leadership born made

Are leaders born or made page 1

An Analysis of Leadership: Are Leaders Born or Made

Patrick Houston

PADM 499 Senior Seminar

University of LA Verne


Abstract

Leadership is a top priority in today's organizations, highly valued for its power to inspire

achievement and translate vision into results. A famous quote holds that "leaders are not born,

they're made," and that is the basis of this paper. Leadership development, education and training

are among the most critical areas where organizations can make contributions to maximize the

value of their human assets. This paper discusses traditional ideas of leadership, recent

innovations and modern practices in leadership development and training, in an effort to

demonstrate that leaders can be developed through education.

The basic hypothesis of this paper is that leaders are made, not born. Unique, personal

experience is what gives individuals the power to lead. Not all people will bring together the

right mix of experience, knowledge, and insight to become successful leaders but those who

commit to learning are is well-positioned to become leaders because they are already on the fast-

track learning curve, dynamically engaged with every core function and asset of their job or

industry. Every element of a successful organization will find that innovation lies in the

knowledge and understanding of its employees.


Chapter I: Introduction

―Leaders are made, they are not born. They are made by hard effort, which is the price

which all of us must pay to achieve any goal that is worthwhile‖ (Lombardi, 2009). This

statement by Vince Lombardi, hall fame football coach for two NFL teams, the Green Bay

Packers and the New York Giants, sparks an interesting discussion among coaches scholars and

business leaders. An effective leader is one who possesses both the innate talents of one who will

supervise with influence over others and the learned skills that come with education, training and

experience. (Zaccaro, 2003) This natural balance produces some difficulty however in

understanding how the effective leader should best be defined. The question is to whether

leadership is a role for which certain individuals are born or if instead a largely pool of potential

leadership candidates may be crafted through proper training measures into effective and even

exceptional leaders. (Gould, Hartley, Raftery, Merola & Oleson, 2011)

Leadership is found in a broad array of endeavors, from business to culture, religion to

war, politics to technology, sports to education (Connelly and Rudnick, 2001). According to

Connelly and Rudnick (2001), ―It includes all manner of exercise -- authoritative, influential,

moral, intellectual, energetic, and hands-on or passive, laid-back, strong, and weak. It is manifest

at all levels in all kinds of organizations and institutions. It is both historical and contemporary,

unchanging and dynamic.‖

Perhaps because it encompasses all of these things, there is no general consensus about

whether leaders are born or made, whether leadership is a natural or learned ability (Connelly

and Rudnick, 2001). Perhaps the answer lies somewhere between the extremes of nature and

knowledge. When we look at sports leaders like Michael Jordan, it is clear that he embodies the

combination of those two extremes. He is one of the world's most extraordinary physical leaders


of all time. However, despite his talents, he could not lead his basketball team to its first NBA

title until he learned to help recruit, work with, and mold other key players into a winning team.

Over the course of six years, Jordan learned how to develop his team to its greatest achievement

-- a league championship in 1990.

This example demonstrates two important lesson (Connelly and Rudnick, 2001): 1. It

takes teamwork to win; and 2 being a leader is helping team members to levels they could not

achieve on their own. An important observation is that Jordan's teammates have not truly

excelled after they or Jordan retired from the Chicago Bulls.

The ability to learn and apply life's lessons, whether learned through an academic process

or real-world experience, is crucial to becoming a successful leader (Connelly and Rudnick,

2001). Many leaders of recent years have either failed to learn or failed to apply what they have

learned and have thus failed in their leadership. The U.S. auto industry of the 1970s and 1980s,

for instance, ignored lessons about service, quality, and performance, which it could have

learned from its foreign competitors. Chrysler, especially, had to be bailed out by the federal

government, only to be sold three decades later to a foreign company. Similarly, Motorola

successfully transformed itself from a car-radio company to a world leader in wireless

communications and semiconductors under innovative, visionary and motivated leadership.

In today's world, where things are changing at a rapid pace, those who can internalize the

lessons around them, who can envision the importance of those insights on their endeveours, and

who can motivate and influence others to act on those insights, are the best leaders for today‘s

modern times (Connelly and Rudnick, 2001).

When most people think of good leaders, words such as "smart," "creative" and

"strategic" are high on the list of associated traits (CIO Insight, 2003). However, according to the


more than 750 senior IT executives who participated in a 2010 research survey by CIO Insight

magazine, the really critical issues are "relationship building," "communications skills" and

"inspiration." Therefore, it is apparent that leadership ability is a combination of personal traits

and acquired skills. In fact, one of the top characteristics that respondents viewed as a trait of a

good leader was integrity. (Neumann, Gerlach, Moldauer, Finch & Olson, 2004)

Still, as important as integrity and personal ethics are seen in shaping leaders, the survey

respondents also place a high value on leadership-development training programs (CIO Insight,

2003). More than 80 percent of participants said that leadership can be taught, and a strong

majority of them have participated in leadership-development programs at some point in their

career. But even though our readers think highly of leadership programs, even more participate

in less-formal methods to improve their leadership skills.

The results of the study are as follows (CIO Insight, 2003):

81% Of CIOs Believe Leadership Can Be Taught

68% Say Their Companies' Overall Quality of Leadership is High

74% Of CIOs are on their companies' executive committees

81% Cite IT/business liaison as the most critical leadership

experience

47% Have participated in leadership development programs in their

current company

Purpose

The main purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that, if an individual has the

desire and willpower, he or she can become an effective leader. Effective leaders develop

through an endless process of self-study, education, training, and experience.


While some people may be ―born leaders‖, this paper is designed to show that even

natural leadership characteristics can be improved. Even leaders that come from family lines of

leadership must learn how to inspire their followers (Clark, 1997). To inspire people into higher

levels of teamwork, there are certain things that leaders must be, know, and, do. These often do

not come naturally. Instead, they must be acquired through continual work and study. The best

leaders are constantly working and studying to improve their leadership skills.

One of the main challenges of this paper was defining leadership. Leadership is not an

easy concept to define (Clark, 1997). It is a complex process by which a person influences others

to accomplish a mission, task, or objective and directs an organization in a way that makes it

more cohesive and coherent. A person carries out this process by using his or her leadership

attributes (belief, values, ethics, character, knowledge, and skills). Although an individual‘s

position as a manager, supervisor, lead, etc. gives you the authority to accomplish certain tasks

and objectives in the organization, this power does not make him a leader...it simply makes him

the boss. Leadership makes people want to achieve high goals and objectives, while bosses tell

people to accomplish a task or objective. This is a key difference.

Bass' theory of leadership was useful in demonstrating that leaders are made. This theory

states that there are three basic ways that describe how people become leaders (Clark, 1997). The

first two explain the leadership development for a small number of people. These theories are:

Some personality traits may lead people naturally into leadership roles. This is the Trait Theory.

1. A crisis or important event may cause a person to rise to the occasion,

which brings out extraordinary leadership qualities in an ordinary person. This is the

Great Events Theory.


2. People can choose to become leaders. People can learn leadership skills.

This is the Transformational Leadership Theory. It is the most widely accepted theory

today and the premise on which this report is based.

Hypothesis:

The basic hypothesis of this paper is that leaders are made, not born. Unique,

personal experience is what gives individuals the power to lead. Not all people will bring

together the right mix of experience, knowledge, and insight to become successful leaders

but those who commit to learning are is well-positioned to become leaders because they

are already on the fast-track learning curve, dynamically engaged with every core

function and asset of their job or industry. Every element of a successful organization

will find that innovation lies in the knowledge and understanding of its employees.

Chapter II: Methodology

The methodology for this paper is simple. The introduction explained the concept of

leadership and set the stage for the thesis of the paper, which is that leaders are made, not born.

The literature review highlights that the research methodology is based solely on existing

research. The literature examines a broad range of studies, ranging from traditional to modern

theories of leadership. When researching this topic, the subject of birth order and its effect on

leadership surfaced. The literature review examines this subject in detail, as it strongly links to

the theory that leadership is somewhat of a natural quality. This provides a good introduction for

the chapter on the debate over whether leaders are born or made.

Authentic leadership is another key element of this literature review, Avolio, Luthans,

and Walumbwa (2003) define authentic leaders as ―those who are deeply aware of how they

think and behave and are perceived by others as being aware of their own and others‘


values/moral perspectives, knowledge, and strengths; aware of the context in which they operate;

and who are confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, and of high moral character‖ (p. 4). These

all seem to be qualities that one might learn, rather than be born with. This supports the argument

that education, training and experience are key to leadership.

Another important element detailed in the Theoretical Framework is the link between

leadership and education. Numerous studies were reviewed and analyzed to present a solid

argument that all leaders require education, training and experience, whether to develop or

improve their leadership qualities.

The conclusion takes into account the various research studies analyzed throughout the

study. In this section, we discuss numerous myths associated with leadership and tie the resulting

concepts in to the importance of education in leadership. Finally, this paper provides a series of

recommendations on how to develop leadership skills.

This paper concludes that effective leadership is neither a product of being born with the

right characteristics nor about having the right experience and expertise-and is largely available

within today's organizations (Graf, 2004). In fact, it is possible to empower and develop

successful leaders at all levels within an organization and satisfy the organizational imperative

for successful leadership that is a match for an organization‘s most critical business challenges.

Chapter III: Review of the Literature

There is a great deal of literature dealing exclusively with leadership (Sylvester, 2004).

The subject has been analyzed and discussed in a variety of situations as organizations aim to

increase their competitive advantage in a rapidly changing and complex environment. This type

of environment requires leaders whose responsibility is to create an environment in which


cooperation and collaboration, innovation and creativity, openness and trust, courage and

compassion are valued and exercised.

Existing literature, ranging from research studies to corporate findings, are the basis of

this paper. This paper hypothesizes that leadership be taught or developed in one‘s lifetime,

through education. It further hypothesizes that good leaders must commit to a lifetime of

continuous learning.

This section will review existing literature on the subject of leadership in an attempt to

determine whether leaders are born or made.

Literature regarding leadership dates from the most ancient times and includes many of

the classical works of world literature (Daw, 1996). Aristotle, Plato, Pliny and Machiavelli are

among the most popular voices in the Western tradition to study and write about leadership.

Literature in the Eastern tradition began at even earlier dates and continued well into early

modern times, although a significant number of these reports are anonymous. The flow of words

has continued nonstop ever since, leading Burns (1978) to comment that leadership is "one of the

most observed and least understood phenomenon on earth."

This ancient and continuous fascination with the topic of leadership did not,

unfortunately, result in any recognized school of leadership until recent years (Daw, 1996). At

the publication of his influential study in 1978, it was still possible for Burns to conclude that

despite an "immense reservoir of data and analyses and theories .... no central concept or general

theory has emerged."

One possible reason for the lack of agreement of a single central theory was the broad

array of definitions of leadership (Daw, 1996). In the second edition of The Handbook of

Leadership, Bass provided a literature survey that included 130 different definitions of


leadership. Early definitions perceived leadership as an innate personal quality of the leader,

such as sense of humor or piety.

Associated with this perception is the long tradition of biographical study, the supposed

"great man" school of history (Daw, 1996). This type of approach dominated the ancient world

and was especially influential during the western Renaissance, when a great deal of educational

time was dedicated to reciting passages from Parallel Lives in the hopes that some of the virtues

would attach themselves to the students. This "great man" approach is largely seen today as an

intellectual failure because, along with its obvious sexism, it is a circular argument. Leaders, this

school of thought holds, are effective because they have the quality of leadership. This is no

more helpful than suggesting athletes become great if they have sufficient athleticism, or saints

are created from individuals whose genes contain extensive saintliness.

