreement, and expectations. Attempts to gain approval and to avoids disapproval and rejection from others

– Stage 4: Authority and Social Order Maintaining Orientation

• Abide by codes of law and order and respect to authority

Examples: “If you steal from the store, your family will think bad of you”

Level III: Postconventional

• Adolescents and adults typically fall within this level. • Focuses on ideals and principles.

– Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights• Being aware of the values and opinions of others• Taking into consideration the values and rules of society

– Stage 6: Universal Principles• Doing what is best not because it is right, but because it

is what needs to be done• Most important: the move away from a one dimensional

way of thinking, to a two dimensional way of thinking• Although not all people achieve stage six, those who do,

have achieved and mastered all of the other five stages.

Developing 6 Stages

• Kohlberg wrote a series of dilemmas• Used to assess the moral reasoning of

children and adults• The most famous is the Heinz Dilemma• Invariant Sequences• Hierarchical Integration• That there was a Cross-Cultural

Universality

Criticisms• Carol Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s work is biased as he

exclusively interviewed boys. She argued that girls have a different orientation towards moral reasoning.

• Kohlberg’s stance that his stages are universal have also been argued against, as he did not take in consideration other cultures outside of America.

• List of 10 ‘Universal Moral’ Issues: 1) Laws and Rules 6) Contract, Trust, and Justice

2) Conscience 7) Punishment

3) Personal Roles of Affection 8) The Value of Life

4) Authority 9) Property Rights and Values

5) Civil Rights 10) Truth

Dilemma VII Two Brothers

Two young men, brothers, had got into serious trouble. They were secretly leaving town in a hurry and needed money. Karl, the older one, broke into a store and stole a thousand dollars. Bob, the younger one, went to a retired old man who was known to help people in town. He told the man that he was very sick and that he needed a thousand dollars to pay for an operation. Bob asked the old man to lend him the money and promised that he would pay him back when he recovered. Really Bob wasn't sick at all, and he had no intention of paying the man back. Although the old man didn't know Bob very well, he lent him the money. So Bob and Karl skipped town, each with a thousand dollars.

The Questions1a. Which is worse, stealing like Karl or cheating like Bob?

1b. Why is that worse?

2. What do you think is the worst thing about cheating the old man?

2a. Why is that the worst thing?

3. In general, why should a promise be kept?

4. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you don't know well or will never see again?

4a. Why or why not?

5. Why shouldn't someone steal from a store?

6. What is the value or importance of property rights?

7. Should people do everything they can to obey the law?

7a. Why or why not?

8. Was the old man being irresponsible by lending Bob the money?

8a. Why or why not?

OUR STUDY• Kohlberg’s VII Dilemma• Four participants (all homeschooled siblings)

– Male age 5– Male age 8– Female age 11– Male age 13

• Note: this participant has a learning difference

• Interviews were conducted orally• Data was collected with a recorder then later

transcribed • The interviews were conducted in one of the

Resident Halls.

Kohlberg’s Characteristics of Moral Types• Value: Modes of attributing moral value to acts and persons.

Differentiating and relating means and ends, intentions and consequences, one person’s evaluation and others, etc. Modes of assessing value-consequences in the situation

• Choice: The kind of identification with the actor in conflict and methods of resolving the conflict. The social process of moral argumentation and the capacity for making and maintaining an independent choice. The outcome chosen in the particular situation.

• Sanction: The dominant rewards, punishments or goals to which conformity is oriented.

• Stealing Rule: The type of concept against which an act is assessed, on which guides conformity, e.g., taboo, rule, law. The concept of duty or moral compulsion.

• Cheating and Good Self: Modes of defining concepts of good person and good role.

• Justice: Concern for and concepts of rights and the legitimate relation of one act, as deserved, to another. Standards of exchange, reciprocity, contract, punishment, and reward.

Kohlberg’s Coding FormType 1. Value 2. Choice and 3. Sanctions 4. Stealing Rule

0 Intention-Cheater had no intention of returning so worseRestorability re the victim’s interest or authorityDamage-Amount of physical damage done

Punishment1) The worse is the one with the

worse fixed punishment2) Punishment or trouble with some

sense of affect, severity later regret, etc.

3) One is worse because he is able to escape punishment

Labeling-”breaking law,” “10 commandments,””taking someone else’s property”Equivalence-Doesn’t see cheating as stealing, takingBoldness-Stealing as more overt deviation

1 Need-One may not have as much private need as another

Restorability-Better means can get out of punishment easier, can pay back.Expect –Leader wouldn’t send cops

2 Add—Addition of labels; lied and stole.Sanctions-Wants to believe there is some punishment for cheating as bad as for stealing

Good-It isn’t ever good to steal, etc. Worked- “be nice and think of them, sympathize with them.”

3 InsuranceService-Worse is taking it from the one performing a community serviceNeed-May force the store to close, may not be recoverable

Both-Both reduce to the same Earned-He earned it; it shouldn’t be taken from himRole-taking-You don’t want what you earn stolenCategorical-Just shouldn’t steal, have no right to

4 Respect-Partner would lose respect Unequal-Victim worked hard for money, thief if didn’t

5 Feel Worse-worse act is that which makes other feel worse in the situation

Type 7. Cheating & Good Self 8. Justice—Victim Reaction and Expectations

9. Law Making Perspective Worse for Country, etc.

0 Criminal-Become a criminal, get habit, etc., i.e., stealingWorse person means punishment likelihoodBoldness-Lying as face-to-face deviation

Expect-Store owner will feel worse cause knows he won’t get it back.Angry – Angry because cheated, lied to.

Harmful consequences re the individual Restorability.Habit –Go on to worse things, could led to killing, etc.

