lcd720 – 02/04/09 research on teaching and learning pronunciation
Post on 21-Dec-2015
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Reflection
• Exercise 2, p. 32/33: Rank order the ESL learners based on:– Age– Amount of exposure– Sociocultural factors– Affective factors, incl. motivation– Other factors
A short history of L2 and pronunciation research and theories• L2 research (in general)
– Contrastive Analysis– Error Analysis– Interlanguage research
• Pronunciation research– Markedness theory– Language universals– Information processing theory
1. Contrastive analysis
• Where L1 and L2 are the same: easy to learn• Where L1 and L2 are different: difficult• For example:
– L1 has /l/ and /r/, L2 has /l/ and /r/: easy to learn– L1 has /l/ but not /r/, L2 has /l/ and /r/: difficult to
learn /r/
• Negative transfer from L1 plays a role in– general segmental features (like aspiration), and– suprasegmental features (like intonation and rhythm)
• Problem: CA doesn’t always make the correct predictions (e.g., directionality)
2. Error analysis and avoidance
• In addition to contrastive analysis: Error Analysis– Which predictions are borne out? How difficult are
these problems?
• Error analysis looks at:– Interlingual errors (L1 interference)– Intralingual errors (e.g., overgeneralization)– Developmental errors (similar to L1 acquisition)
• Problems:– EA focuses on what is wrong, not what is right– EA ignores avoidance (e.g., difficult words)
3. Interlanguage
• Interlanguage: The rule-governed and systematic second language knowledge of learners
• Development of interlanguage is determined by– L1– L2– Universals– Communication strategies (e.g., better performance in
more formal situations)
4. Markedness theory
• In any pair of sounds, one is more ‘basic’, neutral, frequent, earlier acquired, etc. than the other– One member of the pair is unmarked
• Example– English allows /p, t, k/ and /b, d, g/ in word-final
position– But: German allows only /p, t, k/ in word-final position– So: English is more marked than German (in this
respect)
4. Markedness theory
• Markedness can predict directionality:– Word-final /b, d, g/ in English (marked) are
more difficult to pronounce for L1 German speakers
– Word-final /p, t, k/ in German (unmarked) is easier to pronounce for L1 English speakers
• Contrastive analysis does not make such predictions about directionality
4. Markedness theory
• /ŋ/ can occur in syllable-final position in English (sing)
• /ŋ/ can occur in syllable-final and syllable-initial position in Vietnamese (ngang)
• Which language is more marked (with respect to /ŋ/)?
• Which learner has more difficulty?– English speaker learning Vietnamese, or– Vietnamese speaker learning English
5. Language universals
• Language universals: properties all languages have in common– Principles and parameters (Chomsky)– Implicational universals
• Examples of universals– All languages have consonants and vowels– Consonants contrast in manner, voicing, etc.
5. Language universals• Implicational hierarchies:
stops > nasals > fricatives– Languages that have nasals also have stops– Languages that have fricatives also have nasals and
stops
• Predictions for acquisition– Stops are acquired before nasals; nasals are acquired
before fricatives– Initially, fricatives are replaced by stops
Fricatives are more marked than
nasals. Stops are unmarked.
• Determine whether and how the following universals may affect ESL pronunciation teaching– Stops > fricatives > affricates– If a language has voiced obstruent phonemes
(/b, d, g/), it will also have voiceless obstruent phonemes (/p, t, k/).
– Front vowel phonemes are generally unrounded, while non-low back vowel phonemes are generally rounded.
• What does this imply for rounded front vowels?
5. Language universals
6. Information processing theory: Schemata
• Tendency to interpret new information in terms of existing knowledge structures: schemata– E.g., schema of going to a restaurant– Schemata also influence processing of
phonology:• A L1 Spanish speaker may ‘hear’ eski instead of ski, because that what s/he expects to hear
6. Information processing theoryAutomatic vs. controlled
• Automatic vs. controlled processing– Controlled processing requires attention and
awareness– Automatic processing is not controlled or inhibited by
other processes– Cf. learning to drive a car with manual transmission
• With controlled processing you have to think a lot; it’s easy to make a mistake, like switching the order of steps or forgetting a step (e.g., use the clutch)
• With automatic processing you don’t have to think; however, it’s difficult to change automatic behavior
6. Information processing theory:Modes of learning
• Three modes of learning1.Accretion (or accommodation): adding new
information2.Restructuring: changing the system based on existing
patterns3.Tuning: further modify the system
• Example: L1 Portuguese, L2 English– Portuguese has /i, e, ɛ, a, ɔ, o, u/– Accretion: add /ɪ, æ, ʊ, ʌ/– Restructure: /i, e, u/ may shift position– Fine-tuning: approaching native pronunciation
New directions
• So far: Focus on individual sounds (vowels, consonants)
• More recent research:– Intonation– Rhythm– Connected speech– Voice quality
• We’ll discuss these in more detail later
Intonation
• American English has a three tone system of intonation contours
• Other languages, like Spanish, may have only two– To the ear of a NAE speaker, this sounds
uninterested and bored
NAE speakerThis is a book
Japanese speaker
Rhythm
• Stressed syllables are longer than unstressed syllables– This is a common problem for ESL learners
• It is possible to learn to produce the appropriate rhythm, but it may take extensive practice– E.g., scaffolding from single items, to phrases,
to longer stretches of speech
Connected speech
• Sounds are affected by other sounds that come before or after them, e.g.,– Flapping rule (e.g., water)– Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables– Consonant cluster simplification (e.g., sixth)
Voice quality
• Pitch and loudness– Spanish and Japanese speakers tend to
speak with higher pitch and lower volume than Americans
– Language specific and sociocultural factors
Derwing & Munro (2005)
• Questions?
• Issues in research on pronunciation teaching that interest you
• How would they affect your teaching practices?– …?