While this approach dominated the ancient western world of thought, its flaws were

apparent to many (Daw, 1996). Machiavelli, a maligned and misunderstood philosopher, owes

much of his criticism to his observation that leadership is a relationship between leader and

follower, rather than simply a trait. He also discussed the range of relationships possible,

including the coercive and manipulative. He was the first writer to commit to writing the

observation that leadership is morally neutral, a tool that is useful for both good and evil. There

are many who assume that he advocated the unethical because he recognized that it existed. This

strain of objection continues almost without criticism to modern times, with commentators like

Behrman, Grob, Hitt, and Bellah et al (1988) arguing that the term leadership should not be

attached to names like Hitler, Stalin or Franco because of the lack of morality in their actions.

Despite the exposure of the flaws in the great man or trait-based approach, it dominated

philosophical thinking on leadership well into the twentieth century (Daw, 1996). Bass identifies


more than 300 separate studies that concentrated on identifying the unique qualities of the

leading personality. Many of these, including Bird's 1940 study, were content with developing

extensive lists of the desirable, enabling traits. Bird lists 79.

Covey is the most recent writer to broaden the trait-based school of leadership into

contemporary literature, by proposing that leadership must be grounded in "principles," which

are "properties of the universe. (Daw, 1996)" Howard Gardner (1995) has taken the traditional

school of thought in a new direction. His work associates cognitive theory with the old

methodology resulting in a new approach.

Competing with the great man school of leadership study was a long movement that

proposed that leadership was very much situational. According to Dew (1996): ―This second

theory proposed that leadership was not so much a quality of the leader as a matter of being the

right person in the right place at the right time. Traditionally this literature proposed that the

conditions were right for the emergence of a leader. Any number of people might have fit the

bill, it is partially a matter of historic luck that the person now remembered was available.‖

This is exemplified by the common teaching in history classes that the Protestant

revolution was destined to come along, and might have done so behind many leaders (Dew,

1996). Martin Luther was undoubtedly an extraordinary leader, but born a hundred years earlier,

his leadership qualities may have never surfaced. Similarly, without King, numerous other

leaders may have fit his shoes.

Like the "Great Man" theory, situational leadership theory is inadequate as a coherent

explanation of leadership, as there are no methodologies or repeatable steps involved (Dew,

1996). The best that can be done is to watch for similar conditions and then jump in the way


with similar steps. This has proved an effective means of training military tacticians, but is a

weak school of thought about leadership.

Both the trait-oriented school and the situational theorists perceived leadership as a single

set of forces moving in a single direction (Dew, 1996). There were some rival scholarly

inquiries into leadership that attempted to master the subject by looking at the 1) power relations;

2) social interactions; 3) persuasion techniques; and 4) initiation of structure (Bass, Handbook,

12-17). However, none gained a significant foothold Stogdill, in the first edition of the

Handbook of Leadership, surveyed four decades of research, but could not find any consensus as

to a general theory of leadership (Dew, 1996). The encyclopedia examined theories and

definitions arising from a variety of sources, including psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism,

humanistic scholarship, and perception theory, without discovering a conclusive theory could be

built.

Bass, in his role as the new editor of the second edition of the Handbook, revealed that he

felt a significant portion of this failure was due to the failure of researchers to work theoretically

(Dew, 1996). The desire to investigate only those elements of leadership that could be measured

empirically had limited leadership studies to somewhat trivial matters that could be easily

sampled and measured.

Burns' Leadership was one of the first books to categorize and explain leadership,

including a brief introduction of the idea of transformational and transactional leadership (Dew,

1996). Even Burns does not seem to appreciate the full importance of this formulation. It is

undermined in the book, but it was the piece on which contemporary theory would be developed

when expanded by Bass.


Burns, building on humanistic psychological theories, implied that leadership was

actually an interchange between the leader and his followers (Dew, 1996). There are two broad

types of such leadership. The first and most popular is transactional. In a transactional

interaction, the leader promotes a simple exchange. A reward is given for performance. The

leader is meeting the material needs of the followers in return for their cooperation and

productivity.

Transformational leadership, on the other hand, is (in Burns' original formulation) built

on the mutual elevation of the leader and the followers' needs up the scale of Maslow's (1954)

hierarchy of needs (Dew, 1996). Both the leader and the led are transformed by the leadership

experience.

The scholarship built upon this classification would soon outrun Burns, but some crucial

distinctions are present in Burns‘ early formulation (Dew, 1996). First, he defines transactional

leadership in a way that makes it clear tat the sum stays constant, but transformational leadership

moves both leaders and followers up to a higher level. Burns also suggests that he finds the

former style easier, more common, and ultimately unproductive.

For Burns, the major difference in the two styles is that transactional leadership focuses

on short-term values, such as fairness and honesty, while transformational leadership focuses on

end-values, such as liberty, equality and justice. Burns is introducing the notion that leadership

must be judged, not only by its short-term effectiveness, but also by its long term contribution to

social change. Transformational leadership ultimately leads to greater satisfaction of human

needs and expectations. Successful transformational leadership results in the elevation of

followers into leaders, where transactional leadership keeps them in their place.‖


While Burns is credited with creating the vision that gave new direction and focus to the

study of leadership, it was Bass that would ultimately become the driving force.

Bernard Bass is perhaps the most influential author when it comes to the issue of

leadership (Dew, 1996). Co-author of the Handbook of Leadership, Bass is a well-known theorist

who has written many pieces on leadership categories used within this social action project. In

his 1985 book Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectation, Bass expands a definition

pioneered by Burns that divides leaders into transformational leaders and transactional leaders.

By this definition, transactional leaders employ an exchange of rewards and punishments

for delivery of performance or lack of production (Dew, 1996). Transformational leaders inspire

through their vision and sense of mission. This literature suggests that, although transactional

leadership can be effective in times of stability, transformational leadership is more effective,

particularly in situations where change or disruption is constantly occurring.

Bass examines the organizational implications of the theory, and provides a wide array of

research data to confirm the basic premises of the theory (Dew, 1996). According to Bass,

transformational leaders broaden and escalate the interests of their followers by promoting

awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the organization. Bass defines

transformational leaders by their charismatic appeal to their followers, the inspiration and

intellectual stimulation they give and the individual consideration they provide.

Bass clarifies this point in a 1990 article published in Organizational Dynamics, "From

Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision. (Dew, 1996)" This

article discusses both his definitions and an array of studies to develop the implications for

recruiting, promoting, developing, and training potential leaders, and job design and organization

structure that allow maximum potential to be realized.


Among the writers who have been significantly influenced by this research are Fisher,

whose books and articles on academic leadership are popular today, Kouzes and Posner, who

wrote two books that follow up on this subject matter, and Rosener, who has created the

implications of this research for emerging women's leadership studies (Dew, 1996).

Bass' overwhelming dominance of the field has inspired a great deal of opposition (Dew,

1996). Yukl and Conger, Kanungo et al, have been his strongest critics. Opponents typically

identify transformational leadership with charismatic leadership, using the terms

interchangeably. Having made this identification, they list the dangers of cults of personality,

which they chastise Bass for having missed or underplayed.

According to Dew (1996): ―Bass' article, "The Two Faces of Charismatic Leadership"

should have definitively answered this objection, but neither of the objecting parties above note

their familiarity with it, and thus identify Bass with a position he does not hold. Yukl has other

objections to Bass as well, but they are generally weak. He asserts that "the new wisdom found

in the literature on transformational leadership repeats themes of the 1960s...(279)," but does not

explain how or why that is problematical.‖

According to Avolio, Waldman and Yammarino, transformational leadership produces in

followers an increasing tendency to self-development and "an enhanced commitment to their

jobs, coworkers and the organization (Dew, 1996)."

The research team of Tichy and Devanna separately reviewed Bass' research and

concluded that his data is sound (Dew, 1996). They discovered that transformational leaders do

have a greater tendency to be change agents, life-long learners, and visionary leaders. These

findings have been widely supported by many other researchers.


As opposed to training, thought about leadership as a subject for legitimate study in

higher education, as Green points out, is inadequate(Dew, 1996). Her wide-ranging review

demonstrates very little effort to create educational leaders as of 1988. Clark and Wayrythko

found that colleges and universities, which are supposed to be training society's leaders for

tomorrow, have been remarkably weak at training leaders for themselves. They wonder if

specialization in schools of education are limiting everyone to entry level positions.

John Gardner is among the few writers on leadership to truly examine the issue of

education. According to Gardner: "The answer to the question, 'Can leadership be taught?' is an

emphatic but qualified 'yes'—emphatic because most of the ingredients can be taught, qualified

because the ingredients that cannot be taught may be quite important". Gardner believes that the

attributes of leadership are not inborn. However, he has no empirical data to back up his

conviction.

Howard Gardner‘s book, The Unschooled Mind, discusses how much can be taught

(including much we have given up on in despair) when thoughtful applications of cognitive

theory are applied (Dew, 1996). Gardner's latest book, Leading Minds: An Anatomy of

Leadership, is an interesting combination of arguments. According to Dew (1996): ―At first it

seems like the old biographical school because of the reliance on case study, but which

ultimately becomes a fascinating look at the psychological interaction between the minds of the

leader and of the followers. Gardner specifically looks at the development and education of

leaders and concludes that educational experience is a particularly important element in their

lives.‖

According to Dew (1996), the opposite side of the leadership coin is the organizational

perspective. Examining organizational outcomes as a way of describing transformation and life


within the world of rapid change has a lengthy tradition, but has been greatly altered in tone

since around 1973. Before then, most managerial and organizational literature focused on the

mechanical model, assuming the necessity of close control and minimal change.

In the many years since Burns first reformed the discipline of leadership study with his

innovative definitions, a central theory of leadership has emerged and made continuity of study

possible Dew (1996). This work originally dealt with political leadership, but was quickly

revised by Bass, whose interest was business and organizations.

Transformational leadership is now widely recognized as the most legitimate exercise of

leadership roles, and a developing body of empirical literature continues to build upon the data

used to support this supposition.

The degree to which transformational leadership can be learned and taught remains a

topic of debate, but the scales are tending toward Bass' view that they can be (Dew, 1996).

Recently, Bass' views have been supported by the psychological-symbolists like Howard

Gardner, who have provided supporting data from an entirely different set of underlying

premises. This interesting convergence seems the greatest future direction.

Chapter IV: Theoretical Framework:

A billboard in an East Coast city demanded attention with a single, six-word question:

"Whom are tomorrow‘s leaders following today? (Spence, 2003)" This question makes us

consider who the leaders of the future will be and how they will compare to those of the past. In

addition, it makes us wonder which individuals will become future leaders, and what

characteristics will enable this status.

Some experts suggest that leaders are born with innate qualities that prepare them to be

leaders, while others suggest that a leader is not dependent on inherent qualities (Spence, 2003).


This need not be a debate. Leaders are born and made. Watching preschoolers on the playground

offers evidence that there are indeed born leaders. However, we cannot ignore the fact that some

of our nation‘s most effective leaders did not demonstrate leadership qualities until later in life.

Because leadership is so important to our future and how they can demonstrate that they

are self made. As former President Dwight D. Eisenhower once said, "The one quality that can

develop by studious reflection and practice is the leadership of men." This paper argues that

successful leadership is attainable, and that attainment involves a beneficial process of inner

growth.

According to James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner, authors of ‗The Leadership

Challenge: How to Keep Getting Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations‘ (Clemmer,

2000): "Contrary to the myth that only a lucky few can ever decipher the mystery of leadership,

our research has shown us that leadership is an observable, learnable set of practices...it's a

process ordinary people use when they're bringing forth the best from themselves and others.

Liberate the leader in everyone, and extraordinary things happen...good leadership is an

understandable and universal process."

The nature versus nurture debate continues strong in the field of leadership development.

It is easy to be confused by those the rare individuals who are natural born leaders (Clemmer,

2000). It does not help when books and articles on some of the more famous leaders hide their

flaws, personality quirks, doubts, and problems in reaching their high levels of achievement.