1 Lie-Suggests culprit can lie to get out of punishmentFriend-Lose your friends if cheat a friend. Friend-A friend might not call in the cops

Others’ responsibility- Not so bad to cheat because it was his own free will. Role-Taking-If you had a store, wouldn’t like being stolen from

2 Friend-Worse to cheat and violate a friendshipFavor-Other person was doing a favor, was nice

3 Work-Worse is taking from one who had to work harder.Work-Feel worse as aboveEqual-Both out the same money

Stealing worse-worse for country is harmful consequences, is if everyone started doing it, getting away with itRevenge-Everyone would revenge by stealing, etc.

4 Deceived-A deception rather than explicit lyingTaking advantage-of other’s sympathy, charity, trust

Blame self-Will blame himself for foolish trust, as making it worse to cheat

Cheating worse-Because undermines social relation more, couldn’t trust anyone.

5 Violating Trust Disappointed motive-Thought he was doing god, could help othersImpersonality-Storekeeper expects such a loss, is oriented impersonally.

Responses  Male. Age 5. DOB 6.21.05

  Answers

1 Because he broke one of the commandments.

2 God hates you sometimes when you steal

3 Because promises are good

4 Yes. If you keep a promise you won't lose it.

5 If you don't steal from a store you won't go to jail.

6 You don't want somebody else to steal your jewelry.

7 Because it is good to do that

8 Because he wanted to be nice. Responsible.

  Male. Age 8. DOB 4.10.02

  Answers

1 Because you are breaking one of the commandments. Bob he was lying but he was asking the man for money.

2 Because you are breaking one of the commandments. Thou shall not lie.

3 Because it is the right thing to do.

4 If he lies and you don't him very well then he can come back and ask for more money.

5 You should try to keep God's commandments. You could go to hell.

6 You shouldn't steal from somebody because you need the money, but it isn't right to steal.

7 Because they shouldn't break the law.

8 He could have asked him why. I mean, he was being nice. Responsible. Because he lent him the money and that was being responsible.

Responses  Female. Age 11. DOB 10.10.99

  Answers1 Because not only did he tell the old man that he was

sick and lied, but he wasn't using it for the purpose he told the old man. He didn't have the intention of paying the man back after he told him he would.

2 Because he told him that he was sick, but he wasn't, and that he would give him the money back. But Bob had no intention of giving the money back after he got over what he so-called being sick.

3 Because the person told the other person that he would do it.

4 Because the person was generous enough to lend him that, and because he didn't even know the person.

5 Because that would be breaking the law and commandment. And also it is just bad.

6 Because they were his/hers and it would be wrong to take anything you think you would need or want.

7 Because some laws can be bad, while others good

8 Because the old man did not know that Bob wasn't sick. He is like well, if he is sick and he promises to give me back the money then I will go ahead and give it to him. Responsible

  Male. Age 13. DOB 8.14.97  Answers1 Because you are lying and stealing as well

2 Because you told the man you were sick and you weren't and you asked him to loan you money just because you were in trouble.

3 Because it is pleasing to God to keep your promise.

4 You might not ever see them again, but if you don't keep your promise, it offends God and your friend.

5 Because it wrong and breaking one of the commandments

6 Well the money that Karl stole and Bob got from the old man is the old man's property and they shouldn't go around with money that isn't theirs.

7 Because it is the right thing to do8 Well the old man is, I guess, responsible for the

money that he gave to Bob. That's all.

Coding FormM – age 5 M – age 8 F – age 11 M – age 13

Q1 0 0 4 4

Q2 0 0 4 4

Q3 0 0 3 0

Q4 0 0 4 2

Q5 0 0 0 0

Q6 2 0 4 3

Q7 0 0 4 0

Q8 2 2 4 2

Total 0 0 4 2

LI-0 LI-0 LII-4 LI

Were We Right?Children will fall into one of Kohlberg’s six stages of moral reasoning.

After being asked questions, the children will answer them consistently every time.

The reasoning of younger children will fall in the preconventional reasoning group, while the reasoning of older children will fall in the postconventional reasoning group.

ComparisonKolhberg

Age Stage

1 10 2

2 13 3

3 16 4

Kristina & Amanda

Age Stage

1 5 0

2 8 0

3 11 4

4 14 2

Yes and No.

Notes on Study• For the 13 year old, because of his age he should have

scored higher, but because he had a learning difference, this has caused him to score lower.

• Interesting that the female scored so high because according to the book Promoting Moral Growth, Kohlberg held that females always tend to score lower than males.

• In most studies involving Kohlberg’s dilemmas, his Heinz dilemma is used. We assume this is because it is easier to identify with for children. Of all of Kohlberg’s dilemmas it is also the easiest to simplify, as well as the easiest to code.

Implications for Further Research

• How would children answer differently if role-play was incorporated with the questions? Would the children understand the questions better and hence answer more elaborately? Would they have answered differently?

• How would children with learning differences score differently compared to others of the same age?

Limitations • Verbiage of the dilemma was to lofty

for young children.• Confusion of questions.• Asked for clarification.• Simplification of dilemma necessary

for full comprehension of story.• Got distracted easily.• Limited number of children.

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature Nurture

Rousseau LockePiaget &Kohlberg

Amanda

Kristina

QuestionThe third stage of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning discusses the importance of ‘Good Interpersonal Relationships’. He defined this as the following:

1. The awareness of shared emotions, agreement, and expectations. The child attempts to gain approval, and to avoid disapproval and rejection from others.

2. The acceptance of being in a relationship with someone else, and understanding how this relationship effects you as a person. It is also the desire and need of feeling approval from someone else.

3. The awareness of shared emotions, agreement, and expectations. It involves being a good friend to others with the intention of gaining the approval and acceptance of others.

4. Being aware of the feelings and emotions of others. This is the first step in forming relational bonds with another person.