Leadership and Vision within the 21st Century

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A conversational approach with Senior Naval Leaders

By

David Benoit

Applied Project

MBA

7th August 2008

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Executive Summary In our complex and volatile world, assuring the continued strength and capabilities of the Canadian Forces (CF) remains central to maintaining an organization that is relevant to the Canadian people and current in countering evolving threats. The Navy plays a vital role in providing a strategic capability for the Canadian Government in responding to world events.

This constant and rapidly changing environment demands an extraordinary effort on the part of its senior leaders to ensure that they and the organization remain flexible, responsive and pro-active. This paper is meant to provide a topical view of the characteristics, understandings and styles of some of the current senior leadership within the Navy. Exploratory conversations on leadership and vision will enable a more conducive environment to discuss the particular leader�s background, gain an appreciation of the leader�s view on how vision and leadership interact with the organization and by using a comprehensive sum of all the conversations, provide a review of common themes that emerge and then set this information within the context of the myriad of academic research to date.

The aim is to explore two main aspects: if current leaders have those characteristics and qualities associated in the leadership documentation; and secondly, if there are other commonalities between differing leaders that either support the literature or add value within a military, specifically, naval context.

The Canadian Navy primarily uses a combined approach in teaching leadership which includes the expectation that those individuals selected to be leaders within the Navy possess characteristics that are innate to themselves and that leadership can be taught and must be practiced. The navy then builds the developmental program around these elements incorporating both the skills that the individual possesses and the theory to enhance, improve and develop these skills while exposing these individuals to new concepts within the study of leadership.

In general this paper�s research approach will include exploratory qualitative discussions with seven senior naval leaders with the intent to collectively review the information gained through the discussions and look for corresponding trends that either support or contradict the naval approach. Participants will be solicited from executive senior level officers who have been recognized by the organization for their leadership skills and who are considered leaders within the Naval community. Given the organizational hierarchy, as the participants are senior ranking officers there will be no obligation for these individuals to participate and they all fall outside of the author�s chain of command. For the flow of the conversations and with the expressed permission of the participant, an electronic Dictaphone will be used to record the discussion and the participant will be under no obligation to either continue with the discussion or answer specific questions that may arise during the discussion. This approach was reviewed and approved by the Athabasca University Research Ethics Board.

The discussions with the seven participants proved to be insightful and a practical method to achieve the objective in defining the process used by the Canadian

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Navy as seen from its most senior leaders for the Navy. In addition the discussions also revealed a total of ten emergent themes which included seven key elements which are supported by theory and three other observations which have a lesser theoretical basis. These seven themes included:

a) early exposure; b) previous experience; c) practical opportunities; d) mentors; e) formative experiences at each rank level; f) formal education and training; and g) ethics and integrity.

While the three other observations included:

a) role of vision; b) the role of spirituality; and c) the importance of history to the institution.

Together these ten elements helped articulate the needs and demands of future

leaders and areas that future leaders should focus on during their leadership development periods. Leaders who take the time to understand and assimilate these 10 themes into their individual leadership styles would be well on their way to developing efficient and effective teams that accomplish their objectives. While it is not surprising, ethics plays a critical and crucial role to the believability, trust and confidence that the leader will enjoy from his or her subordinates. To be effective the leader must make ethical decisions and take ethical actions in both their personal and professional lives. Both the professional and personal aspects of the individual form a cohesive symbiotic relationship and if the leader is not consistent in making ethical decisions, their lapse in judgment or inconsistencies can destroy the fabric and integrity of the team and cause subordinates to reconsider their image and loyalty to the leader.

It therefore falls to the leader to ensure that their actions remain beyond reproach in the eyes of their subordinates. Interestingly, leaders also form the link between the organization�s past and present and effectively create the organization's future. The leader embodies and symbolizes the institution�s historical roots providing a degree of respect and reverence for those in the past, while incorporating those lessons learned thus making the past relevant to the present.

Discussing these topics in a conversationally styled approach with current Naval leaders allowed for a more informal and open venue which ensured a wealth of experience and a degree of understanding that resulted in valid and quantifiable information with a high degree of accuracy and relevance.

The importance of practical real-life exercises and opportunities to practice the art of leadership cannot be overstated and are of significant benefit to the individual, the organization and the team. The overall evolution of an organization is defined by its

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leaders and their ability to assimilate the various impacts and inputs for the betterment and development of the organization. Real practical opportunities aid leaders not only in gaining confidence and competence, but in helping to foster an environment which breeds the essential qualities of mentorship and guidance throughout its leadership cadre.

The lessons learned will help the individual development their personal leadership skills at any level and could be used from an organizational or systemic perspective as a starting point to discuss the themes of leadership and vision.

Finally in the words of one participant, their philosophy of the leadership elements are simply:

�Leader: decisiveness � show the ability to make a decision; Listener � listening to subordinates, peers, superiors and observing the situation; Firm but fair � consistent in the application of rewards and discipline; Clarity � able to clearly and easily articulate thoughts and expressions; Presence � provide the example, be around coaching the team�.

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Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................6 BACKGROUND INFORMATION..........................................................................................6

PROBLEM DEFINITION........................................................................................................7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.......................................................................................................8

RESEARCH APPROACH .......................................................................................................8 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:............................................................................................................8 RESEARCH BOUNDARIES: .........................................................................................................8 HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT:....................................................................................................8 RESEARCH USERS: ...................................................................................................................9 RESEARCH APPROACH:.............................................................................................................9

NAVAL APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP...............................................................................9 THEORETICAL OVERVIEW ..............................................................................................10

PARTICIPANTS.....................................................................................................................12 SUMMARY.............................................................................................................................14

RESEARCH RESULTS..........................................................................................................14 EARLY EXPOSURE:.................................................................................................................15 PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE: .........................................................................................................16 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES:......................................................................................................19 MENTORS: .............................................................................................................................20 FORMATIVE EXPERIENCES AT EACH RANK LEVEL: ...................................................................22 FORMAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING: ......................................................................................23 ETHICS AND INTEGRITY: .........................................................................................................24 SUMMARY: ............................................................................................................................25

PRACTICAL NAVAL METHOD .........................................................................................26 OTHER OBSERVATIONS ....................................................................................................29

ROLE OF VISION:....................................................................................................................29 ROLE OF SPIRITUALITY:..........................................................................................................31 THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY TO AN INSTITUTION: .................................................................32

ANSWERS TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS: .........................................................................32 SENIOR LEADERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS:.................................................................................33 OTHER CHARACTERISTICS:.....................................................................................................34

CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................35

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................37

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Introduction

Leadership in any organization is paramount to the organization's success. Leadership alone can often make the difference between success and failure, and leadership at a critical moment can change the course of the organization's history. Leadership in the military provides an extra burden for its leaders, in that they are directly responsible for the welfare and morale of their subordinates. Indeed the very lives of subordinates rest on their leader�s competency, cognitive ability, personal characteristics, courage, integrity, honesty and the leader�s understanding of situational awareness as any situation evolves. The theory of leadership has been well studied over the years and numerous theories exist as to how leaders develop, are born or created. The study of leadership has been a cornerstone of most programmes and professional development periods over many years in every organization. There are numerous workshops, seminars, speakers and corporate events to improve and focus on leadership. The military trains leaders at the very earliest stage through basic training, practical exercises, continual promotion and advancement, increased responsibility and scope of duties and evaluates leadership on a yearly basis. In all of this activity there is one clear aim: to improve leadership skills specifically in the realm of understanding and application of these techniques to produce effective cohesive and comprehensive teams; teams that will succeed in achieving the objectives and tasks and mission of the organization. Leadership could be summarized in its simplest form as developing the necessary relationships with the people that you want to lead. It is about the subordinate having the faith and confidence in the leader, that the leader can perform their job effectively, efficiently and with due regard for both the individual and the organization. Leadership is about a process designed to obtain and affect the output that creates value to the organization and the individual in a spirit of camaraderie and teamwork to achieve the objective. To paraphrase Field Marshall Montgomery, �leadership is the ability to win the hearts and minds of the men you wish to lead� and leadership at its very basic form embodies his sentiment.

Background Information The purpose of this project is to explore and examine the topic of leadership as it applies within the military context. The reason for this exploration is to better understand how leadership and vision applies to hierarchical organizations. In so doing, it is presumed, that a better understanding will be gained about the leaders and the qualities that they possess. The topic of leadership is paramount to all effective and efficient organizations but especially to those whose very core is the oversight, administration and management of people. The military is a perfect example and has entrusted to it, a greater responsibility to ensure the morale and welfare of its personnel since its officers possess unlimited liability with respect to their subordinates. As related

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in the article by Eileen Conway, when interviewing Brigadier General Comtois for Defence 2000 News, �Your first responsibility is to the people you have been given the privilege of leading. If you don�t realize that, � you are headed nowhere.� Therefore this exploration of leadership within this context is of paramount importance to both an individual and the organization. In exploring the relationship between vision and leadership and the impact that these have on the organization and personnel, from the leader�s point of view, will provide some insight into both the topic and the practical application of this very important skill set. This exploration, will be set in the context of leadership theory and through exploratory discussions with different leaders; common elements will be identified between leaders and used as proof for the theories or provide a counter postulate for further research. Lastly, through this personal one-on-one exploration of these leader�s experiences it is expected to gain a better understanding of how these individuals came to their own understanding of the concept of leadership.