Warren Bennis has studied hundreds of leaders in every field of human achievement,

written over twenty books, and is professor and founding chair of the Leadership Institute at the

University of Southern California. He has concluded (Clemmer, 2000), "Biographies of great

leaders sometimes read as if they entered the world with an extraordinary genetic endowment, as


if their future leadership role was preordained. Do not believe it. The truth is that major

capacities and competencies of leadership can be learned if the basic desire to learn them

exists."

According to Bruce Avolio (1999), director of the Center for Leadership Studies

at SUNY-Binghamton and author of Full Leadership Development: Building the Vital

Forces and Organization, some people are born to move and shake the world. They are

blessed with high energy, exceptional intelligence, extreme persistence, self-confidence

and a yearning to influence others.

After decades of collecting data on the topic, most psychologists believe that

leadership qualities are innate or genetic and therefore impossible to learn. However,

many researchers, including Avolio, have presented a great deal of research showing that

leadership skills can be developed and mastered.

According to Avolio (1999): ―First, we found that Mom and Dad can inst ill us

with the tools and drive to lead. Both senior VPs in high-tech firms and the military

leaders we interviewed had very involved parents who set challenging goals, translated

failure into "how to succeed next time" and lived by high standards of moral conduct--

helping their kids to appreciate diverse views.‖

However, even for those who were not prepared early in life to be a leader, there

are techniques to help them take the helm (Avolio, 1999): ―Visualize obstacles; set goals

and find someone who will hold you accountable to them; seek and incorporate feedback

from colleagues; reflect on your best and worst moments; train gradually; broaden your

model of leadership to include a full range of styles; and honor high ethical standards.‖


Avolio performed a series of five studies, in which leaders of different ages and levels of

experience from around the world participated in workshops with other members of their

organizations. Based on this model, the teams developed practical problem-solving techniques

and leadership that they successfully deployed over the following year. Regardless of whether

their skills were born or made, all got the job done equally well. This demonstrates that, while

many people have natural leadership skills, acquired characteristics can be just as effective.

Rod Oram (2004) has this to say on the concept of leadership: ―Are leaders born or

made? Definitely the latter, judging by the flurry of leadership programs being hatched around

the country. They all aim to give people skills to make big things happen in their companies,

organizations or communities.‖

The crucial need to make more and better leaders is implied in the recently released

Royal Society/University of Waikato study looking at the way leaders turn science and

technology into income-generating commercial products (Oram, 2004). Unless R&D

organizations learn how to grow more leaders, and faster, they will keep too much of our

knowledge locked up in laboratories and will fail to meet economic and societal ambitions, the

study says.

This problem has recently become a bigger priority because of economic changes.

Increasingly science can only be commercialized on a global scale (Oram, 2004). Therefore,

today‘s leaders need skills such as the ability to form and run partnerships and alliances with

international colleagues. Collaboration is the key word, not competition. In the long run, the best

science-based companies will belong to virtual, global clusters. Even at a senior level, some

participants may only connect electronically — so a key skill will be the ability to form strong,

trusting relationships even with people they may never meet face-to-face.


Support was one of the big themes of the study. Leaders are typically strong-

minded and determined, but they are also human. At crucial junctures in their careers the

31 leaders in the study needed help from ―enablers‖ — parents, teachers, friends,

mentors, bosses, investors — to overcome the ―disablers‖, negativity and other dispensers

of rejection and humiliation (Oram, 2004).

The study identifies seven development stages along a so-called ―Leadership

Pathway‖, with enablers appearing at each stage (Oram, 2004). Growing leaders starts

young. ―My parents‘ subdued pride in my success encouraged me to succeed further,‖

says Sir Ron Carter, co-founder of Beca Carter, the civil engineering consultants.

Education gave Carter the opportunities he may otherwise have missed being from a poor

family.

Early years were also highly formative for Neville Jordan, a successful

entrepreneur who has invested the gains from MAS Technology, an electronics company,

into many other high-tech ventures (Oram, 2004). ―I spent many summers working in the

freezing works and this taught me to interact with adults, sometimes unreasonable adults,

and often stand up to some in order to achieve my goals.‖

These types of leaders exhibit common characteristics; the study says (Oram,

2004). ―They are inspirational, visionary, determined, risk-taking, strongly driven by

personal and organizational excellence, harbor high expectations of themselves and

others, and engender trust in others. And they are often introspective, seeking to

understand their own strengths and limitations. Those are necessary but not sufficient

qualities. People need repeated challenges — sometimes winning, sometimes losing — to

build enough experience and confidence to become true leaders.‖


In this cycle of personal and corporate growth, three transition points are especially

important: starting a company; overcoming the growth plateau that tempts others to stick with

comfortable but modest success; and preparing the company to make the jump from a domestic

business across the ―chasm‖ into successful foreign activity (Oram, 2004). The last is the

hardest. The study recommended developing methodology to help leaders and their companies

determine their skills and needs at this crucial ―pre-chasm‖ stage.

The study‘s other recommendations include capturing leaders‘ stories and disseminating

them as inspirational messages to young people; making professional bodies and educational

institutions more effective as enablers; and helping emerging leaders to understand the culture,

networks and practices in successful countries (Oram, 2004).

The belief that leadership can be learned is evident in other recently launched programs.

The rise of these and other programs will help organizations address a chronic leadership

vacuum, especially in the business sector.

There are many reasons that such a vacuum exists (Oram, 2004):

• ―The 1980s reforms destroyed the structures and elites that ran the old, rigid economy. For

them, political skills were more important than business skills in the simpler, protected economy.

• Only in recent years have new networks started to develop in the guise of industry clusters and

regional economic programs. These require skills of collaboration rather than old style

competition.

• Many businesses are defending their existing domestic, slow-growth model through cost-

cutting and other steps. They are not learning new skills to build fast-growth business models

around more sophisticated, higher value and internationally competitive products.


However, if organizations can understand the process better, learn more about the

skills demanded by modern, global businesses and foster talent in order to reap bigger

economic rewards, they can potentially overcome the threats of this vacuum (Oram,

2004).

One study aimed to determine the effectiveness of a leadership program on the

participants (Kleon, 1998). Specifically the study measured the participant's perception of

their leadership skills before and after participating in the program. Objectives of the

study were (a) to determine perceptions of the New College Leadership Program

participants of their leadership skills acquired as a result of participating in the program

and (b) to compare perceptions of participants of their leadership skills before and after

participating in the program.

This study was ex post facto in nature and was designed to gather data comparing

variables prior to respondents' participation in the leadership program to the same

variables after respondents‘ graduation from the college (Kleon, 1998).

The population of this study consisted of 95 young people who participated in the

leadership program (Kleon, 1998). This was a census of all individuals who participated

in the program between 2003 and 2004. The respondents were selected to participate by

high school administrators, guidance counselors and other professionals. Selected

individuals had already demonstrated higher than normal leadership skill behavior as

qualitatively evaluated by the college.

Data were collected using a variation of the mailing procedures recommended by

Dillman (1978). Non-respondents were mailed a second questionnaire (Kleon, 1998).

Usable data were received from 64 of the 95 participants for a response rate of 64%. A


comparison of early responses to late responses showed no significant difference in

demographics. Also, late responses were not significantly different than early responses. The

data were collected between October and November 2004.

Respondents answered questions about their perceived leadership development as a result

of their participation in the program (Kleon, 1998). Perception was measured by adapting a

questionnaire developed by Rinehart (1992), which measured eleven dimensions of leadership.

The dimensions were oral communication, leadership, initiative, planning/organizing, decision

making/judgment, behavioral flexibility, assertiveness, objectivity, perception, sensitivity, and

partnership.

Participants indicated their perception of their leadership skill as related to the

dimensions before participation in the program and upon completion.

By the nature of the program it was expected that the participants would rate themselves

high on the variables prior to their participation in the program since they were selected to

participate based on leadership skills they already possessed (Kleon, 1998). Changes in scores

were not expected to be high.

Mean scores of the participant's perceptions of their leadership skills after participating in

the program ranged from 4.2 - 4.5 (Kleon, 1998). A t-test analysis revealed that respondents‘

perception of their leadership skills after completing the program were significantly higher than

their perception before participation in the program (alpha = .05). Based on the findings, the

respondents‘ perception of their leadership skills improved as a result of their participation. As a

group, participants' highest mean scores were on the dimensions "perception" and

"collaborativeness" (m = 4.5). Their lowest mean scores were on the dimensions "initiative,"


"assertiveness," and "objectivity" (m = 4.2). Participants were given the opportunity to

provide written comments about their program experiences.

Based on the findings in this study, the leadership program had a positive impact

on participants' perceived leadership skill development (Kleon, 1998). Longitudinal

studies re enouraged. The participants should be given the research instrument prior to

their participation in the program and again in one to three years.

The results of this study helped the program leaders understand the impact that

the leadership program is having on participants (Kleon, 1998). The overall impact has

been positive as is evident in the findings. The lowest mean scores, although high (4.2),

were in the areas of initiative, assertiveness and objectivity. This would indicate that

perhaps additional emphasis should be placed in these areas for future programming.

Further research may also be helpful in identifying the reasons for the lower scores on

these dimensions.

This study demonstrated that leadership programs could improve one‘s leadership

skills, supporting this paper‘s hypothesis that leadership characteristics can be learned.

Charles Darwin believed that it is neither the strongest nor the most intelligent of

a species that survives, but the one that is most adaptable to change (Black, 2002). "I

suspect that the same thing might be true in today's business evolution," says Barry

Posner, Ph.D., and dean of the SCU Leavey School of Business (Black, 2002). "Which

organizations are going to survive in these turbulent times? The ones most responsive to

change."

Posner, co-author of ―The Leadership Challenge‖, holds that leadership involves

"an attitude, a sense of responsibility (Black, 2002). Leadership is all about people who


make a difference, and leadership is all about change," Posner said. "To talk about being

effective in today's times, we must be talking about leadership. These days, you can't manage

your way to the future. To be an effective manager, you've also got to be a leader. We need

everyone in the organization to feel like they're leaders and act like they're leaders.‖. He suggests

that despite a great sense of uncertainty today, people should make attempts to improve their

leadership skills.

Posner's work is based on a solid foundation of research (Black, 2002). His studies of

leadership experiences include asking individuals about key actions, strategies, and behaviors

they used that made a difference at a time when they were at their personal best. When people

are at their personal best, the experiences are similar, according to Posner. Patterns of behavior

and common threads are the result. "This thing called leadership is not so much about someone

personally, it's about a process, it's about the things people do," says Posner.

In Posner‘s research, five practices stand out (Black, 2002):

1. ―Modeling the way: Be passionate and lead by example. Are you the kind

of person that people want to work for? Leaders set the standard for others. What

contributes to ethical behavior in the organization? The behavior of the leader.

2. Enabling others to act: The more choices people have, the more they feel

like owners. Trust in the team, and with one another.

3. Encouraging the heart: Provide a culture of celebration. Celebrate,

recognize, and reward your people.

4. Challenging the process: Leaders deal with the art of the possible.

Embrace the challenge; leaders need the ability to redefine the situation.


5. Inspiring a shared vision: Paint the vision continuously. Yet it's not

enough to paint the picture, you have to sell the picture! When executives

effectively communicate the vision and the values of the organization, it gets

people focused in the same direction.‖

Posner‘s leadership seminars aim to transform participants from being unconsciously

competent to being consciously competent (Black, 2002). By learning more about the similar

practices that emerge when people are at their personal best, Two key ways people learn about

leadership are their own experience and the experience of others. "All of us have had the same

teacher: this teacher's name is trial and error," according to Posner. A third key category in

learning about leadership is education, training, and development.

When it comes to the argument about whether leaders are born or made, Posner holds

that all people have leadership abilities, and that this question misses the point (Black, 2002).

"It's not either/or, it's both. The question for us is, how do we liberate it and develop it for

ourselves and for others? It's not something we have to find, it's something we have to bring

out."

"Leadership development is fundamentally development of us (Black, 2002). It begins

with exploring the inner territory. Who am I? What's important to me? What am I trying to

accomplish? Why am I trying to accomplish it? Why am I working so hard? Why do I care?"

says Posner. "These questions become important to any leader at any level to confront and deal

with."

Chapter V: Data Analysis

Warren Bennis, psychologist, sociologist, economist, professor, former university

president, has written two dozen books on the subject of leadership (Loeb, 1994). Bennis has


spent years analyzing 150 leaders--mostly corporate chiefs. According to Bennis, he has found

what qualities are needed for a mere manager to grow into a real leader.

The indispensable first quality, according to Bennis, is a guiding vision, a clear idea of

what needs to be done (Loeb, 1994). "All the leaders I know have a strongly defined sense of

purpose. And when you have an organization where the people are aligned behind a clearly

defined vision or purpose, you get a powerful organization."

The most exemplary leaders are also pragmatic dreamers (Loeb, 1994). Banker Walter

Wriston once told Bennis that he perceived his long-term plan for Citicorp as a dream with a

deadline.

The best leaders have a strong point of view (Loeb), 1994. Bennis quotes Mike Eisner,

Disney's famous leader, as saying: "You know, we don't have a vision statement, but we have a

strong point of view. What amazes me is that it's always the person with the strong POV who

influences the group, who wins the day. Around here, a powerful POV is worth at least 80 IQ

points."

Another quality the leader requires is constancy. "One of the things you hear about the

least effective leaders," says Bennis (Loeb, 1994), "is that they do whatever the last person they

spoke to recommended." Or they follow the latest good idea that pops into their head. To trust

the leader, followers must know what to expect. Thus, the leader often has to put off a grand idea

or a major opportunity until he has had a chance to convince his own allies that it will be a

success. A major problem for the imaginative Bill Clinton as leader is that he plunged ahead with

his latest ideas without first convincing his stakeholders that it would work. In both business and

politics, the effectiveness of a decision is the quality of the decision multiplied by the acceptance

of it.


In addition, the leader must have candor (Loeb, 1994). This a difficult one, as Bennis's

studies show that seven of ten people in organizations do not speak up if they think their point of

view will vary with the conventional wisdom or their boss's point of view, even if they see error

in the future. What a good leader must cultivate are firm-minded subordinates with the wisdom

and courage to say no.

The effective leader, Bennis states, limits himself to several key objectives (Loeb, 1994).

"GE's Jack Welch says, 'Look, I have only three things to do. I have to choose the right people,

allocate the right number of dollars, and transmit ideas from one division to another with the

speed of light. So I'm really in the business of being the gatekeeper and the transmitter of ideas.

And we'll plagiarize from anybody.' "

For instance, Welch was among the first to send his executives to Bentonville, Arkansas,

to analyze Wal-Mart's selling methods. Bennis paraphrases Welch: "No more of this not-

invented-here stuff. We'll take ideas from anywhere and deploy them and use them as quickly as

we can." Or as Picasso is believed to have remarked, "Good artists copy; great artists steal."

Bennis lists seven characteristics that define a leader (Loeb, 1994):

1. ―Business literacy: Does he know the business? Does he know the

real feel of it?

2. People skills: Does he have the capacity to motivate, to bring out

the best in people?

3. Conceptual skills: Does he have the capacity to think

systematically, creatively, and inventively?

4. Track record: Has he done it before and done it well?


5. Taste: Does he have the ability to pick the right people--not clones

of himself but people who can make up for his deficiencies?

6. Judgment: Does he have the ability to make quick decisions with

imperfect data?

7. Character: The core competency of leadership is character, but

character and judgment are the qualities that we know least about when trying to

teach them to others.‖

The leader's character consists of three types of forces: ambition and drive; competence

and expertise; and integrity and moral fabric (Loeb, 1994). All three are important and must be in

balance for a leader to truly succeed. According to : ―Get a leader with only drive but not

competence and integrity, and you get a demagogue. Get someone with competence but absent

integrity and drive, and you get a technocrat. Get seduced by someone who has ambition and

competence but lacks integrity, and you get a destructive achiever.‖

Bennis believes that the key to competitive advantage (Loeb, 1994) "will be the capacity

of top leadership to create the social architecture capable of generating intellectual capital. I

mean an organizational environment that will be not only fast, focused, flexible, and friendly but

also fun. By intellectual capital, I mean know-how, expertise, brainpower, innovation, ideas. All

the good CEOs tell me that their major challenge is, 'How to I release the brainpower of the

people in my company."

This occurs only by leading, not simply managing (Loeb, 1994). "Leaders are people who

do the right things. Managers are people who do things right. There's a profound difference.

When you think about doing the right things, your mind immediately goes toward thinking about

the future, thinking about dreams, missions, visions, strategic intent, purpose. But when you


think about doing things right, you think about control mechanisms. You think about how-to.

Leaders ask the what and why question, not the how question. Leaders think about

empowerment, not control. And the best definition of empowerment is that you don't steal

responsibility from people."

In the past, companies like IBM, GM, and Sears were overmanaged and underled.

Success made them content and this was a mistake. According to Bennis (Loeb, 1994): "Those

whom the gods want to fail, give them 20 or 25 years of success. Just when you start thinking

you're really terrific, you start dictating to the market instead of listening to the customers."

According to Grace Hopper, a famous management expert who was the first woman

admiral in the U.S. Navy (Loeb, 1994): "You manage things, but you lead people." Hopper

believed that we lost our leadership, "largely because of this tremendous push to financial

management. The business schools taught it. The whole thing was business management, not

leadership."

Bennis holds that what employees want most from their leaders, "is direction and

meaning, trust and hope (Loeb, 1994). Every good leader I have spoken with had a willful

determination to achieve a set of goals, a set of convictions about what he or she wanted his or

her organization to achieve. Everyone had a purpose."

When asked the crucial question, ―Are leaders born or made?‖ Bennis tells a story about

the martinet CEO's dull son who comes home with a report card loaded with D's and F's (Loeb,

1994). "Well, Dad," asks the kid, "is it nature or nurture, genes or the environment?" Leaders are

made, concludes Bennis, and most often self-made. However, it is very helpful to have had a

strong, determined set of parents. His studies of leaders show they usually had someone in the

family who told them to shoot for the stars.


Characteristics of Leaders as Defined by a Leader

This section describes some lessons in leadership learned from Herb Kelleher Co-

founder, current chairman and past CEO of Southwest Airlines (Babson College, 2004).

Kelleher, when asked to discuss whether he believed that leaders were born with their notable

qualities or whether they were made through training and experience, had much to say about the

subject.

Kelleher and a partner founded Southwest Airlines in 1967 (Babson College, 2004).

Overcoming some difficult early years, Southwest Airlines is now one of America's top ten

airlines and unlike any airline in the industry. Through innovative ideas and a unique approach

to its operations, it has enjoyed 29 straight years of profitability. While Kelleher was originally a

lawyer by training, he has succeeded in instilling an entrepreneurial energy throughout the

company and is considered by many today to be one of the best business leaders in America.

Over his career, he has been involved in a variety of business start-ups, including an express

package trucking business and a savings and loan company.

In a recent interview, Kelleher was asked whether he felt there were any natural born

characteristics that a person would need to achieve entrepreneurial success (Babson College,

2004). He responded that that his experience taught him that there were six personal attributes

that are important contributors to entrepreneurial success that cannot be trained into people.

These include (Babson College, 2004):

1. a reasonable intelligence,

2. 2. good health,

3. 3. optimistic disposition,

4. 4. lengthy attention span,


5. 5. perseverance, and

6. 6. a love of people.

In identifying health, perseverance, optimism and attention span, Kelleher suggests that

creating any new enterprise, be it a startup or a new idea at a major company, is a very difficult

road, one that cannot be traveled without the basic internal capacity needed to support the

individual through the many challenges that are bound to mark the path (Babson College, 2004).

According to Kelleher, just as the attitude of the entrepreneur has an impact on the early

success of the venture, the same attitude must be present in the company‘s employees to continue

the entrepreneurial energy that promotes competitive advantage in the operation of the business

even after it has become a successful company (Babson College, 2004). In doing this, Southwest

Air has proven to be one of the rare companies that has succeeded on translating the leadership

spirit of its initial small company success into an effective form of on-going corporate

entrepreneurship that remains strong.

As a result, Southwest Air has applied this emphasis in hiring people with the right

entrepreneurial attitude. Herb sums up his view on this subject with the simple statement: "You

hire attitude, everything else can be trained"

A great deal of research has considered this idea of attitude and report that its roots lay in

the personal value system of the individual (Babson College, 2004). While leaders must be

attuned to the importance of money, most are motivated by the internal rewards of creating new

ideas that solve real problems, or indeed change the world they live in.


In addition to natural born characteristics, Kelleher believes there are numerous learnable

skills that are major contributors to success with new enterprises. Among these acquirable skills

he includes the following as the most important contributors to success (Babson College, 2004):

1. good listening skills;

2. ability to play passionate advocate;

3. broad knowledge and education;

4. sound judgment;

5. ability to separate the important things from the unimportant;

6. ability to set priorities and focus on goals; and

7. pleasant skepticism.

Most importantly, Kelleher believes that the ability to listen and understand the real

meaning of what people are saying (and not saying) is key because the most important

information never arrives in reports or email (Babson College, 2004). Reports only reveal facts

while people can share the real meaning of facts as well offering a view on what may happen out

beyond the edge of what is understandable today by facts.

These skills that Kelleher identifies as learnable are somewhat general and support his

belief that there is no need for any specific specialization or expertise in order to lead a new

organization (Babson College, 2004). This tracks closely with the thoughts and experiences of

many successful leaders who share this same belief. This also confirms the popular notion that

leaders have a unique skill that empowers all their other abilities, namely that they succeed by

leveraging the ability of others, rather than solely depending on their own skills.


According to Babson College (2004): ―Although Herb is noted for his upbeat approach to

business, his list balances the need to be positive with what he calls a pleasant sense of

skepticism. He points here to the art of challenging people continually without being negative or

destroying their motivation to consider new ideas. Among the skills noted by Herb here such as

playing passionate advocate, applying sound judgment to focus on the truly important issues, and

delivering the type of positive yet challenging skepticism needed to fully explore ideas, we can

see that these all revolve around the larger theme of team building. In short, to succeed the

entrepreneur must see and articulate a vision in order to attract and motivate a team, then be able

to identify the key issues, challenge the views held within the team, and make judgments from

among the varying perspectives in the team.‖

It is clear that some talents are born to entrepreneurs and others can be added through

training (Babson College, 2004). In addition, there are natural born talents that can be sharpened

with training. According to Kelleher, there are two key natural strengths required for leadership

that can be improved by training and experience. Entrepreneurs in particular must possess

leadership qualities and the strength to go it alone. While this may appear to be a conflict, as

many believe that there is no leadership without followers, Kelleher sees these two talents as

related because followers need to see a leader's courage of conviction when there is no choice but

to stand alone. In this light, these talents serve a two-fold purpose. They attract new team

members in and build confidence among the team, as well as support both the leader and the

team during difficult times.

Kelleher's comments suggest that there is no single set of characteristics and skills that

guarantee success (Babson College, 2004). Thus, it appears that the real answer lies in having the

right mix, since new venture situations are each somewhat different, ranging from new ideas at


large companies to innovative concepts. The real answer then rests in having the proper mix of

characteristics and skills to meet the needs at hand.

Despite the lack of a definitive list, it seems that there is a set of key attributes that appear

to support leaders success (Babson College, 2004). Many seem to be natural characteristics that

serve as a base, enabling leaders to excel under the heavy burden involved in building a new

enterprise. These are, however, strictly personal characteristics that cannot be learned through

training, nor necessarily derived from experience. These building blocks must exist for a leader‘s

other strengths to generate any traction.