Problem Definition

Through a semi-formal conversational styled-approach the aim is to establish a more conducive environment allowing for a more detailed discussion on the topic, given the hierarchical constraints associated with the military environment. The exploration of the leader�s experiences should provide a context to better understand their individual responses to organizational events and how they have individually applied leadership principles throughout their career. In understanding their experiences, it should also provide a greater degree of insight into how they interact with their organization, how these experiences have developed them as leaders and influenced their understanding of the concept of leadership and vision. The overall aim is to achieve an understanding of common elements between different leaders and to summarize these similarities or identify other common elements that may support or contradict the method used by the Canadian Navy to teach leadership. Given the enormous amount of research, theory and documentation available on leadership, of particular interest to this project is being able to identify leaders that currently exist in the military and associate their collective common characteristics and types of experiences with that of the theory. In addition, this project will identify any common elements that may not be addressed specifically in literature and propose it as a basis for further exploration. Finally, the project will understand their formative practical leadership experiences to see how these have affected the evolution of the leader�s own character.

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Research Questions The purpose of this project will be to explore the concepts of leadership and vision through conversationally-styled discussions with current Naval leaders to determine if they collectively possess or exhibit characteristics like those found within the proposed theories; if these academic concepts are still relevant today in the 21st-century; to better understand how these leaders developed their own sense of leadership and vision and if other commonalities can be identified that may add to that already articulated within the various theories.

Research Approach As discussed in the preceding sections, the main purpose of the project is to explore the fundamentals used by the Canadian Navy in teaching leadership and those attributes and characteristics possessed by its senior leaders and to make a determination if the seven leaders support or contradict the approach. Research Questions: There are two main research questions that form the basis and focus of the paper. These questions include:

a) do the senior leaders of the Navy exhibit those characteristics normally associated with the way the Navy teaches leadership;

b) other characteristics that are common between the leaders that would support

the information found in the theories. Research Boundaries: This paper is meant to be a contemporary view of leadership and vision in the 21st-century as seen by some of the senior leaders within the military context, specifically a naval environment. Seven senior level executive officers were chosen to discuss leadership and vision from the perspective of how these concepts relate both to the individual�s personal beliefs and the organizational demands. The participants were chosen randomly and then based on availability, willingness to participate and being a recognized leader either through organizational position and/or reputation. Hypothesis Development: It is expected that through these discussions, this paper will help support or contradict the method used by the Canadian Navy to produce leaders and should provide insight into their organizational experiences and their understanding of the concepts of

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leadership and vision. Furthermore it's expected that many of these individuals will have personal experiences prior to their enrollment that contributed to their development as leaders and individuals. Lastly there may be other themes that emerge between these individuals that will help support some of the academic theories and models of leadership. Research Users: The expected users of the information in this paper will be those within the Canadian Navy and military environment. It may prove helpful for those junior officers aspiring to leadership positions to better understand the topic and concerns and explore their own development of leadership. Research Approach: The research for this paper will be conducted primarily in a series of approximately one hour, one-on-one conversationally styled discussions on the topic of leadership and vision with each of the seven selected participants. Through the technique of story telling each individual will discuss the topic of leadership and vision as seen from their own perspective based on their own unique individual experiences. Participants will be free to decide whether they wish to participate, answer any specific question during the discussion phase, or withdraw their support at any time. Furthermore none of the conversations or participants will be referenced directly in the paper but through the aggregation of responses from these interviews, the common themes will emerge and used to create a general awareness of both the method used by the Canadian Navy to teach leadership and how it's understood and applied within an organizational context. Likewise, participants will be given a general overview of topics that could be discussed during the interview to allow them to help organize their thoughts in preparation; however it will not be necessary to cover each specific item. The Research Ethics Board of Athabasca University endorsed this approach.

Naval Approach to Leadership The Canadian Navy teaches the concept of leadership both at an early stage and throughout an individual�s career to provide a spirit and understanding of the importance and practicality of real leadership. This education takes the form of both theoretical and practical sessions with an opportunity for a hands-on approach during training exercises and controlled training environments and throughout the course of regular duties and career appointments. In order to be recruited as an officer, one must have passed a prescreening at the recruiting center. The prescreening reviews the candidate�s history to determine if they possess the necessary attributes and potential to be an officer in the Canadian Forces. This prescreening is based on a composition of intelligence as measured by academic achievement; involvement in extracurricular activities; aptitude as measured by an

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aptitude test; personal motivation and attitude; a written essay and an interview which helps define the suitability of the individual both for service in the military and specifically in the role of an officer. Therefore, in summary, the Navy primarily uses the concept that leadership is something that is innate to the individual as evaluated during the pre-screening and one that can be taught and developed through theory and practical exercises.

Theoretical Overview There is an enormous amount of research and theories on leadership and vision and how these factors play a critical role in any organization. The magnitude of the task of researching leadership theories is far to big a task to accomplish within this particular paper. Therefore the focus will be on the general method used by the Canadian Navy to teach leadership and the theories that support that particular method. In conducting a review of related academic papers, the following were found to support the method used by the Canadian Navy. The trait theory is one of the first recognized methods of research in the study of leadership. The trait theory as described by Pierce and Newstrom (2006: 69-72) espoused that leaders are born with characteristics that include among others: intelligence, assertiveness, self-confidence, cooperation, task completion, responsibility, problem-solving and ability to exercise initiative. Certainly the recruiting system during the prescreening process identifies these attributes to help determine the suitability of an individual for service as an officer. Within the prescreening process and in addition to those traits previously mentioned the organization is also looking for evidence that the individual can behave in an appropriate manner and interact with team members and contribute within a team environment. The indicators include participation on sports teams, in cadet programs, scouts, community service groups, Junior achievement, to name a few, especially if they were in what could be considered a leadership capacity. In addition they look for references and other similar clues that would provide to the organization a degree of understanding as to how the individual contributed within these team and social environments using a review of the individual�s behaviour when involved in the group as a leader as discussed by House and Aditya (1997: 419). May, Hodges, Chan and Avolio (2003: 247-257) discuss the importance of their concept of �authentic leadership" and highlight that �authentic people� are at the center of authentic leadership. Authentic people are those that possess characteristics of integrity, honesty, dignity, honour and respect, courage and display these characteristics in every single one of their actions. In addition they highlight three distinct and equally important traits of moral action, moral courage and moral resiliency that must be sustained by the leader over the course of their lifetime in order to establish themselves as authentic leaders. It is these types of individuals, those that

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hold a superior moral belief, know their own core values and take a positive approach to ethics that most leadership training is designed to compliment. The Canadian Navy�s programme works with these basic principles during the development of the leadership training and education. As described in the article, the Navy's leadership and certainly its ethics programmes comprise all of the critical elements in producing authentic leaders including: developing the ability to identify; define; resolve; discuss and disseminate ethical dilemmas and situations that are either purposely created for training or that have actually occurred through the course of regular duties. While most programs, courses and training as developed by any organization including the Canadian Navy, do not specifically address the need to use "the language of leadership" as described by Conger (1991: 31-45), these elements are certainly included from a mentorship and practical perspective. Conger describes the importance for the leader to frame each problem so that the followers or subordinates clearly understand the issue in language that is both simple and powerful. Conger also expands on this theme and proposes that certain words hold a specific and unique value, importance, power and motivational component for the subordinate, the leader and the organization. For a leader to be effective, they need to understand the significance and motivational effect that these words possess and then use them to inspire their subordinates to achieve the goal. Another key aspect proposed in the article is the importance of linking each issue, problem or task to the broad strategic vision of the organization and clearly articulate how it contributes to the effectiveness and efficiency of operations. The Canadian Navy program briefly discusses these aspects however the real development in these areas occurs through the course of an individual�s training, regular duties, appointments and mentorship. Pierce and Newstrom (2006: 7-11) described in detail the importance of several other areas that, if developed by the leader would result in effective leadership. These areas include: the importance, development and maintenance of the leader / follower relationship; the concept that leadership requires a power base from which to act; that leadership in its most basic form requires the leader to exert influence over others to achieve a task; and finally that the leader is there to look after the morale and welfare of their subordinates and therefore should strongly consider a model of servant or steward leadership. The Canadian Navy�s leadership program includes similar discussions and uses many of the same topics to help potential leaders understand their calling and the nature and importance of the leader. The program also discussed the roles of both the leader and the follower and then follows these discussions with practical exercises where each individual rotates between the positions of leader and follower as tasks are accomplished. Murphy (1941: 674-687) supports the concept that leadership training and education should make use of both innate characteristics to the individual and that those traits, characteristics and concepts can be taught to produce effective leaders. The Canadian Navy strives to combine both of these elements into their program. In general leaders do possess certain traits that when applied correctly in a particular situation will ensure that other people will respond in an appropriate manner and achieve the objective.