In addition to in-born characteristics, there are crucial entrepreneurial skills that can be

learned (Babson College, 2004). One of the most important is the ability to envision and

articulate a vision, as well as to build and motivate a team. Unlike in-born characteristics, there

are tools used in the application of these skills, such as opportunity identification, evaluation and

communication, and as a result they can be learned from others and improved.

Finally, there are natural talents that may exist in a leader that can be honed to raise the

likelihood of success (Babson College, 2004). The most important of these talents is leadership

capability and the strength to go it alone, as well as commitment to the venture and integrity.

These capabilities can be learned from experience and then reinforced by a variety of support

mechanisms.

Leadership: Cases of Leaders Who Learned Despite Disadvantages

It is interesting to examine the debate over whether leaders are born or created in the

perspective of African American history (Chekwa, 2001). African-Americans have made great

gains in economic welfare since civil rights laws were passed in the decade of the sixties.

Modern times continue to call for transformational leaders of all races and ethnic groups. Thus,


while African Americans would have never been considered leaders a century ago, today there

are many powerful black leaders.

Research shows that transformational leaders use the leadership style that best suits the

situation they are in (Chekwa, 2001). They create and rely on the strength of others, strengths

that sometimes are dormant. Transformational leaders are visionaries who inspire people to

transcend their own self-interest for the sake of others. They are leaders who change the way

things are by building on the human need for meaning.

Assessing Individuals for Transformational Leadership Qualities

The following characteristics developed by Lewis (1996) are helpful in identifying

transformational leaders. On a scale of one to five, where one is below average and five is the

highest positive score, leaders can be evaluated on how well they score on each characteristic.

Powell scored on top of the charts, using these characteristics (Chekwa, 2001):

1. Strategic thinker

2. Ability to empower others

3. Initiative

4. Strategy formulation and implementation

5. Positive mental attitude

6. Visionary

7. Encouraging human potential

8. Willingness to change

9. Ability to handle conflict

10. Effective communicator

11. Skilled Motivator


12 Ability to inspire trust

13. Ability to gain commitment

According to Heathfield (2004), key leadership success secrets set the great leaders apart

from the average leaders in today's organizations. Leadership style is learned from mentors,

acquired in seminars and exists as part of an individual‘s innate personal leadership skill set

developed over years and maybe even existing since birth. Nature or nurture is a question often

asked about leadership.

Heathfield (2004) defines the characteristics of leadership that make great leaders. She

envisions a series of interlinked articles, each of which focuses on one aspect of leadership.

Leadership differs from management and supervision although some people and organizations

use the terms interchangeably, says Heathfield.

―While the definitions of the terms differ, an individual may have the

ability to provide all three.

Supervision means that an individual is charged with providing direction

and oversight for other employees. The successful supervisor provides recognition,

appreciation, training and feedback to reporting employees.

Management means to conduct the affairs of business, to have work under

control and to provide direction, to guide other employees, to administer and organize

work processes and systems, and to handle problems. Managers monitor and control

work while helping a group of employees more successfully conduct their work than they

would have without her. A manager‘s job is often described as providing everything his

reporting employees need to successfully accomplish their jobs. One famous quote from

Warren Bennis, Ph.D. in On Becoming a Leader distinguishes management from


leadership: ―Managers are people who do things right, while leaders are people who do

the right thing.‖

While a supervisor and a manager may also exhibit leadership skill or

potential, true leaders are rare. This is because the combination of skills, personality and

ambition essential to leadership are difficult to develop and exhibit. According to Don

Clark, on his excellent leadership resource, Big Dog's Leadership Page, Bernard "Bass'

theory of leadership states that there are three basic ways to explain how people become

leaders. The first two explain the leadership development for a small number of people.

These theories are:

Some personality traits may lead people naturally into leadership roles.

This is the Trait Theory.

A crisis or important event may cause a person to rise to the occasion,

which brings out extraordinary leadership qualities in an ordinary person. This is the

Great Events Theory.

People can choose to become leaders. People can learn leadership skills.

This is the Transformational Leadership Theory.‖

Transformational Leadership Style

According to Lewis (1996), transformational leaders build on the strengths of others,

strengths that may have been dormant (Chekwa, 2001). They raise levels of awareness about the

issues of consequence and ways of reaching organizational goals for their colleagues,

subordinates, followers, clients, or others. They enable people to transcend their own self-interest

for the sake of others. They change reality by building on the human need for meaning. They

focus on values, morals and ethics. They are proactive and build upon human potential.

http://clk.about.com/?zi=1/XJ&sdn=humanresources&zu=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nwlink.com%2F%7Edonclark%2Fleader%2Fleader.html


―Their goal is to transform people and organizations—change minds and hearts; enlarge

vision, insight and understanding, clarify purposes, make behavior congruent with beliefs,

principles, or values; and bring about changes that are permanent, self-perpetuating, and

momentum building (Chekwa, 2001). Transformational leaders bind people together around a

common identity—goals and values. Transformational leaders build for tomorrow what will be

needed by the organization at that time.‖

Friedman (2000) appears to agree with most of the same leadership characteristics

identified by Lewis as demonstrated by the following key characteristics (Chekwa, 2001):

Vision: Transformational leaders must look beyond the present to develop

a vision for the future. The leader must subscribe fully to the vision and be able to sell it

to followers. Dr. Martin Luther King shared his vision on the steps of the Lincoln

Memorial on August 28, 1963 when he delivered his ―I have a dream‘ speech. He looked

into the future and saw blacks and whites enjoying healthy relationships.

Charisma and Inspiration: Transformational leaders must have the ability

to influence others with their inspirational qualities.

Intellectual Stimulation and Creativity: Since transformational leaders are

agents of change, they must have the knowledge base to help motivate people to come up

with innovative solutions and new ideas. They take risks after careful analysis.

Individual Consideration/Interactivity: Transformational leaders attempt to

know each person‘s talents, and assign them responsibilities accordingly. They respect

everybody.


Honesty and Integrity: Honesty and integrity are essential elements for

sustained effectiveness. People who don‘t trust their leader do not follow them

effectively.

Confidence and Optimism: A transformational leader must not shoot the

messenger. He must project confidence and optimism because people follow better if

they are convinced that their leader believes in the vision set forth before them

In this light, Simmons is a transformational leader (Chekwa, 2001). She assumed the

presidency of Brown University on July 1, 2001, becoming the first African American to head an

Ivy League school in America. Simmons was the president of Smith College from 1995 to 2000,

during which time she revitalized every aspect of the college. She launched new building

projects, created new avenues of intellectual pursuit, improved campus diversity, and made the

teaching environment better for the faculty. She also led a successful capital campaign.

In this light, Simmons is a visionary (Chekwa, 2001). She has continuously

demonstrated academic leadership, strong character and integrity. Her leadership skills earned

her the respect and admiration of the faculty, students and staff at Smith College.

Many who knew Simmons when she was young probably would have never guessed that

she would be a leader (Chekwa, 2001). She grew up in poverty. She and her family lived in the

Fifth Ward, a poor area of Houston, and did not have very much. They went to segregated

schools where they had excellent teachers. With strong family and community support, Simmons

earned her bachelor‘s degree summa cum laude at Dillard University in New Orleans and her

master‘s and doctorate in Romance languages and literature at Harvard University. Her effort to

understand how her own society could embrace racial cruelty and legally enforce segregation led

her to a lifelong career in humanities.


Simmons credits her achievement, in part, to Henderson, the kindergarten teacher who

inspired and her and told her that she could do anything (Chekwa, 2001). She had not always

been sure if society would allow her to do what was in her heart, but she had always known and

believed that she could accomplish anything.

General Colin Powell was born in Harlem, New York (Chekwa, 2001). ―By 1930,

200,000 of New York City‘s 327,000 blacks lived in Harlem, and they were all crowded together

in an area that had housed only a quarter of that number 15 years earlier. When the Great

Depression began to ravage the nation in the 1930‘s, Harlem was especially hard hit. Long lines

of unemployed people in search of food and clothing stretched in front of the local churches and

charity organizations.‖ (Brown, 1992) This was the environment to which Powell was born.

Powell‘s family later moved to another neighborhood in New York where everyone was

a member of a minority group (Chekwa, 2001). There was no dominant ethnic group in this

neighborhood, so Powell was not subjected to the indignities of racism in his youth.

Interestingly, Powell was not a serious student at school and he got average grades. It probably

was unclear to those around him that he would grow up to be a great leader.

The Pentagon removed the army‘s desegregation law the same year Colin Powell started

a community college ROTC program (Chekwa, 2001). Powell took full advantage of this

opportunity. Military life suited Powell, and he enjoyed the physical activity and the discipline

that the ROTC programs offered. At this stage, he found his passion in life.

Powell graduated in 1958 at the top of his ROTC class. However, he did not have very

high expectations for his future (Chekwa, 2001). In the military, Powell experienced the harm of

racism. Still, despite this challenge, Powell showed courage and pursued his goals. When the

civil rights bill was signed, he took full advantage of his freedom. He believes that no obstacle is


great enough to stop any one from rising to their fullest potential. He is a transformational leader

and he believes he can encourage and help other people to excel and stretch their limits.

During Powell‘s early days in the military, the highest rank any African American had

attained was brigadier or one star general (Chekwa, 2001). His superiors told him that the

highest rank he could attain was lieutenant colonel within two decades. Powell felt that this was

good enough for him. He concentrated on the things he can change and left the things he cannot

change in the hands of people who make those decisions. This philosophy worked well for

Powell.

In 1987 Powell became President Reagan‘s national security advisor. In 1989, he became

the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) (Chekwa, 2001). He directed American troops in

driving away Saddam Hussein from Kuwait. He is a national hero. In 2001, Powell became the

first African American to be appointed United States Secretary of State. In this position he has

earned great respect and admiration as a person with vision. The atmosphere at the state

department has changed a great deal since Powell became the Secretary. In this light, his

leadership style is inspirational.

The following are Colin Powell‘s key rules for inspirational leadership (Chekwa, 2001):

1. It isn‘t as bad as you think. It will look better in the morning.

2. Get mad, then get over it.

3. Avoid having your ego so close to your position that when your position

falls your ego goes with it.

4. It can be done.

5. Be careful what you choose. You may get it.

6. Don‘t let adverse facts stand in the way of a good decision.


7. You can‘t make someone else‘s choices. You should not let someone else

make yours.

8. Check small things.

9. Share credit.

10. Remain calm.

11. Be kind.

12. Have a vision.

13. Be demanding.

14. Don‘t take counsel of your fears or naysayers.

15. Perpetual optimism is a force multiplier.

SOURCE: (Powell, Persico, 1995)

Simmons, Henderson and Powell are excellent examples of African American

transformational leaders (Chekwa, 2001). All three succeeded in the face of difficult

circumstances. The young kindergarten student had the courage to believe her teacher who told

her she could do anything, even though she lived in poor conditions. Her kindergarten teacher

had the courage to take a risk and fill the brain of her student with dreams. The average student

from Harlem did not give up, even though there were strikes against him.

Many traits can be drawn from these examples. The first one is that transformational

leaders can be ―made‖ (Chekwa, 2001). Simmons‘ parents and her kindergarten teacher played a

huge role in the making of Ruth Simmons. Her parents showed her that being poor does not

excuse one from parental involvement in school. The same was true for Powell. He kept trying

with the support of his parents until he found his passion in life. Simply stated, teacher and

parental involvement is important in ―growing‖ a transformational leader.


Henderson demonstrates that it is never too early to impart a vision to a child (Chekwa,

2001). Children must understand that obstacles can be overcome. Henderson would not allow her

poor kindergarten students focus on what society said they could not do. She taught them to

concentrate on the challenges before them. This proved to be an effective approach.

The young military officer did not give in to the limitations set by racism (Chekwa,

2001). He proved there was no excuse good enough to stop the vehicle of success. He was right

and today, as the Secretary of State of the United States of America, he is one of the most

influential leaders in the world. Transformational leadership transcends racial barriers, or any

other barrier, as shown by Powell.