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Indeed as described by Pierce and Newstrom (2006: 29) that one of the key fundamental tools to effective leadership is the proper development of the leader/follower relationship and the importance of this relationship being built on trust, and mutual respect. Kouzes and Posner (1996: 9-11) further support the importance of this relationship and expand that for leader�s to be seen as credible by their subordinates, the leader / follower relationship has to include, among other things, the elements of fairness, trust and ethical behavior otherwise the leader will not be able to adequately develop this relationship and thereby fail to provide an organizational structure that enables the team and subordinates to accomplish the task. Finally, Rowe (2001: 81-95) asserts that leaders need to be strategic and long-range thinkers, people who are able to amass information about the future and understand how it will impact the organization. He also includes the fact that once these discussions have occurred, these same leaders then need to implement their understanding through connected and complimentary supportive decisions to help shape and guide the organization ensuring it remains relevant to the future. Likewise, the Canadian Forces and the Canadian Navy, strives to capture this element through successive education and coursing as an officer progresses in their career. Pure leadership training changes focus from commanding individuals to commanding formations, brigades, fleets and managing the organization. Elements such as understanding the impact from international and political relationships and how these relationships affect organizational structure and behaviour serves to broaden the horizons and understandings of these individuals so selected and who will assume these more senior appointments. Included within this phase of development is a reiteration of the concept of power bases and their necessity that empowers the leader to act as described by French and Raven (1959: 150-167). The critical discussion of these power bases allows the leader to understand the follower�s perspective and the importance of possessing and protecting different types of power to address each different scenario or set of circumstances.

Participants There were seven participants that agreed to conduct the conversationally-styled discussions on leadership and vision. Each of the participants were invited because they hold senior level ranks and/or positions within the Navy and are therefore considered leaders within their own right. Only Naval leaders were chosen as this discussion was meant to be set within a military context, specifically as it would apply to the Navy, although it is acknowledged that leadership by its nature is similar across any realm or business. As one participated stated �there are fundamental elements of leadership that transcend whatever environment you are working in. But there are difference factors that affect the way someone is performing leadership based on the specific situation they find themselves in�. Each of the participants was solicited independent of the others through an e-mail and none of the participants were aware of the others at their time of acceptance, although they were aware that others were being invited. Each of the participants willingly

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committed to an individual hour long discussion, although most, if not all, were longer, and agreed to be recorded throughout the discussions. These recording were personal and confidential and none of the information gained was attributed. The discussions started with some introductory and congenitally pre-discussions to help better orientate the interviewees and interviewer. They were provided an advance copy of several possible areas for discussion and allowed to relate their personal experiences and stories while loosely and randomly covering the topics as they develop through their personal experiences. In the end, all discussions were highly successful and resulted in convergence among the participants. Within the Naval context there are three types of officers, Maritime Surface and Sub-Surface (MARSS), Naval Technicial Officers (NTO) and Logisticians (Log). Logisticians, however are not governed directly by the Navy and for this paper were excluded from the participant pool. Once an officer is promoted to the rank of Commodore or Brigadier General (in the Army or Air force), they transition to that of a General Officer�s List and effectively cease being MARSS, NTO or Log officers. Likewise, once an individual is promoted to Captain (Navy) or Colonel in the Army or Air Force, while the individual retains their previous alliance, they enter into the Executive Level within the Government of Canada and are actively representing the Navy in many different fields and endeavours. There are occasions, due to experience or specific skill set, specific appointment or individual reputation where those below the rank of Captain (Navy) find themselves in positions of authority more akin to those of senior ranks. Within most organizations there are differing levels of headquarters, each responsible for a different, but complimentary aspect of organizing, managing and leading the Navy. The three general levels include the strategic level, normally associated with National Defence Headquarters in Ottawa; operational level usually located on the coast and form part of the Formation Headquarters or work directly for the Admiral Commanding the East or West Coasts and finally the tactical level, either at the unit or ship Commanding Officer. Each of these levels offer a unique leadership challenge and play a critical role in the formation of leaders and naval officers. Therefore the seven participants covered the range of ranks from Commander (one below Captain (Navy) ) to Commodore (one rank above Captain (Navy)). All the participants experienced leadership roles and held successively challenging positions within each of the strategic, operational and tactical headquarter levels throughout their careers. Specifically the participants included: a) One Commander, Naval Technicial Officer with 30+ years of service who held a variety of senior level appointments and important positions where practical leadership was required on a daily basis; b) Three Captain (Navy) all with 30+ years of service and included 2 Naval Technicial Officers and one Maritime Surface and Sub-Surface Officers, all of whom held

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Command appointments of ships and/or shore units and/or deployed operations. All three currently hold positions where they are required to exhibit leadership on a daily basis and are helping to define the structure and development of the Navy or Canadian Forces; and c) Three Commodores all with 30+ years of experience, some of whom were just promoted or had several years as a Commodore, 2 of whom were former Naval Technicial Officers and one that was former Maritime Surface and Sub-Surface Officer. All three held various Command appointments and currently hold positions that are directly shaping the long term vision and design of the Navy and the Canadian Forces. The diversity of the backgrounds and experiences provided a holistic basis for the paper helping to ensure a representative group of leaders in the Navy.

Summary In using current naval leaders, a better understanding of the effectiveness of the intended method used by the Canadian Navy for the education and development of leadership will be achieved. Exploratory qualitative discussions will facilitate an open exchange with these senior leaders thus providing the best opportunity to gain an appreciation of their characteristics, experiences and career development allowing for an analysis of common elements between leaders as well as the potential to identify differences that either support or contradict the training method.

Research Results In conducting the research, seven participants agreed to discuss the topic of leadership and vision as it applies to the Canadian Navy and from a senior executive level point of view. The participants included three Commodores; three Captain (N)s and one Commander. The individuals provided excellent material to compare against the method used by the Canadian Navy to teach leadership and helped identify those key leadership characteristics. While the sample base may be considered somewhat limited, the discussions proved fruitful and therefore the research is considered representative of the population. The discussions were open and frank and the assurance of anonymity and no direct reference to the individual conversations ensured that the participants were free to discuss the topics, their experiences, examples and personal leadership challenges which proved fundamental to the success of the project and this paper. Reviewing the conversations in their totality and from a comprehensive collection of the ideas many similarities occurred and were noted between individuals. While the backgrounds and individual experiences significantly varied there were common themes and elements that were both unique to the individual and likely the result of an organizational or systematic training. One recurring theme was in the words of one participant that leadership is all about �motivating people� and �ensuring that they are

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enjoying what they are doing so that they will do their best�. Another participant offered that leadership, no matter the task or appointment �it is all about the sailors and the personnel and common sense�. While there were many themes and ideas presented throughout the discussions there were several that converged and can be summarized as follows:

h) early exposure; i) previous experience; j) practical opportunities; k) mentors; l) formative experiences at each rank level; m) formal education and training; and n) ethics and integrity.

Early Exposure: In all instances each of the participants were exposed to leadership mentors or role models very early in their lives. The participants often recalled that they witnessed various family members in differing leadership or mentorship roles within the community, their professional life or during daily interactions with their neighbours and family. From their earliest thoughts they could recall many opportunities where they were able to witness firsthand interactions between their family members and the community where their family members were directly organizing different functions, leading different events and being involved and making a difference within their communities. The majority of these experiences, as viewed from a child's perspective, enabled them to observe human nature and interactions and helped to understand the cause-and-effect of both the emotional component conveyed and the language used in the message to achieve the goal. The bulk of these experiences also represented or symbolized a purely altruistic view of the world as in most cases the intent of these initiatives was simply too improve humanity in some small way within the community or for the betterment of mankind. In most cases the participants not only got to witness the organization and execution of these initiatives but also participated in their implementation thereby obtaining a sense of responsibility for both the initiative and also a sense of satisfaction for having participated in an event whose intent is for the betterment of the community. By being a part of both aspects, both the planning and the implementation of an initiative, they got to understand the development of the plan, how it was communicated to the volunteers, how it was interpreted by the volunteers and finally they were able to see net end result. Early exposure to these types of influences can help develop the understanding and importance of human interactions and how they affect both the leader and the follower in the accomplishment of a goal. As one participant began to quickly understand was the importance of �never asking anyone to do anything you wouldn�t do yourself.� Early exposure also offers the additional opportunity for a budding leader to observe and experience the entire task planning cycle: from idea to execution. Budding leaders who also participate in the implementation phase not only gain experience but gain a perspective from both the leader and the follower points of view resulting in them

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obtaining a unique holistic continuum of which to base their understanding of the traits associated with both good and poor role models. Early exposure also likely cemented in the minds of the participants the importance of a positive attitude and willingness to commit and how these two factors are fundamental to the overall success of any endeavour. As described by Stephen Howarth when writing about Lord Admiral Horatio Nelson, in his article �Leadership � fleets ahead of its time� if leaders have any traits common among them �it is an iron determination to make things happen.� To illustrate this point, one of the participants offered that �once I decided that I wanted to be an officer, I tried one path, didn�t like it, so I tried another and was successful, however nothing was going to deter me from becoming an officer�. No matter the organization, when its main composition is volunteers and volunteer leaders, at some point, the organization will experience both the positive and negative effects of good and poor volunteers and leaders and leaders will be required to motivate everyone regardless of the individualities. With the participants observing their family members in these types of scenarios at an early age and often throughout their childhood, it gave them a better sense of differing motivational techniques and styles and a better appreciation of the demands of being in a leadership role. Undoubtedly they also experienced the rewards that come from being in a leadership capacity after having successfully accomplished a task and then had the opportunity to observe how the leader related that success to the team and rewarded them for their effort. Since the participants, were first-hand witnesses to these leaders and the corresponding team interactions, these experiences significantly enhanced the conclusions and helped to reinforce the importance of focusing on team success and rewarding individual contributions to the collective effort. Often leaders will review their own actions in regard to any task successful or otherwise and it is reasonable to assume that the participants were able to witness this post event review thus providing them a degree of insight into the strengths and weaknesses of what they had either just observed or experienced. Through the fact that they were present for the entire continuum planning cycle including the post event review, even if they were unaware of it at the time, this circumstance provided a unique opportunity to reflect on their experience and incorporate parts of that reflection into their own leadership styles. Early exposure and participation in numerous events provided a foundation on which to build their own understanding of how to influence human behaviour so as to accomplish a goal or objective as desired by the leader from a practical point of view. This opportunity also enabled them to witness a wide range of human reaction to the same task and leadership style enabling them to start to understand what's effective or what is ineffective over a wide range of different scenarios. Many participants indicated that this early exposure provided them with their own foundation on which to use as a �stepping off point� for their own experiences as they continued to develop in age and maturity. Previous Experience: Each participant offered their own personal experiences most of which involved experiences prior to their actual enrolment into the regular force or in the Navy. In most cases these experiences occurred while they were in their more formative years starting

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in their middle to late teens and provided a basis for them to observe both human behaviour; their interaction with others; interaction between people; organizational structure; effect of other leaders on the group and group dynamics and finally the importance of teamwork. Each participant considered these experiences a significant building block in their understanding of team dynamics and leadership and while they couldn't articulate the principles at the time they certainly understood the effects and observed the results of both good and poor leaders, mentors, coaches, and other authority figures. As one participant observed �I was attracted to sports for the team aspect of the game, and I played all the team sports I could, not only did it keep me in excellent physical form, it taught me how to work in a team�. In addition they gained an understanding of their own ability to influence both group direction and goal achievement and allowed themselves the opportunity to practice in the real world and understand human interaction in the real world. Within the previous experience context, the influence of authority figures and mentors on the individual participant�s development can not be overstated. In the words of one participant, one of their family members influenced their style of leadership through their own demonstration which was the style of �not do as I tell you, but that I am planning to go in this direction, do you want to come with me� very much a leader/team builder approach to leadership. These mentors and authority figures played a significant and varied role within the development, motivation and involvement of each individual. Often they were cited as the main reason why the individual got involved in a certain activity and certainly played a central role in identifying the participant as a leader and giving them the opportunity to develop these skills. These mentors and authority figures also provided a positive role model and encompassed the values including: fair play, honesty, integrity, responsibility and the importance of teamwork and looking after your team mates. Certainly in all cases these values were reinforced and the concept of these values had their beginnings from influences at home. In addition, in many cases it was these mentors and authority figures which first highlighted to the individual, their potential to be a leader and in general these mentors and authority figures also took upon themselves to help guide these individuals in their early years. The importance of both these mentors and authority figures at this critical formative period in each of the individual�s lives helped reaffirm some of the observations that the individuals themselves saw and gave them the opportunity to explore and experiment in the role of being a leader. It also cannot be understated the importance of having these same values reinforced at home for each of these particular participants. The combination of these multiple positive messages played a significant factor in their development and understanding of leadership and in their ability to have the confidence in themselves to take on those roles. Their previous experiences also played a factor in their development as followers and understanding the leader / follower relationship which would prove critical later on during basic training. In support of this assertion, one participate observed that �some of my most formative and vital experiences occurred when I was an inexperienced junior officer in the reserves�. While they were beginning to understand their own ability to influence a group, they also are beginning to understand the importance of focusing on a unifying goal and having everyone participate in achieving that goal which from

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time to time means subverting their individual requirements or wishes for the betterment of the entire group. In deed, in the words of the late Air Commodore Lenard Birchall, given in one of his addresses on leadership and re-published by the Canadian Air Force at the time of his passing �You must school yourself to obey orders, despite your personal desires.� They were also coming to realize the importance of having an individual who can draw the group together, motivate the team to accomplish a common objective and preserve that motivation, regardless of the real or perceived obstacles to ensure that the objective was obtained even if it were through shear perseverance. While the theory was virtually unknown to the individual participants at this time in their life, these early practical real world leadership experiences enabled them to observe human behaviour and interactions and helped define the leader / follower relationship which certainly would support their understanding of the theory later in life. By being involved on a team or in a team environment also gave them the benefit of seeing other people who were chosen to be the leader and seeing and experiencing firsthand either through observation or as one of the team members the effect, influence and success of these other examples. Their ability to use these other examples in their own development and draw on both the positive and negative effects of these other leaders certainly helped define and shape their own individual understanding of leadership, human dynamics and behaviour. In addition this early exposure helped to define or reaffirm their positive outlook, and gave them the sense that anything could be accomplished by a team if there was someone that could focus the team�s effort and act as a unifying and rallying point for the group. Finally the influence of the multiple positive messages in this regard provided a consistent reaffirmation of what they had started to understand and continued to support their pursuit of developing as leaders. Often the mentors or authority figures, supported by their families, helped guide the participants into pursuing careers in the military or more specifically in the Navy. Undoubtedly their previous practical experiences helped ensure their file would be considered favourably by the Recruiting Center because they held real world, proven leadership abilities that could be used to further develop their understanding of the concept of leadership from a theoretical and practical point of view. Their experiences working in team environments also provided the basis on which to support their colleagues during the initial stage of basic training where the focus is on both the development of the individual as leader and as a follower to accomplish a goal. In effect they had the enviable position of understanding human dynamics and using both the positive and negative examples from their past helped spur their development and the implementation of the theory during the practical exercises presented while participating in basic training. Interestingly enough, for most of the individual participants they considered their basic training as a consolidation of this previously understood knowledge, as opposed to an introduction to it, and therefore in all cases basic training was not considered an arduous task to complete from a leadership perspective. Indeed it provided another opportunity for practical real-world experience prior to pursuing their career as naval officers. As one participant reflected on his

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previous experiences and how they �allowed me to understand the thought processes, interactions, reactions of human behaviour and importance of leadership�. While the individual previous experiences are important, the sum of all the positive influences provided by the mentors, authority figures, other group leaders and the support of their family played a central role in both their development and understanding of leadership and their pursuance of a career focused in leadership. In addition the positive and negative examples provided at this early formative stage of their lives gave them an understanding and basis on which to set the subsequent theory and practical leadership opportunities further spurring their individual development and having them stand out as leaders among their peers. Practical Experiences: Most participants felt that while the leadership theory and education was very interesting and necessary; nothing replaced their practical experiences, the times when it fell to them and they were responsible for the accomplishment of a goal or the responsibility for other people. These practical experiences whether they were during their childhood, teen years or after they joined the Navy, gave them an understanding and sense of accomplishment that was not evident when they were either observers or participants in other previous tasks. When they were finally given the opportunity to be the recognized leader they were already well-prepared for this eventuality through their previous life experiences. Indeed, many indicated that even when they weren't appointed to lead, they would often find themselves being looked to for direction or being sought for their opinion on how or what action the group should take to accomplish any number of different tasks. While many of them did not realize their affect over the team at the time or that they were becoming the de facto leader within their groups, however their ability to influence and guide the team provided another opportunity for real life experience in less tense situations. These practical experiences also provided them a real basis to understand the importance of the leader�s reaction to any situation and its effect on the followers and other group members. Many recounted various times when they were in a group where another was the appointed leader, and that individual reacted poorly to a given situation resulting in the group�s unwillingness or inability to accomplish a goal. The reaction could be as simple as expressing some doubt about the probability of success or something more serious that disabled the leader from being effective resulting in disorganization and confusion among the team. The net effect was that the team was unable to complete the task or it was completed to a standard that was considered unsatisfactory by the team. The observable result was the team left frustrated and unsatisfied in having participated in the event. These failures which are very much part of life, provide an interesting perspective especially if one had been involved in many highly successful teams prior to the unsuccessful one, as was the case with most of the participants. One participant offered that to avoid this type of failure they came to understand that compromise was a key element to team cohesion and suggested that �many different things motivate individuals and the key for the leader is to figure out what motivates the individual and then use it for a positive gain to the mission and the individual.�

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This failure then represented another growth area for the participants and gave them the ability to contrast both the good and the poor examples and tried to make sense of how the mechanics played a role in making an event successful or unsuccessful. It also provided an opportunity to assess the capabilities of the particular leader, and how their strengths and weaknesses interacted with the strengths and weaknesses of the team leading to the success or failure of the event. Practical exercises therefore whether they are successful or not, can lead to positive results and important growth for individual leaders. While perhaps not groundbreaking, when combined with early exposure and the ability to practice at an early age, these practical sessions take on a magnified and key learning opportunity due to this previous context that can be used to frame and understand their observations. In effect in the same address by Air Commodore Birchall, they demonstrated that �He who will not accept orders, has no right to give them.� and �He would will not serve has no right to command.� Practical experiences then do not simply represent an opportunity for the leader to practice the art of leadership, instead they represent opportunities for followers to learn from the leader and apply those lessons to their own styles by enabling them to gain the benefit of other people�s examples, mistakes and successes. By incorporating this knowledge individuals accelerate and multiply their ability to be effective competent leaders earlier in their lives giving them more opportunity to continue to develop those skills. Practical exercises form a large part of basic training. These practical exercises usually performed under stressful conditions, provide individuals opportunities to exhibit leadership characteristics that are a combination of those that are innate to the individual, those that they developed prior to their enrolment or that they learned during theoretical discussions or classroom training. These opportunities are to enable the recruit directing staff to assess the individual leadership ability of each officer candidate and how they are able to use and incorporate into their own leadership styles the lessons learned during their own tasks and those of others. The net objective is to permit directing staff to determine who is best suited for a leadership role within the military context in an efficient and effective manner within a short period of time. The tasks themselves are not generally unique to a military setting and are certainly comparable to many of the participant�s earlier experiences providing credence to the idea that leadership skills gained in any endeavour as transferable to other scenarios. This additional opportunity to practice their skill served to enhance, improve, and cement their understandings from their previous experiences and confirm their previously held observations. Practical experiences then form a fundamental basis to the understanding and skill development within the field and art of leadership. Mentors: All participants indicated that they had numerous mentors throughout the various stages in their life. One participant offered that �some of his best mentors and role models were his peers�. His ability to observe these individuals make decisions, get people to follow them left a lasting impression on his development as a leader. These mentors played different roles within each of the participant�s development and the mentors included

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people such as friends, family, neighbours, community leaders, coaches, teachers and peers. While each of these mentors played a different role in their development, there were also common themes among them. In every instance these mentors certainly encouraged the participants, guided them, provided advice and then followed this with tangible action and support in helping the participants to accomplish a goal. Many of the participants indicated that these mentors seem to arrive at an appropriate time within their life and the mentors seemed to have an innate ability to match their strengths to the participant�s individual development stage that helped the participant understand and realize their goal. There is an enormous volume of literature that describes the importance of having mentors in helping to guide and keep individuals progressing in their lives and careers or in reaching objectives. These mentors can take any form, be at any stage in their life or from any background or calling but must be able to identify with the individual and the individual with them. It was interesting to note that each participant described a mentor that played a prominent role during specific period of their lives and that there never appeared to be more than one at any one time. That's not to say that there were not multiple mentors, but that at any particular point in time there was one that was more prominent than the others and that the others played a more collaborative or supporting role even if they were unaware of each other. When the participants were asked how these mentors had come to be associated or involved in their individual lives they indicated that they were unaware of the specific circumstances which brought these mentors into their lives, but were grateful for having had the opportunity to interact with them. As one participant reflected, �he [one of his mentors] was a first-class guy, ethical, moral, dedicated, open, ready to listen and discuss the future and my career anytime we met, he taught me how to be open, receptive and have a guided discussion without being over bearing�. Each of these mentors left a lasting impression that later played a critical role at a critical juncture at various times during their lives even if neither the individual nor the mentor realized it at the time. Another participant observed that �he [his mentor] was the guy I could look up to, to see how to act, what to do and to keep informed about what was coming up next�. It was through these random encounters or chance opportunities that many of the participants indicated that they were able to find or better refine their individual callings or at the very least, understand their talents and realize their own potential and abilities. As equally important to note is the participant�s ability to recognize the skills of their mentors, and choose to listen to them, apply their advice and to put into action the lessons learned and take advantage of the transference of knowledge passed to them from the mentor. Without this relational association, neither would have the individual prospered from the advice nor would have the mentor been effective in providing it, thus representing a wasted interaction and opportunity. However since the conditions were right for both the mentor and mentored the knowledge transference was effective and rewarding for both individuals. Mentoring is one key aspect to success, however having the ability to mentor is another critical component which helps continue the evolution of knowledge transference. As one participant stated �I accepted a certain appointment as it allowed me the opportunity to mentor those junior officers as I had been mentored�. All the participants

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indicated that they have been and continue to be mentors to others and they themselves continue to have mentors for advice, counsel and friendship. In being mentors all of them have indicated that they have felt rewarded professionally and personally for their involvement and all of them reiterated many times the importance for leaders to be mentors. Through mentoring the professional, personal and historical elements are conveyed from senior to junior in the pursuit of the continued knowledge and understanding of the profession. It is through this type of forum where the lessons of the past become relevant and practical to help solve the problems of the present. Formative Experiences at each rank level: Another common theme for all the participants is that each cited formative experiences on their journey to development as leaders. Within the military context each successive promotion allowed for a greater responsibility, greater challenge and more autonomy for the implementation and the accomplishment of different tasks. This new found responsibility lead one participant to reflect that in guiding large teams �you have to trust your people will do their best, you have to trust, but verify�. Often the participants cited some of their most difficult situations as being the most developmental for them especially if the situation involved overtones related to ethical dilemmas, integrity or honour. While each of them acknowledged that they greatly enjoyed those leadership positions and posts where they and their teams experienced some kind of tangible success, they also acknowledged that those positions that were the most difficult provided an opportunity for personal growth and remain some of their cherished memories on their developmental journey as leaders. Those situations where they were faced with ethical dilemmas provided an enriching and stimulating opportunity with the greatest opportunity for growth. That is not to say that they sought out these situations but only to reiterate that when called upon to make decisions within these types of situations, while difficult at the time, proved to be a positive experience for them and their teams. Like the practical experiences or exercises of basic training these formative experiences gained through the course of one's duties ensured a continuation of their skill and development and played a critical role in giving them confidence to face future challenges in positions of greater authority. In retrospect while they may not have appreciated these experiences at the time it helped define them and their leadership style while building their character which in the end contributed to the development of a positive environment within their professional and personal lives. It should also be noted that the participant�s individual attitude towards these formative experiences played a crucial role in both their understanding and the lessons that they learned and applied to their lives. To summarize, every participant maintained a positive outlook, possessed a great amount of energy and remained hopeful of the future, confident in their ability to resolve any issue. These experiences helped them to develop their own confidence and that of their team, and from my first-hand knowledge, their attitude was infectious and provided a rallying point for their team members and those people who worked for and with them. One participant offered that �90% of my leadership experience is to listening to subordinates and people through active listening. No matter the role, CEO, bank manager or Admiral, anyone who thinks they have achieved

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their success by themselves is fooling themselves�. Another participant noted that through these successive challenges he learned the importance for the leader to maintain the momentum of the team for any project and summarized the importance as follows �if you have something to do, do it well and when you are done, do something else� or in other words, keep the team focussed on the tasks without loosing sight of the objective. Formal education and training: Despite all of their practical and early exposures and experiences each participant acknowledged the importance of education and training in both their development as leaders and as professionals within their chosen calling. Formal education clearly provides an opportunity for continued learning and exposure to new concepts and theories but also sets the basis for critical thinking during the resolution of both complex and mundane challenges that every leader will face some time over their careers. This element of critical thinking could not be over stated as it provided the impetus for innovation and desire for advancement and improvement. Critical thinking in and of itself is not particularly productive unless it's set within the context of understanding the fundamentals of the situation and the desired or necessary solution. Critical thinking is most productive when combined with the practical experiences and the theory to provide an innovative solution to any particular problem. Formal education, provides a structure and process to both understand and practice this essential element of critical thinking. In the words of Thomas Huxley as related in Air Commodore Birchall�s address �Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability to make yourself do the thing you have to do, when it ought to be done, whether you like it or not.� Likewise training is the mechanism used to provide immediate confidence and skills to an individual that will enable them to accomplish a goal in the near term. Training for the sake of training is not a productive use of time, however, training for a specific goal or mission does provide an initial starting point and sets the conditions for success. Training however, has to be realistic, believable by the participant, practical and consistent in order to be effectively used by the leader in developing a cohesive and effective team. Training and education when combined together are therefore mutually supportive and strong contributors to the overall effectiveness of the leader and the team for any given situation. If they are accomplished in a mutually exclusive manner then the net effect is significantly less than the combined total thereby reducing the probability of success of the team towards the objective. The leader must recognize the importance of both education and training, their individual contributions and supportive nature in order to be effective and must take steps to ensure that these two elements remain linked to assist in the development of individual team member skill sets and overall team effectiveness. Training provides an individual with a meaningful and timely response to a familiar or similar situation where as education provides an individual with the ability to think through an unknown or unfamiliar situation which may or may not have common elements and using the skills learned in training, apply these skills to this new situation