Simmons and Powell seem to get pleasure from helping create other leaders like

themselves (Chekwa, 2001). Simmons is currently trying to make it easier for any smart student

to be able to obtain an elite college education. She believes that Ivy League education should not

be a privilege for the rich people only. Powell spent years recruiting volunteers to help the

underprivileged school children with their homework. Transformational leaders are passionate at

helping develop and promote other transformational leaders. These three leaders believe that the

principles of transformational leadership can be taught.

As companies recognize the value of excellent leaders, they are increasing their efforts to

recruit and retain the best. The combination of changing demographics and economic challenges

means that companies can no longer assume a trial-and-error approach-or of having no approach

at all-to building leadership quality and depth. They require fact-based, tested methods and tools

that fit with their organization's culture and support their business goals. They require clear

guidance on how to build a diverse, highly qualified leadership team and how to set the stage for

great leadership tomorrow. Gandossy and Effron (2003) suggest that companies can promote


learning to develop leadership talent, and that organizations can implement the programs and

practices that will ensure a holistic approach to sustaining capability and growing great leaders.

Kouzes and Posner argue that leadership is a set of learned practices, skills and behaviors.

They provide a structure to what most people seeking to be leaders have tried to do intuitively or

by modeling what they see from leaders they admire. The roadmap serves as guide for those who

have been thrust into a position that requires not just management, but real inspired leadership to

meet the challenge.

EDUCATION AND LEADERSHIP: A STRONG LINK

A great deal of leadership training stems from the question, "Are leaders born or made?"

and aims to prove that the latter is the correct answer (Tischy, 1997). It's an age-old debate that

many see as a pointless one. According to Tischy, ―It's like asking whether athletes are made or

born. The answer is, obviously, both. With coaching, commitment, hard work, there isn't any

group of people who couldn't improve their ability to play tennis, golf, or basketball. There aren't

many, however, who are going to be world-class performers. The same with leadership. Any

organization that takes the time to get more leadership out of people is going to be far ahead of

its competitors. Are all managers candidates for the top job? Of course not. But can they be a lot

better than they are now? Absolutely. We can all hone our ideas and better articulate our values

and improve our capacity for making yes-no decisions. So it's worth the effort to develop

everybody.‖

Unsuccessful organizations frequently make the mistake of handicapping their pool of

potential leaders and investing their training and development resources only in those they think


will succeed (Tischy, 1997). Inevitably, they miss out on a lot of talent. Successful organizations

often bet on their hunches, too, but they usually wait longer to do it. They examine broad

leadership skills, not just success with specific projects. And, most importantly, they continue to

invest in the development of all their employees, including those they do not expect to rise to the

top. Successful companies' more inclusive approach helps optimize the talents of everyone—and

keeps late bloomers and new hires contributing long after others might have give up.

According to Tischy: ―Leaders who invest themselves personally in the process of

developing future leaders are also building the most precious of organizational assets. The long-

term success of leaders cannot be measured by whether they win today or tomorrow. The

measure of their success will be whether or not their company is still winning 15 years from

now, when a new generation of leaders has taken over.‖

Successful leaders use ideas, values, emotional energy, and edge to help develop future

leaders throughout the enterprise (Tischy, 1997). They combine a teachable point of view with a

special focus and personal role in the development of others. The following table represents how

the new dimensions of leadership differ from the traditional.

The New Way of Leadership

Old Way New Way

Ideas Coaching is on day-to-day

problems rather than on larger business

issues. Development programs are

theoretical, based on cases taught by

Coaching is based on the leader's

own ideas, challenging people to create

their own points of view. Development

programs are practical, based on real


professors. business issues.

Valu

es

Leaders proclaim organizational

values, which are often superficial

messages for the masses.

Leaders help people integrate their

personal values with the values of the

workplace -- and explain the paradoxes

when values collide.

Ener

gy

Programs deliver a sugar high --

by the time people return to work, it's

gone.

"Programs" are ongoing -- leaders

teaching underlying frameworks for

motivation.

Edge Professional trainers focus on

time management and priority setting,

not on tough decision making.

Leaders themselves help people

tackle such dilemmas as what to do with

people who do not meet performance or

value standards.

Lead

ership Focus

Leadership focuses on a

collection of technical skills in strategy,

finance, and so on.

Leadership focuses on hard and

soft issues and on personal leadership

stories.

Senio

r Executive

Role

Senior executives sponsor

development programs, parading in and

out of them periodically.

Senior executives are active

participants, leading all or substantial

portions of leadership development

programs.

Noel Tichy (1997) has spent nearly 30 years studying both successful and unsuccessful

organizations in an effort to determine what separates them (Tischy, 1997). He has found that

winning organizations share certain financial attributes. Companies consistently ranked in the top


quarter of the S&P 500 maintain annual revenue growth of 12 percent, and a 16 percent

operating return on assets, according to Columbia University Business School professor Larry

Selden. On the other hand, gains achieved by cutting payroll and expense are seldom sustained in

the long run. Likewise, former winners who fail to keep up with change and destroy billions of

dollars in shareholder value are harshly punished. According to Tischy, the early 1990s were a

watershed moment in business, when weak corporate leaders were sent home for poor

leadership.

At the same time, a variety of companies have been setting new records for financial

performance, supporting shareholders, building communities, and providing greater

opportunities for employees (Tischy, 1997). Companies like General Electric, AlliedSignal,

PepsiCo, Intel, and others are led by people who personally and methodically nurture the

development of other leaders, at all levels of the organization. These leaders understand that,

even if they are smart enough to anticipate and prepare for massive economic and social shifts,

they simply cannot respond to the ground-level demands of the moment without the energy,

commitment, and ability of people throughout the organization. Effective leaders understand that

the ultimate test of leadership is sustained success, which demands the constant cultivation of

future leaders at all levels.

This has important implications for the daily tasks of a leader (Tischy, 1997). For one

thing, all the money an organization invests in "leadership development" -- usually the area of

outside trainers and consultants -- means little without an equal investment of a leader‘s time and

effort. And the benefits of investing this time are likely to accrue to both the leader and the

organization.


If long-term success requires more leaders at more levels than its competitors, then

teaching, coaching, and cultivating others is a strategic goal for senior executives. For instance,

during the first 18 months of his tenure as CEO of AlliedSignal, Larry Bossidy had all 86,000

employees attend a development program he helped design (Tischy, 1997). He spoke to 15,000

people during the first year -- presenting his vision, explaining markets and strategies, and

participating in debate -- in short, teaching. During this time, he helped increase the market value

of his company 400 percent over the past six years. Likewise Andy Grove at Intel, Jack Welch at

GE and Gary Wendt at GE Capital, Roger Enrico at PepsiCo, Lew Platt at Hewlett-Packard, Bill

Pollard at ServiceMaster, and hundreds of other leaders in all areas of business and government

understand that their success depends on others, and that leading and teaching are key.

Successful leaders spend hundreds of hours a year working with their employees to share ideas,

identify needs, and develop hands-on business expertise.

The term leadership is difficult to define. It is a quality that can be seen but is difficult to

describe. There are numerous definitions of leadership. According to Doyle and Smith (2001):

―Four things stand out in this respect. First, to lead involves influencing others. Second, where

there are leaders there are followers. Third, leaders seem to come to the fore when there is a

crisis or special problem. In other words, they often become visible when an innovative response

is needed. Fourth, leaders are people who have a clear idea of what they want to achieve and

why.‖

Throughout history, leadership skills have been examined from many perspectives. Early

leadership research, from the 1900s to the 1950s, pinpointed the differences between leader and

follower characteristics (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992). When it

became apparent that no single trait or combination of traits could entirely explain leaders'


abilities, researchers moved on to examine the influence of individual situations on leaders' skills

and behaviors. Later leadership studies attempted to pinpoint the differences between effective

and non-effective leaders. These studies aimed to find out which behaviors were exemplified by

effective leaders.

To understand which factors were common in effective leaders, researchers used the

contingency model to research the connection between personal traits, situational variables, and

leader effectiveness (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992). Leadership

research in the 1970s and 1980s refocused on the individual characteristics of leaders that

influence their effectiveness and the success of their organizations. The investigations resulted in

the conclusion that leaders and leadership are important but very complex components of

organizations.

Early leadership studies perceived leaders as individuals that held certain personality

traits that developed their abilities to lead (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory,

1992). These studies analyzed individual traits, including intelligence, birth order,

socioeconomic status, and child-rearing practices. Stogdill (1974) observed six groups of

personal factors that are commonly associated with leadership: capacity, achievement,

responsibility, participation, status, and situation. However, it was concluded that narrow

characterization of leadership traits was insufficient: "A person does not become a leader by

virtue of the possession of some combination of traits" (Stogdill, 1948, p. 64). Attempts to isolate

specific individual traits suggested that no single characteristic could distinguish leaders from

non-leaders or followers.

These "trait" investigations were followed by research that concentrated on the

"situation" as the determinant of leadership abilities (Southwest Educational Development


Laboratory, 1992). This developed the notion of situational leadership. Studies aimed to identify

"distinctive characteristics of the setting to which the leader's success could be attributed" (Hoy

& Miskel, 1987, p. 273).

Hencley (1973) analyzed leadership theories, concluding, "the situation approach

maintains that leadership is determined not so much by the characters of the individuals as by the

requirements of social situation" (p. 38). In this light, a person could be a follower or a leader

depending on numerous factors. Research aimed to identify specific characteristics of a situation

that had an influence on leaders' performance. Hoy and Miskel (1987) discovered four areas of

situational leadership: "structural properties of the organization, organizational climate, role

characteristics, and subordinate characteristics" (p. 273). Situational leadership revealed the

complexity of leadership but still proved to be insufficient because the theories could not predict

which leadership skills would be most effective in various situations.

Subsequent attempts to examine leadership resulted in information about the kinds of

behaviors leaders displayed in an effort to determine what makes effective leaders effective

(Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1992). These behaviors have been grouped

along two common dimensions: initiating structures (concern for organizational tasks), which

include activities such as planning, organizing, and defining the tasks and work of people, and

consideration (concern for individuals and interpersonal relations), which addresses the social,

emotional needs of individuals -- their recognition, work satisfaction and self-esteem influencing

their performance. Basically, the situation approach to leadership supported the idea that

effective leaders possess the ability to address both the tasks and human aspects of their

organizations.


Numerous studies on leadership characteristics have focused on the link between

personality characteristics, leaders' behaviors, and situational variables (Southwest Educational

Development Laboratory, 1992). The "situational leadership" approach involves an underlying

assumption that various situations require different types of leadership, while the contingency

approach attempts to "specify the conditions or situational variable that moderate the relationship

between leader traits or behaviors and performance criteria" (Hoy & Miskel, 1987, p. 274).

According to Fiedler (1967), leadership styles indicate leaders' motivational system and

leadership behaviors are leaders' specific actions (Southwest Educational Development

Laboratory, 1992). Thus, it appears that group effectiveness was a result of the leaders' style and

the individual situation. House's (1971) Path-Goal Theory focused on the interaction of

leadership behaviors with situation characteristics in assessing the leaders' effectiveness. House

described four leadership behaviors: ―directive, achievement-oriented, supportive, and

participative, and two situational variables (subordinates' personal characteristics and

environmental demands such as the organization's rules and procedures) that most strongly

contributed to leaders' effectiveness.‖

VI: Conclusions

Recently, numerous developments in determining specific characteristics for leaders have

centered on two areas (Sulloway, 1996). First, the continuous pursuits of psychometric data to

establish which people possess the requisite traits or skills and so on. The most dramatic versions

of this have been the search for the "leadership gene" - which has proved elusive to those born

with the "skeptical gene" - and the developments in evolutionary psychology. In the latter genre,

one of the most important works has been Sulloway‘s neo-Darwinian account of the significance

of birth order and family dynamics in the creation, or subversion, of leadership tendencies.