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to be successful in achieving an objective. A leader who understands this concept and relationship and applies the fundamentals helps the team achieve its fullest potential. Each participant had their own perspective on the importance and effectiveness of learning the theories of leadership and in turn each have their unique insights into what was provided to them through this process. Despite these differing opinions there was one clear observation which included the fact that this education often provided alternative approaches for the leader to use to address different situations and gave some fundamental concept and basics to the art of leadership. Therefore there was concurrence that formal leadership education was useful to aid in the development of leaders especially if the program is provided throughout one's career and builds on previous exposure to the topic and practical experiences. Ethics and integrity: An essential element to any leadership education or training discusses the importance of ethics and integrity to both the individual and the team. These two elements are critical in developing positive working environments and fostering a cohesive and effective team. Every participant commented on the importance of the leader to act ethical and be ethical. One participant offered that �even though I was brought up in a very strict home environment, and when someone in a position of authority told me to do something, I did it, unless I thought it was against my morals�. They also commented on the importance of a leader being perceived by their subordinates as being ethical. When the participants were asked specifically about this element in their mentors, they unanimously commented that for them, this was a singular critical element in their mentor�s characters. Many commented on other leaders which they saw during their training or that they sailed with, that did not appear to have the same ethical standards as either their mentors or themselves and these individuals were recalled in less than favourable terms by the participants. Integrity for a leader means that regardless of the circumstances the leader will act with fairness and justice and ensure as much transparency as possible with every decision. Integrity also speaks to the individual�s character, values and most importantly individual actions in both the personal and professional lives. The need for ethical decision making in both personal and professional lives is a key factor to be considered by the leader to ensure a consistent message to their subordinates. It was felt by most participants that leaders who could not make ethical choices in both of these situations lacked a resolve or possessed a character flaw which ultimately would result in subordinates not having 100% confidence in their leader. The damage of this uncertainty would manifest itself in the failure to accomplish tasks or a loss of effectiveness or control over the team by the leader. Ethical decisions don't necessarily have to be difficult but there usually is a degree of difficulty and possible personal sacrifice on the part of the leader in making the decision. However the importance of these decisions plays a key role in the development of trust of the leader by subordinates and could have wide spread implications for everyone involved in any particular scenario. One participant noted that �it takes a lifetime to build

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respect and only a second to loose it.� The leader who has the courage and conviction to make the right choices achieves not only the loyalty and admiration of those that they wish to lead, but also ensures a productive and effective team that will support the leader even if the decision is considered undesirable by the subordinates. Ethics, therefore, in every matter, big or small, affects the very fabric and social order of the team between the leader and among its members and will determine its ability to function in a trusting and cohesive manner. The importance of this concept and the leader�s emphasis on ensuring that an ethical environment exists will determine, in a significant way, if the team is successful or unsuccessful in the accomplishment of its goals. Within a military context, the degree of success could well be measured in human sacrifice and loss of life. Participants then affirmed that leaders in this unique environment need to be extremely cognizant of this critical element which is so crucial to success. Summary: While there were other themes that were highlighted by the participants, these seven represent a core convergence among them. That is not to say that these were the only seven where there was convergence, but that these seven themes reoccurred throughout the discussions regardless of the specific question or topic within each individual interview. There were others that could be considered as equally important as the seven listed, however even with these others, the concepts of these seven were prevalent. No matter the circumstance the participants agreed that these seven elements were critical in their development and in general of anyone's development as a leader. It is accepted that these seven elements are necessary for the strong development of leaders however, are they prevalent and incorporated within the naval method used to instruct leadership. In summary, the following themes did emerge and each participant offered their opinion as indicated by an �X�:

Topic P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7Active Listening X X X X X X X Importance of Early experiences X X X X X X X Ethics in the leader X X X X X X X Practical exposure X X X X X X X Mentors X X X X X X X Mentoring X X X X X X X Motivation as an essential element to leadership X X X X X X X Vision as an essential element for leadership X X X X X X X Spirituality in the leader�s role X X X X X X X Community service and involvement X X X X X X X Servant Leader Concept X X X X X X X Importance of formal education* X X X X X X X Involvement in sports teams/scouts/similar orgs X X X X X X X

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Teamwork X X X X X X X Importance of practical exposure and practice X X X X X X X Importance of Trust X X X X X X X Importance for leaders to take risks X X X X X X X Importance of small group experiences X X X X X X X Influence of mother within the family X X X X X X X Parental influences X X X X X X X Grand-parent influences X X X X Other Family influences (uncles/aunts/siblings) X X X X Direct influence of parental involvement in community X X X X Turing negative leader examples for positive growth X X X X Role of Religion X X Allowed to question convention during childhood X X X X Indicated a calling to be an officer X X X X Understanding their own impact on the group X X X Organizational history and its importance to the leader

X X X

The concept of a �military family�/reason for joining X X X X X NB: *So long as this education develops the individual and is applied to the �real world�.

Practical Naval Method To lead within the naval context is to understand those you want to lead. As related in a Leadership Manual issued by the Royal Canadian Navy in 1948, �The Canadian sailor is apt to be much more of an individualist than his sea-going colleagues in other navies, and he expects to be treated as such. He is a volunteer and presumably in the fist place joined the Navy because he wanted to. Disillusionment can, and sometimes does, set in at an early stage. Yet at the outset, he was individual and man enough to sign his name at a recruiting office. Given good leadership and a good reason for the job he has to do, his is capable of tremendous efforts.� This description continues to epitomize the individual who joins the navy today. In deed, one of the participants recognized that there continues to be an on-going battle between the independence of the individual and that of a more rigid hierarchical organization. Certainly the Navy and the Canadian Forces does incorporate all of these and other elements into their training and educational programs for the development of their officers. In every circumstance all of these elements formed a fundamental basis in the design of the training and educational system in use when the participants joined the Canadian Forces. This same basic design, with perhaps some modifications to reflect current societal trends continues to be used today. The Navy offers formative and formal education throughout an officer�s career, coupled with practical and real leadership opportunities in various stages during their professional development. These challenges are provided commensurate with the individual�s organizational experiences and is in line with the expectations of the organization for a particular individual at any

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given rank. Indeed successive challenges help to build confidence in the leader and in subordinates as each challenge is resolved successfully. Should any challenge be unsuccessful, the Navy and the Canadian Forces has the ability to guide the leader and assist in their development through the individual�s Chain of Command. While mentorship is not implicitly or formally structured, there certainly is the understanding that this is a critical piece to the overall leadership development process and relies on its senior officers to guide and mentor its junior officers. Practical experience gained by individuals within their branch of service prepares the junior officer for service in their chosen field and helps build the trust between subordinate and leader to meet the demands of that particular branch of service. These experiences are structured so that they continue to have ever increasing responsibilities for personnel, equipment and resources which intend to build on the individual's previous exposure. While much of the mentoring and guidance is provided by those senior to the individual there is another credible and distinct support element that must be acknowledged in order to understand all the influences that guide a leader's development. Specifically, junior officers are also provided the opportunity to gain experience and the advice of senior non-commissioned members from an �on the job� type of approach. These senior non-commissioned members play a crucial role in helping the junior officer come to terms with the responsibility of being a leader of people. They provide a stabilizing presence and a wealth of experience to the junior officer in managing the expectations and demands of their subordinates. Expectation management is a key part to being an effective leader and maintaining positive morale among subordinates. In order for the junior officer / senior non-commissioned member relationship to work effectively, especially considering that within a military context there is an established hierarchy based on rank, requires a special understanding between the individuals and when reached will provide an operational force multiplier to the team. It should be noted that this relationship does not solely exist at the junior officer level; indeed these relationships need to exist at all levels and if this relationship is properly fostered throughout an individual's career it will deliver a wealth of support, advice and experience regardless of the relative ranks or positions of the individuals. Junior or senior officers alike develop these relationships and enjoy this wealth of experience and it could mean the difference between success and failure in any particular mission. However in the case of the junior officer, to help gap the lack of experience that most junior officers possess, this council will likely play a fundamental role in the development of the overall plan and by extension the success of the objective. The development of an officer within their specific branch of service is unique to the demands and needs of that branch, however there are common elements among the branches and these elements can be incorporated into senior-level coursing for the officer, in which they will participate as they progress in their careers. The Navy and the Canadian Forces has adopted the approach of a continuous lifelong dedication to learning which requires officers and senior non-commissioned members to periodically undergo intense periods of instruction focussed on the improvement and development

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of the quality of leadership. In the words of one participant, the Navy has adopted a �constant path of learning� to help leaders at all levels �manage issues and lead people.� These common periods of instruction as well as the practical and formative experiences at each rank enable an officer or non-commissioned member to transition between services still providing an excellent degree of support and leadership regardless of where they're serving. Time and again the members and leaders of the Canadian Forces distinguish themselves in the service of Canada while serving with allied and international partners. The quality of Canada's Navy and Armed Forces is a highly sought commodity within the international community as these personnel are recognized experts in their profession and their ability to build teams and accomplish objectives in an efficient and effective manner. There is a portion of this skill set that resides in the general psyche of the average Canadian, however a larger portion is developed and encouraged through the education and training process. It is through this process that all of the participants were developed. However in most circumstances, if not in all, the individual selected to an officer was already pre-screened into this process at the recruiting center based on their previous experiences and credentials. Their education, training, experiences, involvement in the community, sports, and overall attitude and outlook were assessed prior to them being accepted as candidates to be officers in the armed forces. Therefore the training and education system starts with a somewhat known product and continues to develop and expand the individual�s understanding by testing them under intense or stressful circumstances in order to ascertain their reaction and their ability to lead and make the right decisions in these circumstances. These individuals need not be experts in order to graduate from this initial training phase, they need only to indicate that they have assimilated a certain level of knowledge and have demonstrated their likely potential to continue to assimilate knowledge as they progress. The initial training system is based on the fact that the individuals will be provided additional opportunities to exercise their leadership and develop their skills in real life scenarios. To that end the organization has established a mechanism to monitor, direct and correct the individual�s performance throughout their career by way of feedback sessions and assessment or performance evaluation reports. Together all of this information on the individual throughout their career is then used by a merit board to determine who is best suited for continued promotion and advancement. The proven ability to lead plays a key factor during these boards; however the individual�s potential to continue to assimilate knowledge and potential to lead at increasing levels of difficulty plays a larger factor in determining promotion. As one participant pointed out that �Promotion is not a reward for the individual but for the organization�, the organization recognizes the individual�s abilities and their potential to be entrusted with additional responsibilities. Another participant reminded that �As you get promoted in rank, you are not smarter� and therefore you need to continue to rely on your team and practice the principles already discussed. The cumulative effect of this entire process is geared to identifying the right individuals who possess the necessary leadership and intellectual capabilities to direct the

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organization from successively more difficult positions of authority; thereby allowing the organization to continue in its strategic focus while ensuring it maintains its tactical and operational level abilities in both the domestic and international operations arenas. There are many other elements to the overall training and education process within the Navy and the Armed Forces however one of the primary elements includes an ethics program. The ethics program encompasses seven key values and its purpose is to raise awareness of the importance of leaders both acting and being seen to act ethically in all matters regardless of the situation or personal circumstance. The responsibility to act ethically is the duty of any leader and to para-phase Admiral Nelson, �Duty is the business of the sea-going officer, all private considerations must give way, no matter how painful.� The program is not only geared towards leaders but for anyone in the armed forces as ethical decisions are not limited to those in positions of authority. The nature of operations in both the domestic and international arenas requires that every person in the service understand the importance of ethical decision-making and its impact on operational effectiveness. Often personnel in the Armed Forces find themselves in positions of authority in different countries with different cultures and need to ensure that their behaviour is beyond reproach in order to maintain the integrity of their operations and the mission. Therefore the method used by the Navy to engender and develop the art and practice of leadership among the leaders is consistent with the theory. Furthermore the participants represent and support this method in general terms but each provides a unique perspective and contribution based on their collective individual personal experiences both prior to and after joining the Navy.

Other Observations Throughout each individual discussion there were other observations made by individual participants some of which were consistent between participants but have no definitive role in either the theory or the method used by the Navy to develop leadership within its cadre. Three of these include:

a) role of vision; b) the role of spirituality; and c) the importance of history to the institution.

Role of Vision: To the team, the role and the value of a vision is as important as the leader�s individual characteristics, skills and abilities. As one participant described �visionary leadership inspires people, motivates them and develops loyal followers and firm believers�. The vision of a leader helps orientate the team and propel them towards the objective providing a broad understanding of what the end result will look like when the objective is accomplished. The importance of a carefully worded vision, one that is meaningful to the team will help the team to make decisions during implementation phase. The vision

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must capture the hearts and minds and spirits of both the mission and the team as well as provide direction of the desires of the leader. The vision has to be tangible, has to be attainable and easily understood by those it wishes to inspire. The participants indicated that a carefully crafted vision is a critical element to success and best accomplished through the efforts of the collective team. One participant described the difference between mission and vision as �the vision is the things as they will be and the mission as things that need to be done.� The vision statement as described by the participants must be easy enough to understand, recite and implement in order to be effective. The participants individually agreed that the statement itself is best crafted by representatives of the team with guidance from the leader. To draft the statement in this fashion ensures that the team will be in agreement and therefore provides a source of motivation for the team to work towards that vision to make it a reality. It was interesting to note that the participants unanimously agreed that the vision statement did not need to be long or all-encompassing, in fact it was agreed that it needed to represent the situation and the team members; which are two critical factors in a well worded statement. One participant indicated that he had been handed a vision statement by his predecessor after recently arriving in the organization and by talking to various team members discovered that the team did not identify with this particular statement and therefore it was not a motivational or inspirational tool. He had assembled his most senior leaders to discuss and draft a new vision statement one that incorporated his personality and the spirit and character of his team. To ensure that the statement helps guide the decisions and actions of the team it must be memorable but as the participants pointed out it cannot be simply a slogan or catchphrase, as while these statements will often be popular, they provide little direction or support to the team in reaching the objective. In every instance the participants indicated that they had vision statements for their organizations and that it took considerable time to develop these statements in their current form, but each participant also indicated that these statements were easily articulated to the organization with relative ease. That is not to say though that well crafted vision statements even if they're short are easily created. In addition, one participate added that �a supporting vision needs to communicate enthusiasm to the work force� and that while �charismatic leadership can sell a vision, it will usually lead to a short term gain� and therefore leaders should communicate their vision in terms that the work force will understand instead of relying on catch phrases or slogans. While none of the participants indicated that they had developed their own personal vision statement per se, each of them had indicated that they were always aware of the possibilities and opportunities and always had the desire to continue to achieve those possibilities and opportunities even if was for the simple satisfaction that comes from a worthy effort to a difficult goal. In that way, each participant continued to ensure that they sought out opportunities to progress their careers and develop professionally thereby attracting and meeting different mentors that would help them along their journey. It was also their previous collective experience that those teams and

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organizations which had an individual that could successfully articulate the end state or purpose of any objective, always seemed to achieve that end state in what could be considered short time frames or overcome insurmountable odds. This life lesson ensured that they perpetuated and developed this ability in themselves which in turn helped their teams and subordinate leaders to gain an appreciation and knowledge of the value and importance of having and articulating a vision. Vision, therefore could be considered a singular definable element that can be used by the leader to motivate the team to success. Role of Spirituality: Another interesting observation or theme that emerged was that of what will be called in this paper, and for a lack of a better word, spirituality. Spirituality is not defined as a belief in a certain entity or deity, but rather the overarching acknowledgment that life in any form is connected and therefore individuals need to take actions that are just and right for this greater humanity. Although no participant either professed or dismissed the presence or impact of spirituality, in each of their own unique ways this theme was discussed as being important for leaders to recognize its presence and can be used to help guide in decision-making. One of the participants related that it is critical to have the balance of a �healthy mind, body and soul� and when making decisions be sure to �put yourself I someone else�s shoes� when reviewing the impact of the decision. Another participant offered that spirituality is �all about a moral compass and the developing of a value system.� While many participants may have had some varying degree of religious development throughout her childhood, this particular direct influence was not considered to have played a significant role in their leadership skills. However, with the understanding of a broader humanity, of a unifying force and of the knowledge of interconnectedness that may have been imparted through religious overtones did play a factor in their attitudes, development as leaders and certainly in the decision they had made and those they were making on a daily basis. This understanding and knowledge helped to guide them through many difficult decision-making situations throughout their careers and ensured that the impact their decisions had on the individuals and the team members remained foremost in their thoughts and actions. In considering the impact on the team the participants ensured that they would continue to maintain the team�s trust, confidence and support while maintaining excellent morale and positive attitudes among the entire workforce. Spirituality and certainly religion is an individual affair. Since within the military context a leader may have the unfortunate responsibility to support a grieving family, of which that family may be active participants in their religion, is the duty of a leader to understand these concepts and customs and to ensure they are able to provide adequate support to the grieving family. Therefore leaders should endeavour to study and understand differing religious customs as well as the concept of spirituality in order to adequately fulfil their duties and obligations in these critical moments. Finally one

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participant observed that spirituality �comes from life experience, role models, behaviour, societal norms� and is �the purpose of our [naval] business.� The importance of history to an institution: Finally the last emergent theme among the participants was the importance for the leader to properly and adequately understand the historical roots of the institution and how these affect its evolution and its future. When the leader views the institution�s history as some remote series of events that had happened, the leader discredits both the institution and jeopardizes its future advancement. From the participant�s perspective, history provides a starting point in solving problems and adds value to future endeavours only when the lesson learned from the past are incorporated and applied to future and current operations. It is in the leader's ability to discern the important from the unimportant that can make history and the institution�s historical roots a force multiplier thereby ensuring the organization�s continued relevance for the present and future. The systemic organizational history of an institution provides, to those who lead the organization or to those who wish to lead the organization, a degree of context and understanding of the sacrifices, challenges and visions of those who had previously served. Leaders who take the time to become familiar with the institution's history, those that make the effort to understand the roots of the traditions and observances provide a visible and tangible link of those from the past to the present especially within the military context. The leader embodies the spirit and vision of the past and becomes the visible and tangible representation of what the organization could achieve in the future helping to ensure that continuum of an organization�s existence. The leader then must embrace this role providing reverence and respect to the past, using its lessons in the present to guide and develop the organization�s future. Leaders who are able to understand the importance of this continuum and are able to effectively fulfill this role help maintain motivation and focus to the team. History also provides a context for the understanding from a more global and broader context the significance or importance of any one particular action which can encourage and motivate subordinates and team members in the completion of their objectives.