The second development includes the work of Goleman (2000) in the search for

"emotional intelligence", which is described as the ability to manage oneself and one‘s

relationships effectively - through four capabilities: self-awareness, self-management, social

awareness and social skill. Basically, emotional maturity is a key ingredient of good leadership.

The good news for leaders is that, theretically, these capabilities can be learned and they are

capabilities that are often crucial in restraining instinctive responses to perceived threats.

Unfortunately, they are little different from many of the ideals of the Human Relations School of

the 1930s and, thus, have been only marginally successful in developing or distinguishing

leaders (Grint, 1998).

However, a key element that neither of these approaches considers is the difference

between skill and will. Leaders may have all the capabilities and competencies that they need,

and their followers may have all the skills and attributes necessary for the organizational tasks,

but if the will of the leader or the followers is absent, then the likelihood of achieving much is

minimal. It is important to note that both skills and will are necessary.

DISPELLING THE MYTHS

With industries across the spectrum more challenging and competitive than ever,

"business as usual" is unlikely to yield survival, much less success (Graf, 2004). Many forward-

thinking companies understand that they must do whatever it takes to continue thriving, growing,

and achieving is in the hands of effective leaders. In today‘s competitive and constantly changing

marketplace, powerful and effective leadership is required not only in the boardroom, but also on

the front line and everywhere else in an organization. The critical challenge remains how to

create effective leaders and encourage bold leadership.


Dispelling three of the most popular mistaken beliefs about leadership is an important

first step toward a new insight into empowering and developing leaders at all levels of an

organization (Graf, 2004). Real-life examples of companies that were able to do so include a new

company achieving substantial success on its first project, another gaining market share in a

highly competitive environment by significantly lowering project costs, and another company

delivering its product four months ahead of schedule.

MYTH #1: Leaders are born, not made (Graf, 2004).

Traditionally, it was widely accepted that people either "have what it takes" to be a leader

or they do not. While sufficient evidence supports this view, it leaves companies powerless,

searching for the "right people" with the "right characteristics." While justifying existing

assumptions about what is needed for success, this view also undercuts the possibility of

developing people to be effective leaders through training and education. Given the pervasive

need in today's corporate world for effective leadership, organizations can no longer afford to

continue being shaped or directed by this view.

A different interpretation is that anyone can be an effective leader. When people generate

a compelling challenge for themselves and others-one that points toward a future not previously

considered possible-a new kind of leadership is obtainable. Rather than being a by-product of the

right characteristics, leadership, in this light, is a product of being passionately committed to

fulfilling one‘s vision.

While many people do not naturally possess the knowledge and authority of a traditional

leader, these limitations are no longer seen as a barrier. People gain new power and confidence

through the courage and commitment required to accept a challenge that goes beyond their

previous experiences. When the opportunity to make this difference is sufficiently compelling,


people willingly risk step forward as leaders. Whether mundane or profound, most people can

remember a similar instance.

According to Graf (2004): ―Leadership, therefore, might be ordinary people with

extraordinary commitments who are willing to relentlessly take the necessary actions to deliver.

When people believe passionately in what they are doing, and why they are doing it, they

become unstoppable.‖

MYTH #2: Real leaders are effective because of what they know (Graf, 2004).

Basically, people think about the world around them in two ways. One is through what

they know, based on their past, including accumulated experience and expertise. The other is

through what they do not know; for those particular things that they do not know, they seek and

find the answers. For example, a doctor may know everything about all types of medicine, but he

can figure out where to find that type of information.

However, there is a third way of thinking that requires people not only to step beyond

what they already know but also what they do not know, but can easily find out. If one already

"knows," what new thinking is really possible? When seeking innovative breakthroughs, a leader

must challenge what is already known and inquire into what is possible beyond this knowledge.

From what is possible, a leader can work with others to determine how to achieve something

new. The idea behind this is that anything people are already familiar with, while useful, is

limiting. An effective leader can find the best way to use what is known, but also knows when to

set it aside and seek new ideas and information.

According to Garf (2004): ―The more that people are willing to recognize that their own

thinking has limited their horizons, the more they begin to touch upon the boundaries of doing

something extraordinary. In pursuing the innovation and creativity required for today's global


and highly competitive business world, leaders need to develop this kind of facility, both for

themselves and for the people throughout their organization.‖

MYTH #3: Effective leadership is scarce (Graf, 2004).

When people believe that leadership is scarce, they seek ways to find a sufficient supply

of capable leaders. However real this challenge may seem, it can be transformed by taking the

opposite view. Many organizations have discovered that they can empower leadership within all

levels of an organization. In this model, there is no shortage of leadership, and the question

becomes, "What will unleash the untapped energy, commitment, and creativity?" Unfortunately,

many organizations fail to tap into the potential that their people can provide. However, by

shifting the perspective from scarcity to abundance, there is greater ownership, productivity, and

growth.

Another way to build a leadership culture is having leaders take responsibility for

developing leadership in others throughout the organization. This can be done through coaching

and mentoring, as well as a greater willingness for existing leaders to openly share what they

have learned from their own most recent successes and failures.

Thus, leaders can emerge in an environment that fosters leadership. Basically, companies

must Create a culture that encourages people to make bold commitments and promises, and then

give them the space, support, and tools to get it done.

A former President & CEO of a major international oil company said (Graf, 2004), "A

defining moment came when I challenged my senior leadership with a difficult operations target.

Unexpectedly, they not only accepted the challenge but volunteered to deliver something even

bigger." When leaders are scarce in a company, the goal should be, "Look to your commitment

to generate them."


A leader's power and effectiveness builds from making bold commitments, engaging

others in his vision, and creating challenges, while giving others room to step forward and

contribute (Graf, 2004). In this light, developing people's capabilities in these areas is important

to generating leadership.

INTERESTS OF LEADERSHIP

If not defined by position, what are the activities and traits that define leadership? Using

the broad categories discussed in this paper, this paper proposes that a set of knowledge, skills,

and abilities can be identified that defines leadership in action. This paper argues that leadership

requires a set of core competencies that can be taught, learned and reinforced over a lifetime.

In 2001, the LAC (2004) conducted an on-line Leadership Needs Assessment survey.

AAPA members were asked to rank their interest in and need for learning in specific leadership

topics. The 900 respondents ranked the following two topics as both their highest interest area

and their greatest need for development:

Understanding the health care environment

Developing credibility and integrity as a leader

The results highlight the core qualities of leadership and leaders discussed

in the beginning of this paper – knowledge/competence and honesty/integrity/trust.

(Steley, 1998)

In a separate study, the 1999 LAC Survey Report reviewed the responses of 155 AAPA

leaders, who were asked to review a set of learning objectives related to leadership and rank their

perceived importance (LAC, 2002). The top eight objectives chosen are listed below, from the

highest rank in descending order:

1. Leadership theories, styles, and functions


2. Team building

3. Working with others

4. Strategic thinking

5. Strategic analysis and planning

6. Motivating and empowering

7. Conflict management

8. Conducting a meeting (AAPA Leadership Project Task Force,

1999)

The results of these surveys can be used to build a blueprint of the core knowledge, skills,

and abilities required for leadership (LAC, 2002). Core knowledge and abilities are clearly

identified in the 2002 survey. The skill sets identified in the 1999 survey describe other areas of

knowledge and ability. For instance, conflict management is a skill that requires knowledge:

self-knowledge and knowledge of other people‘s motivations and styles. Dealing successfully

with conflict also requires learned abilities: flexibility, tolerance for conflict, and valuing

differences of opinion.

By defining the core competencies of leadership and providing training, organizations

can focus on leadership development at all levels (LAC, 2002). This paper argues that the core

competencies of leadership can be learned, and this education is a life-long process.

Most people have had the experience of learning new competencies and developing our

abilities through education and life (LAC, 2002). Likewise, the core competencies of leadership

can be learned, but it must be noted that leadership takes time to develop. Staley provides a


reminder about the necessity for patience with his warning, ―Remember that leadership isn‘t a

moment of arrival, it is a lifelong process.‖ (Lundy, L. NJ: Pfeiffer and Co, 1996)

Leadership literature must overcome the following common myths about leadership

(LAC, 2002):

Myth: Leadership is a rare skill.

Myth: Leaders are born, not made.

Myth: Leaders are charismatic.

Myth: Leadership exists only at the top of an organization. (Bennis,

1985)

While recognizing the importance of organizational efforts in leadership development, it

is necessary to reiterate (LAC, 2002), ―Individuals are ultimately responsible for their own

personal, career and leadership development.‖ By adopting the proposed philosophy of

leadership and by creating a culture of leadership, organizations can empower their members to

develop their own leadership potential at all levels of the company.

Learning is often divided into three levels (Bateson, 1972). In this model, Level 1

Learning relates to ‗efficiency‘ or ‗doing things right‘; Level 2 is related to ‗effectiveness‘ or

‗doing the right things‘; and Level 3 is related to meta-learning or ‗making sure the learning

processes themselves are optimal‘ (Smith and Peters, 1997). It seems that Level 1 and 3 Learning

are most suitable for management development, and Levels 2 and 3 Learning for leadership

development. Since Level 1 Learning occurs in a fixed business context where standards and

norms are established, training is an excellent delivery mechanism which can be subjected to

Level 3 scrutiny. However, because Level 2 Learning involves ambiguity, complexity, changing

business contexts, and adaptation, learning is best done in the workplace, if it is to take place at


all. Level 3 Learning is then that much more difficult to undertake. Leadership development is

not a straightforward matter, as its history of poor results demonstrates.

In this light, one can only learn about leadership by practicing leading, just as one can

only learn how to ice skate by ice skating (Smith and Peters, 1997). Nothing else feels how it

feels. No book can teach a person to lead a team when there is only a vague notion of a heading,

for asking the right questions rather than pretending to know the answers, or for plugging in to

business happenings before they happen. Leaders can only learn about it by doing it. This

‗learning by doing‘ is the only way that leadership potential can be maximized.

Leadership can be learned though work-place experiences (Smith and Peters, 1997). This

approach was explained by Max DePree when he wrote ―Leadership is an art, something to be

learned over time, not simply by reading books. Leadership is more tribal than scientific, more a

weaving of relationships than a gathering of information, and, in that sense, I don‘t know how to

pin it down in every detail‖. Stephen Covey (1990), a leadership authority, agrees: ―I have long

advocated a natural, gradual, day-by-day, step-by-step, sequential approach to personal

development‖.

It is important to define what leadership learning is required (Smith and Peters, 1997). As

Handy points out ―A career is now not so much a ladder of roles, but a growing reputation for

making things happen. Influence, rather than authority, is what drives the political organization

today in all organizations‖ (Hasselbein, Goldsmith and Beckhard, 1996). Hegelsen describes

today‘s leader as one who has ― ... a deep knowledge of his company, his thinking about it has a

philosophical cast, and he influences those around him to work in more powerful and innovative

ways (Hasselbein, Goldsmith and Beckhard, 1996). Because he has had direct working

experience with so many people in the company over the years, he knows their abilities, and he


uses this knowledge to direct resources where they are needed. He is a facilitator of power who

helps to determine how work actually gets done‖.

Attributes of leadership are continuously identified (Wang and Peng, 1995). However,

Drucker warns that it is impossible to define some generic leadership personality, leadership

style, or even that universal leadership traits exist (Hasselbein, Goldsmith and Beckhard, 1996).

Schein advises that different types of organizations need different leaders, so a mix of different

people who lead in different ways is needed. He argues (Hasselbein, Goldsmith and Beckhard,

1996), ―....what leadership should be depends on the particular situation, the task to be

performed, and the characteristics of the leader‘s subordinates‖.