Answers to Research Questions: There were two main research questions that formed the basis and focus of the paper. These questions included:

a) do the senior leaders of the Navy exhibit those characteristics normally associated with the way the Navy teaches leadership;

b) other characteristics that are common between the leaders that would support

the information found in the theories.

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Senior Leadership characteristics: All seven of the leaders that participated in the discussions held similar characteristics and reflected those characteristics that the Navy emphasises during the training and education used to develop leadership within its senior cadre. In each case, these leaders possessed early, practical leadership experience at different stages within their development. They were exposed to both positive and negative examples through these practical experiences and were allowed to be both the follower and leader in various examples. As their confidence continued to evolve, they also started to notice how they could affect the direction, motivation and development of the team or group. In gaining this early exposure and practical repeated experience they were able to have a reference to match the theory of leadership they would be exposed to later in life to develop the real world implementation of the theory. They each were recruited through the same process that values experience, academics, prior practical leadership opportunities and therefore they were selected to serve as commissioned officers. However, these individuals also had mentors that helped guide and develop their talents, often directing them in certain paths. In addition, they were able to use the example and advice of their mentors for their own development and benefit. Therefore, they were learning the effects and importance of mentorship, although for most, this realization was not as a apparent until much later in life. This mentorship and these mentors could be easily seen as a single advantage over others who possessed the same previous experiences without the mentors, as it provided a support network that would help, encourage and develop the strong mentorship abilities seen in each of the participants. They also possess a strong work ethic, drive, determination and perseverance that is usually widely associated with many leaders. However, as in most cases, theirs was built on experience and the sense of knowing the gratification that comes with the accomplishment of a goal. They understand and experience the leader/follower relationship from both perspectives which provided them a greater level of detail and insight into the human psyche and nature, even if they were unaware of all of these elements at the time. In the end, the Navy looks for these characteristics and then builds on these to evolve the understanding of leadership and human interactions through theory and additional practical experiences. Therefore the end product looks similar across the participants, the early and repeated exposures although different, once set into a process helped shape the final outcomes. It is not to say that the Navy�s process was the defining factor, but only the generic process helped each reflect on their own experiences and gain an appreciation for the lessons learned. It should also be noted that each participant expressed a deep interest and placed significant importance on leadership and the continual development within themselves and others. Therefore the process used by the Navy and Canadian Forces, to develop leaders is a solid process that produces a excellent result and known base product. The skill in

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which this education and training are implemented and the degree of success of implementation rests with the individual and is partly based on their real world experiences. Other Characteristics: As noted in the last section there were other characteristics that were common to each of the participants. These characteristics, while based on different experiences and early development within their familial environments did hold similar elements between them. Each of the participants related that to fully understand leadership required the understanding of human nature; your own strengths and weaknesses; the ability to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the group both as individuals and as a collective; a passion for the topic of leadership; a passion for your endeavours and an infallible belief that anything can be accomplished with the right combination of circumstances, talent and time. Lastly, they also noted that leadership is a life-long developmental process and, like anything, requires attention, study, practice and reflection in order to evolve. They also each indicated that the importance of leadership can change the course of events, needs to be ever present at every moment of the day and makes the difference in having an effective and efficient team. The leader must be the model of compassion, understanding, intelligence, ethical action and exhibit a concern for the welfare of his or her subordinates. The leader must always �be seen doing and do the right thing� even if it is unpopular, difficult or hazardous. Other characteristics include the leader demonstrating courage in all three senses, physical, emotional and ethical; bravery and loyalty. While these are not considered an exhaustive or exclusive list, they are widely cited within much of the literature and absolutely supported by the participants. Discipline and the leader�s desire to continue to learn were also highly regarded as critical components to effective leadership. More interestingly common elements also included the development of a sense of interconnectedness among humanity; the importance of ensuring the morale and development of subordinates in the spirit of, as one participant stated, �healthy mind, body and soul�. Each of them also emphasized the importance to subordinates of their leader having consistency between their words and actions. Finally they also described that leaders need to have a clear vision and understanding of their mission, they need to gather as much information as possible within given time constraints, seek advice as necessary and then based on all of that information and advice make the best decision. Then leaders need to follow up with a conviction to implement the decision, secretly understanding that they are fallible and hold imperfect information. Leaders then need to develop networks and contacts that allow them to gain additional information and develop measures that will help guide through execution, only changing if absolutely required to succeed. If a leader is unable or

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unwilling to accomplish each of these tasks and follow up with the implementation to ensure that things are still progressing then this lack of conviction can lead to confusion, lack of support from subordinates or unclear vision and as one participant stated �if you don�t know where you are going, any fork in the road will do� which could result in complete failure or within the military context needless loss of human life. All of these additional characterises are supported in some measure within the myriad of theoretical discussions on leadership and the traits and qualities of a leader.

Conclusion Overall the participants provided an excellent source of first-hand knowledge and practical examples of the method used to teach leadership within the Canadian Navy. Their individual experiences and stories helped to establish the context of the discussion around the central themes of vision and leadership and how these two themes play a central role to be an effective leader. The theme that emerged from the individual discussions further supported the method used by the Canadian Navy and helped to highlight some of the critical aspects that all leaders would do well to understand and improve within their own individual leadership styles. While these themes as summarized in this paper are not considered exhaustive, they were also considered some of the more critical ones. In addition to the initial seven, three other observations were emergent but whose theoretical basis was not as obvious and hence could be considered new areas for continued study. The context of these discussions was from a pure naval or military background and it is acknowledged that while leaders of any organization have similarities they also have differences which are unique to the specific organization. Leadership within the military context includes the obligation by the leader to understand their subordinate�s personal and professional lives as well as extend that support to the families of their subordinates recognizing the possibility and potential for loss of life. As one participant related one of their favourite quotes of Rear-Admiral Sir Charles Rapier, �It is Seamen, not ships, that constitute a navy.� The Navy's and Armed Forces method to develop leaders is a proven, practical and sound process that when combined with an individual's previous experiences or early exposure can create superb leaders that are capable of operating at the tactical, operational and strategic levels. The seven participants while perhaps considered a small sample size are considered a representative group of the type of leader that would be found within this military context. The lessons learned for future leaders of the Navy, not only include those 10 themes but also highlight the importance for leaders to understand the future of the organization as it evolves from both national and international influences as well as a strategic direction provided by the government.

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Within the naval context the theory supports the practical method used to identify, select and evaluate candidates to be officers within its ranks, and the process used to promote junior non-commissioned members to those of the senior non-commissioned members. While the roles of officers and non-commissioned members are supportive and complementary, they are also different and demand a different standard and accountability in order to make the organization function effectively. In the words of Admiral John Paul Jones, considered the founder of the United States Navy, �It is by no means enough that an officer of the Navy should be a capable mariner; he must be that, of course, but also a great deal more. He should be as well a gentlemen of liberal education, refined manner, punctilious courtesy and nicest sense of personal honour. The Naval Officer should be the soul of tact, patience, justice, firmness, charity and understanding. No meritorious act of a subordinate should escape his attention or be left to pass without reward, even if the reward be only on word of approval. He should not be blind to a single fault in any subordinate; at the same time he should be quick to distinguish error from malice, thoughtlessness for incompetency and well-meant shortcoming from heedless and stupid blunder. As he should be universal and impartial in his rewards and approval of merit, so should he be judicial and unbending in his punishment or reproof of misconduct.� Certainly the participants for this paper, the process to develop leaders and the Navy reflect and embody these sentiments written in 1776. Junior leaders who rely on their senior experienced non-commissioned members will add value, focus and direction to their teams developing in themselves the traits of being an excellent leader. This paper hoped to summarize the theoretical, organizational and practical processes used to teach leadership in the Navy, and then conduct conversational styled discussions with currently serving senior naval leaders. The purpose of the discussions was to highlight and confirm the important elements that will be required by future leaders of the organization. These ten significant elements as described by the participants and captured in this paper were insightful and certainly helped attain the objective.

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Pierce, Jon L. & Newstrom, John W. (2006). & The Leadership Process Fourth Edition. On the Meaning of Leadership 7-11. McGraw-Hill Irwin, New York, NY. Rowe, W. G. (February 2001). Creating wealth in organizations: The role of strategic leadership. The Academy of Management Executive, 15(1), 81-95. Royal Canadian Navy Leadership Manual issued in 1948. Source book is out of print and the excerpt was provided to me in photocopy form and thus the specific accreditation information for the book is not available.