An increasing leadership development requirement is related to the diverse work force

(Morrison, 1992) (Smith and Peters, 1997). Good leaders must be able to see talent and skills in

the diverse individuals and groups that make up the current workforce and be able to maximize

these resources. The three key ingredients for sustained leadership in general, namely challenge,

recognition and support, are also important to promoting the upward mobility of non-traditional

managers, perhaps by promoting diversity at high levels. It is important to retain all the

organization‘s high-potential managers but especially high potential and non-traditional

managers since ―Diversity is needed at the top of organizations just as much as it is needed at

lower levels. One can argue that diversity at the leadership level is necessary to achieve diversity

throughout an organization‖ (Morrsion, 1992).

Discussing one‘s ideas and values, developing a teachable point of view, and developing

stories that bring these views to life are all learnable skills (Tischy, 1997). Therefore, it is clear

that leadership is strongly linked to learning and education. Tischy give an example. ―For

instance, in helping people I work with develop stories about their experiences, I often ask them


to "think about a time in your life when you made something happen through other people that

wouldn't have happened without you. Run the video of your life and pick the proudest moment

you've had as a leader." It could be a church, community, athletic, or work activity, but I have yet

to find somebody who doesn't have a proud moment. If you ask people to pair up and tell their

story to someone else, and then talk about why it was an example of good leadership, they all

uncover some basic tenets of leadership: "I had a vision. I persisted. I embodied in my own

actions the message I was trying to create. I was able to enroll people. I fought through

resistance." Implicitly, we know what good leadership is, and people in all walks of life can

become more motivated to work on leadership by remembering when they felt proud, when

they'd been in a tough situation where they could lead.‖

However, Tischy argues that if, as a coach, he was asked to simply repeat this exercise

throughout a leader‘s organization in lieu of the leader, sharing that person‘s own values, ideas,

and stories with people, this would be a waste of time and money (Tischy, 1997). Outside

consultants do not have the ability to develop the long-term leadership talent in someone else‘s

organization. This is the job of recognized leaders, with a proven record of success, who work

with their colleagues on a day-to-day basis.

The current conventional wisdom in leadership development programs is to create a set

of competencies for what a good leader is and then figure out how to develop people around

these competencies (Tischy, 1997). Typically, the competencies that are created in these

programs look pretty similar – showing integrity, building trust, demonstrating competence,

knowing how to overcome resistance, etc. However, if leaders do not teach colleagues

themselves, this is likely to fail. According to Tischy: ―People want their leader to look them in


the eye and say, ‗Here is where our company is going and here is what we need from leaders in

order to get there.‘

This is a concept that the military has understood this for years (Tischy, 1997). When the

Cold War ended, General Wayne Downing transformed the mission, training, and performance

system of the elite Special Operations Forces. He was able to change the mind-set of his troops

from warrior to "quiet professional" because he had credibility. The credibility resulted from

living his personal ideas and values (which he developed as a Special Operations Forces officer

in Vietnam) and bringing to life the story of where the force was heading. Admiral Smith, who is

more than 50 years old, attends the last week of SEAL training, performing the physical training

and explaining to recruits the importance of what they are doing.

Religious institutions have used this approach in pastoral training (Tischy, 1997).

Medical educators understand that you cannot put a professor in the operating room to

demonstrate surgical techniques. This task requires someone who has hands-on expertise,

credibility, and a teachable point of view about how to promote others' capabilities. That does

not mean there is no role for professors and consultants, but it does mean there is not a leadership

role for them.

When Andy Grove shares with newly hired employees his ideas about where the industry

is going, he is learning and teaching (Tischy, 1997). The young engineers know far more then he

does about new technology. They often present ideas that he has not even considered. By going

to class with those new hires, he goes beyond layers of hierarchy; the closer the hierarchy gets to

him, the more it thinks like him. As a result, Grove has developed his own pipeline to initiate

new ideas. And Grove teaches the engineers based on his experience of decades at Intel, talking

about his successes and his failures. He teaches the engineers about Intel and its industry so that


they can channel their ideas. To spread learning throughout the organization, Grove invites other

experienced managers to teach—and bases part of their bonus on whether or not they do.

As demonstrated in this paper‘s literature review, a wide variety of concepts of leadership

have been reported in the leadership studies over the years (Farrall and Kronborg, 1996). One

concern about the quality of modern leadership and its impact on people in their daily lives is

also an area of fascination for many people in our society. Some authors define leadership in

terms of the relationship between the leader and the followers, in addition to the motivational and

reinforcement variables of the relationship. For example, Dumas, Bordeaux, Krache, Sholseth

and Arnold, (1979) define leadership as: ―the force by which an individual exerts an influence in

releasing, channeling and controlling the thoughts, energies and emotions of others. This force

may be direct or indirect; constructive or destructive.‖

Gardner (1995) supports this definition when he states that leaders are individuals who:

affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of some number of individuals (Farrall and

Kronborg, 1996). Another approach to defining leadership is in terms of the context of a group or

organization in which the individual is a member. For instance, Gallagher (1990, p. 8) defines

leadership as: ―the exercise of power or influence in social collectivities such as groups,

organizations, communities or nations to meet the needs of the group.‖

Other definitions include a vision for the future as well as an emphasis on the importance

of the personal qualities of the leader (Farrall and Kronborg, 1996). Field Marshall Montgomery

(Gardner, 1995, p. 148) describes leadership as: ―the capacity and the will to rally men and

women in a common purpose, and the character which inspires confidence.‖

These definitions of leadership have one thing in common—the relationship between the

individual and a group of followers relative to a particular context (Farrall and Kronborg, 1996).


There is generally a cognitive and an affective component in leadership and the leader

demonstrates a vision that aims to resolve a problem situation.

Leaders are typically considered to be extroverts (Richardson and Feldhusen, 1988).

However, many introverted students become leaders in their adult lives. This is a key aspect as

there is a significant incidence of introversion in the gifted (Silverman, 1986). While extroverts

often attain leadership in public domains, introverts often attain leadership in theoretical and

aesthetic fields (Farrall and Kronborg, 1996). Outstanding introverted leaders include Charles

Darwin, Marie Curie, Patrick White and Arthur Boyd. These leaders have either developed new

fields of thought or rearranged existing knowledge. They have also spent much of their lives in

solitude.

This demonstrates that leadership does not only apply in social situations, but also occurs

in solitary situations, including developing new techniques in the arts, creating new philosophies,

writing important books and making major scientific breakthroughs (Farrall and Kronborg,

1996).

Leadership of an intellectual nature depends on the qualities of the leader's ideas that

operate in conjunction with the needs of a group at a particular time (Farrall and Kronborg,

1996). For example, Robert Oppenheimer became a popular leader due to his expertise in

physics when he invented the Manhattan Project. He coordinated the efforts of his scientific

colleagues to create the atomic bomb, which was needed by the United States to end the Second

World War.

In this light, leadership ability is not an inherited attribute, although certain ability

predispositions towards interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner, 1983),

and practical intelligence (Sternberg, 1988) may be dominant in some individuals. Instead,


leadership seems to be emergent, depending on the socio-cultural group context and the specific

situations in which individuals develop.

In a recent book, Drucker says (Hasselbein, Goldsmith and Beckhard, 1996), ―The

lessons are unambiguous. The first is that there may be ‗born leaders‘, but there are surely too

few to depend on them (Smith and Peters, 1997)‖. Porras and Collins argue that leaders for our

current and future business climate need not be high charisma individuals who create followers

through personal magnetism (Porras and Collins, 1994). They are people who have developed

the skills of thinking and acting ‗outside the box‘, who can confront and challenge traditional

patterns, and envision new ones, at any level in an organization. Many experts argue that

leadership can be learned but too many companies focus on developing managerial skills but not

leadership skills.

Drucker, Bennis and many others believe that the difference between leadership and

management is that managers focus on efficiency and leaders on effectiveness (Smith and Peters,

1997). According to Hickman (1990), managers are satisfied when things go smoothly, and

leaders are dissatisfied when things fail to change for the better. If this is true, a ‗catch twenty-

two‘ situation exists: as the ratio of managers to leaders increases, there will be increasing

resistance to change and the development of the leaders who call for it, resulting in a greater

crisis in leadership and its development. Thus, it is clear that leadership training programs are

important.

How successful a person is at generating effective leadership directly relates to the size of

the challenge and vision to which he is committed (Graf, 2004). Therefore, a leadership

development program must teach individuals to meet significant business challenges by helping

them reach beyond their perceived limits and their previous way of working and thinking, and


help them commit to achieving something beyond what is expected of them, even when the

pathway to delivery may not be clear. A successful leadership training program also must create

and maintain an environment that promotes leadership. This model produces immediate results

for a company's investment in its future leaders. In addition, it is important to note that, once

people have produced something extraordinary, they raise the bar for themselves.

However, this kind of leadership development must extend beyond the classroom or

training session in the form of taking on real-time business challenges and projects in which

people can continuously integrate the new tools and principles they learn into crucial areas of

their accountabilities and toward fulfillment of their company's strategy and vision (Graf, 2004).

As demonstrated in the literature review, leadership consists of three major elements.

Strong leaders do three things (Resnick, 2003):

1. They create a vision. They create a vision of the future that others can

understand and believe in. While their goals may lack precision or numbers, they are

realistic goals that people can believe. Basically, the vision is more of a roadmap for

success than a precise plan.

2. Leaders build alignment. They motivate people to follow them and bring

their ideas to realization. Alignment can be achieved through various measures, including

speeches, charisma, personal loyalty, rational argument, and more. It is not so much how

alignment is created but that it is created.

3. Leaders deploy their visions. Whatever their goals may be, leaders take

finite resources and determine how to achieve their visions. These deployment decisions

form the strategic direction.


When we see that leadership is translated into creating vision, building alignment and

effecting deployment, it is obvious that leadership is tangible and can be learned.

However, it is important to understand that certain elements of leadership cannot be

learned (Resnick, 2003). The first sign of this is related to DNA. All human beings possess

unique inherent capabilities that have potential and limitations. Not all people have the capability

to discover electricity or paint like Michelangelo. While many things can be learned through

education and experience, there are limits to one‘s potential that must be recognized. This holds

true for leadership skills, as well.

While humans have the capacity to learn, practice and develop leadership skills, there are

inherent human limitations that must be considered (Resnick, 2003). Some people are naturally

more intuitive in how they envision the world. This makes vision development easier. Some

people are inherently extroverts. This makes communications and building alignment easier.

Leadership, like most skills, can only be developed or learned to the limit of one‘s potential.

Another sign that shows that some aspects of leadership are born is embedded in one‘s

character (Resnick, 2003). By the time people mature, personal values, ethics and character traits

have been learned and developed. However, many of these traits are genetically influenced. Still,

many other factors influence one‘s value systems. Families, culture, religion, schooling and peers

have contributed to the value system of a person‘s personality. One‘s sense of right and wrong,

of fairness and justice, of honesty and integrity is deeply rooted and unlikely to dramatically

change.

Despite the fact that certain leadership qualities are inherent, many more can be

developed or learned (Resnick, 2003). Managers can teach and promote leadership talent in five

ways. First of all, selection is important. Managers should select leaders based on all the factors


described above, not just functional competence or experience. Second, they should give

individuals the right job to do. Third, they should ensure that mentors and coaches are in place to

provide personal and professional development as well as job performance. Fourth, they should

provide formal development for all aspects of leadership that can be developed. Fifth, when

someone is not in the right company, or not in the right job assignment, managers should act

quickly and decisively.

In conclusion, leadership is the combination of character, competence, and performance.

Education and learning experiences can produce leaders with a winning combination that leads

to success.

This paper concludes that effective leadership is neither a product of being born with the

right characteristics nor about having the right experience and expertise-and is largely available

within today's organizations (Graf, 2004). In fact, it is possible to empower and develop

successful leaders at all levels within an organization and satisfy the organizational imperative

for successful leadership that is a match for an organization‘s most critical business challenges

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